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The main processes of changing the ATD network include an increase or decrease in the number of administrative units, consolidation (combining small units into larger ones) and disaggregation of the units themselves. These changes occur as a result of the ATD reforms, the implementation of which is dictated by the current political needs of the state (changes in the political principles of managing the territory and its parts). For Russia, with its vast territory, the grid of the ATD and the principle of the structure of the ATD itself are one of the main foundations of its statehood.

This paper analyzes the evolution of the ATD network in Russia in the period from 1708 (the first reforms of Peter I) to the present day at the level of a unit of the highest (first) level of the hierarchy (province, region, territory, republic). The period before 1917 is considered within the borders of the Russian Empire, and after - within the borders of the RSFSR.

The process of evolution of the administrative-territorial division (ATD) of Russia is divided into 13 stages. The material is illustrated by tables, which, if possible, give information about the size and population, the dates of formation of each unit of the ATD.

First Petrine reform

Prior to its implementation, the territory of Russia was divided into counties (former princely lands, destinies, orders, ranks, and quarters). Their number, according to V. Snegirev, in the XVII century. was 166, not counting many volosts - some of them were actually close to counties in size.

By decree of Peter the Great of December 18, 1708, the territory of the Russian Empire was divided into 8 huge provinces. Moscow included the territory of the present Moscow region, significant parts of the Vladimir, Ryazan, Tula, Kaluga, Ivanovo, Kostroma regions. Ingermanlandskaya - the current regions of Leningrad, Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, the southern parts of the Arkhangelsk, the west of the Vologda and Yaroslavl regions, part of the current Karelia (this province was renamed St. Petersburg in 1710). Arkhangelsk - the current Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Murmansk regions, part of the Kostroma region, Karelia and Komi. Kyiv included Little Russia, Sevsky and Belgorod discharges, parts of the current Bryansk, Belgorod, Oryol, Kursk, Kaluga, Tula regions. Smolensk covered the current Smolensk region, parts of the Bryansk, Kaluga, Tver, Tula regions. Kazan - all the Volga region, the current Bashkiria, the Volga-Vyatka, parts of the current Perm, Tambov, Penza, Kostroma, Ivanovo regions, as well as the north of Dagestan and Kalmykia. The Azov province included the eastern parts of the current Tula, Ryazan, Orel, Kursk, Belgorod regions, the entire Voronezh, Tambov, Rostov regions, as well as parts of the Kharkov, Donetsk, Lugansk, Penza regions (the center was the city of Azov). The Siberian province (with the center in Tobolsk) covered the whole of Siberia, almost the entire Urals, parts of the current Kirov region. and the Komi Republic. The size of these provinces was enormous (Table 1).

Table 1 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1708
provinces	Area, thousand km 2	Number of yards, 1710
Azov
Arkhangelsk
Ingrian
Kazanskaya
Kyiv
Moscow
Siberian
Smolensk
Total area of ​​the empire
Sources: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron (1899, vol. 54, pp. 211-213); Milyukov (1905, p. 198).

The provinces were not divided into counties, but were made up of cities and adjacent lands, as well as categories and orders. In 1710-1713. they were divided into shares (administrative-fiscal units), which were managed by landrats.

In 1713, the province of Riga was formed from the newly annexed lands in the northwest. In this regard, the Smolensk province was abolished, and its territory was divided between the Riga and Moscow provinces. In January 1714, a new Nizhny Novgorod province was separated from the northwestern parts of the vast Kazan province, and in 1717 a new Astrakhan province was formed from the southern part of the Kazan province (it included Simbirsk, Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Guryev, Terek region). ). As of 1714, the empire was divided into 9 provinces (Table 2). In the same 1717, the Nizhny Novgorod province was abolished, and its territory again became part of the Kazan province.

table 2 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1714
provinces	Number of taxable souls	Number of yards
Azov
Arkhangelsk
Kazanskaya
Kyiv
Moscow
Nizhny Novgorod
St. Petersburg
Siberian
Total for the empire
Source: Milyukov (1905, p. 205).

Second Petrine reform

The second Petrine reform began to be carried out by decree of May 29, 1719. In accordance with it, shares were abolished, the provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces into districts. The Nizhny Novgorod province was restored, and the Revel province was formed on the newly annexed lands in the Baltic. Only two provinces (Astrakhan, Revel) were not divided into provinces. In the remaining 9 provinces, 47 provinces were established (Table 3).

Table 3 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1719
provinces	Number of provinces	Number of cities	Provinces
Azov			Voronezh, Tambov, Shatsk,
			Yeletskaya, Bakhmutskaya
Arkhangelsk			Arkhangelsk, Vologda,
			Ustyug, Galician
Astrakhan
Kazanskaya			Kazan, Sviyazhskaya, Penza,
			Ufa
Kyiv			Kyiv, Belgorodskaya, Sevskaya,
			Orlovskaya
Moscow			Moscow, Pereyaslav-Ryazan,
			Pereslav-Zalesskaya, Kaluga,
			Tula, Vladimirskaya,
			Yuryevo-Polskaya, Suzdalskaya,
			Kostroma
Nizhny Novgorod			Nizhny Novgorod, Arzamas,
			Alatyrskaya
Revelskaya
			Riga, Smolensk
St. Petersburg			Petersburg, Vyborg, Narva,
			Velikolutskaya, Novgorodskaya,
			Pskov, Tver, Yaroslavl,
			Uglitskaya, Poshekhonskaya, Belozerskaya
Siberian			Vyatka, Sol-Kama, Tobolsk,
			Yenisei, Irkutsk
Total for the empire
Sources: Den (1902); Milyukov (1905).

In 1725, the Azov province was renamed Voronezh, and in 1726 the Smolensk province was again separated from the Riga and Moscow provinces.

Reform of 1727

The districts were liquidated, and the provinces themselves began to be divided not only into provinces, but also into counties. A total of 166 counties were restored. At the same time, new provinces were formed. From the composition of the Kyiv province, the Belgorod province was separated, which included the provinces of Belgorod, Oryol, Sevskaya, as well as part of the Ukrainian line and 5 regiments of the Sloboda Cossacks of the Kyiv province (10 Little Russian regiments remained in the Kyiv province itself). From the Petersburg province in 1727, the Novgorod province was separated from its 5 former provinces (). At the same time, part of the Yaroslavl and Uglitsk provinces of the St. Petersburg province went to the Moscow province. The Petersburg province itself was significantly reduced and now consisted of only 2 provinces (Petersburg, Vyborg), and the Narva province went to Estland.

In the same 1727, the Vyatka and Solikamsk provinces of the Siberian province were transferred to the Kazan province (in exchange, its Ufa province was transferred to the Siberian province in 1728), and the Olonets lands were assigned to the Novgorod province.

At the end of 1727, the ATD of the Russian Empire had the following form (Table 4).

Table 4 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1727
provinces	Provinces
Arkhangelsk
Astrakhan	1 province
Belgorodskaya	Belgorodskaya, Sevskaya, Orlovskaya
Voronezh	Voronezh, Yelets, Tambov, Shatsk, Bakhmutskaya
Kazanskaya	Kazan, Vyatka, Solikamsk, Sviyazhsk, Penza, Ufa
Kyiv	1 province (12 regiments of Little Russia)
Moscow
Nizhny Novgorod
Novgorod	Novgorod, Pskov, Velikolutskaya, Tverskaya, Belozerskaya
Revelskaya	1 province (Estland)
	1 province (Livland)
St. Petersburg	Petersburg, Vyborgskaya
Smolensk	1 province
Siberian
Source: Gauthier (1913, pp. 108-110).

In total, after the reform of 1727, there were 14 provinces and about 250 counties in the empire. After the reform, there was a long period when the ATD was relatively stable. Minor changes during this period include the following.

In 1737, the Simbirsk province was formed as part of the Kazan province. In 1744, the Vyborg province was created from the Vyborg and Kexholm provinces of the St. Petersburg province and the newly annexed parts of Finland. In the same year, a new Orenburg province was formed (it included the Iset and Ufa provinces of the Siberian province and the Orenburg commission* of the Astrakhan province). In 1745, there were 16 provinces in the empire (Table 5). At the same time, the Baltic provinces were divided into districts instead of provinces and counties.

Table 5 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1745
provinces	Provinces
Arkhangelsk	Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Ustyug, Galician
Astrakhan	1 province
Belgorodskaya	Belgorod, Sevskaya, Orlovskaya and the cities of Kharkov, Sumy, Akhtyrka, Izyum
Voronezh	Voronezh, Yelets, Tambov, Shatsk, Bakhmut and the lands of the Don Cossacks
Vyborgskaya	From 3 counties
Kazanskaya	Kazanskaya, Vyatskaya, Kungurskaya, Sviyazhskaya, Penza, Simbirskaya
Kyiv
Moscow	Moscow, Yaroslavl, Uglitskaya, Kostroma, Suzdal, Yuryevskaya,
	Pereslav-Zalesskaya, Vladimir, Pereyaslav-Ryazan, Tula, Kaluga
Nizhny Novgorod	Nizhny Novgorod, Arzamas, Alatyr
Novgorod	Novgorod, Pskov, Velikolutskaya, Tverskaya, Belozerskaya
Orenburg	Orenburg, Stavropol, Ufa
Revelskaya	Districts Harriensky, Viksky, Ervensky, Virlyandsky
	Districts of Riga, Venden, Derpt, Pernovsky and Ezelskaya province
St. Petersburg	Petersburg, Shlisselburgsky, Koporsky, Yamburgsky districts
Siberian	Tobolsk, Yenisei, Irkutsk
Smolensk	1 province
Source: Arseniev (1848, pp. 83-88).

With the coming to power of Catherine II, some changes in the ATD were made in the country, which included mainly the formation of new provinces on the newly annexed lands. In 1764, the Irkutsk province of the Siberian province was separated as an independent Irkutsk province. In October 1764 counties were united in many provinces. In the south, from the Novoserbsky settlement, the Novorossiysk province was established (the center is Kremenchug), and in the Left-Bank Ukraine - Little Russian. And in 1765, a new Sloboda-Ukrainian province was formed from the southern part of the Belgorod and Voronezh provinces (districts of Slobozhanshchina) with the center in Kharkov. Thus, in 1764-1766. 4 new provinces appeared, and there were 20 of them. Information about their size and population is given by K.I. Arseniev (Table 6).

Table 6 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1766
provinces	Number of provinces	Population, thousand people	Dimensions in length, km	Dimensions in width, km
Arkhangelsk
Astrakhan
Belgorodskaya
Voronezh
Vyborgskaya
Irkutsk
Kazanskaya
Kyiv
Little Russian
Moscow
Nizhny Novgorod
Novgorod
Novorossiysk
Orenburg
Revelskaya
St. Petersburg
Siberian
Sloboda-Ukrainian
Smolensk
Source: Arseniev (1848, pp. 93-102).

After the first partition of Poland in 1772, 2 new provinces were created in the Russian Empire from the newly annexed lands - Mogilev and Pskov. The second included 2 old provinces of the Novgorod province (Pskov and Velikolutsk), as well as two new ones - Dvina (Polish Livonia) and Polotsk from the lands of the former Vitebsk Voivodeship. At the end of the same year, the Vitebsk province of the Mogilev province was annexed to the new Pskov province. Until 1776, the city of Opochka was the center of the new province.

In 1775, the Irkutsk province was divided into 3 provinces (Irkutsk, Udinsk, Yakutsk), and at the expense of new lands acquired in the south according to the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace, a new Azov province was formed, which included, in addition to the lands between the Dnieper and the Bug , Slavic Serbia (Bakhmut province), Azov province (the cities of Azov and Taganrog) and the lands of the Don army (on these latter, military civil law was established). In the same year, the Zaporizhzhya Sich was liquidated, and its lands were annexed to the Novorossiysk province. Before the start of the next ATD reform in 1775, the Russian Empire was divided into the following provinces (Table 7).

Table 7 Provinces of the Russian Empire in October 1775
provinces	Date of formation	Number of provinces	Provinces	Number of counties
Azov	14.02.1775 (18.12.1708)		Azov, Bakhmut
Arkhangelsk			Arkhangelsk,
			Vologda, Ustyug,
			Galician
Astrakhan
Belgorodskaya			Belgorodskaya, Sevskaya,
			Orlovskaya
Voronezh	1725 (18.12.1708)		Voronezh, Yelets,
			Tambovskaya, Shatskaya
Vyborgskaya			Kyumenegorsk,
			Vyborgskaya,
			Kexholmskaya
Irkutsk			Irkutsk, Udinsk,
			Yakut
Kazanskaya			Kazan, Vyatka,
			Perm, Sviyazhskaya,
			Penza, Simbirsk
Kyiv
Little Russian
Mogilevskaya			Mogilevskaya,
			Mstislavskaya,
			Orshanskaya, Rogachevskaya
Moscow			Moscow, Yaroslavl,
			Uglitskaya, Yurievskaya,
			Kostroma,
			Pereslav-Zalesskaya,
			Vladimirskaya,
			Suzdal, Tula,
			Kaluga,
			Pereyaslav-Ryazanskaya
Nizhny Novgorod	01. 1714-1717, 29.05.1719		Nizhny Novgorod,
			Alatyrskaya, Arzamasskaya
Novgorod			Novgorodskaya, Tverskaya,
			Belozerskaya, Olonetskaya
Novorossiysk			Kremenchug,
			Catherine,
			Elisavetgradskaya
Orenburg			Orenburg, Ufa,
			Isetskaya
Pskovskaya			Pskovskaya, Velikolutskaya,
			Dvinskaya, Polotsk,
			Vitebsk
Revelskaya
			Riga, Ezelskaya
St. Petersburg
Siberian			Tobolsk, Yenisei
Sloboda-Ukrainian
Smolensk	18.12.1708-1713,1726

Thus, the territory of the empire was divided into 23 provinces, 62 provinces and 276 counties, excluding the Novorossiysk province, the number of counties in which is unknown.

Catherine's reform
(disaggregation of cells of administrative-territorial division)

On November 7, 1775, Catherine II signed the law “Institutions for the management of provinces”, according to which the size of the provinces was reduced, their number was doubled, the provinces were liquidated (regions were allocated within them in a number of provinces) and the division of counties was changed. On average, 300-400 thousand people lived in the province, 20-30 thousand people lived in the county. The process of replacing the old provinces with new ones, which became known as "governors", dragged on for 10 years (1775-1785). During this period, 40 provinces and 2 regions were formed with the rights of a province, 483 counties were allocated in them. The dynamics of the transformation and disaggregation of the old provinces into new ones was uneven: in 1780 and 1781. 7 provinces appeared each, in other years - from 1 to 5.

The process of formation of new provinces began (within the modern borders of Russia) from two central ones - Smolensk and Tver. The new Smolensk governorship in 1775 included the old Smolensk province, the western parts of the Moscow province and the Bryansk district of the Belgorod province, and the Tver governorship was composed of the Tver province and the Vyshnevolotsk district of the Novgorod province, Bezhetsk and Kashinsky districts of the Moscow province.

In 1776, the Pskov province was created (from the Pskov and Velikolutsk provinces of the old Pskov province and the Porkhov and Gdovsk districts of the Novgorod province), the Novgorod viceroy (from parts of the old Novgorod province, it was divided into 2 regions - Novgorod and Olonets), Kaluga viceroy ( from the southwestern districts of the Moscow province and the Bryansk district of the Belgorod province).

In 1777, Polotsk (from parts of the old Pskov province), Mogilev, Yaroslavl (separated from the Moscow province and parts of Novgorod, divided into two regions - Yaroslavl and Uglitsia), Tula governorships (from parts of the Moscow province) were established.

In 1778, the governorships of Ryazan (from parts of the old Moscow province), Volodimir (from parts of the Moscow province), Kostroma (from parts of the Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Nizhny Novgorod provinces; it was divided into Kostroma and Unzha regions), Oryol (from parts Voronezh and Belgorod provinces).

In 1779, the Kursk province, the Nizhny Novgorod, Tambov and Voronezh governorships and the Kolyvan region were established. At the same time, the old Belgorod province was liquidated, which was divided between the Kursk province and the Voronezh governorate. The structure of the Kursk province included the counties of the liquidated Belgorod province and the counties of the Sloboda-Ukrainian and Voronezh provinces. The neighboring Voronezh vicegerency was composed of the old Voronezh province and parts of the liquidated Belgorod province, as well as the Ostrogozhsk province of the Sloboda-Ukrainian province. The Tambov governorship was established at the expense of the southern parts of the Ryazan (mainly Elatomsky district) and the northern parts of the Voronezh governorships. The Nizhny Novgorod vicegerency included the old Nizhny Novgorod province, as well as parts of the Ryazan and Volodimir (Vladimir) vicegerencies, part of the Kazan province. From the southern regions of the Siberian province (Kuznetsk and Tomsk districts), an independent Kolyvan region was allocated with a center in Berdsk prison (since 1783 - the city of Kolyvan).

In 1780, 7 new governorships and provinces were organized. In January of this year, the old Petersburg province was reorganized, which remained a province with 7 counties. From the old Arkhangelsk province, a new Vologda governorship was established, to which the Kargopol district of the Novgorod governorship and part of the Kologrivsky district of the Kostroma governorship were attached. This new governorship was divided into two regions - Vologda and Arkhangelsk. In the spring of 1780, the old Sloboda-Ukrainian province was transformed into the Kharkov governorate, and parts of the abolished Belgorod province were included in its composition. Following this, a new Vyatka governorship was allocated from the northern parts of the Kazan and Orenburg provinces (its center, the city of Khlynov, was renamed Vyatka in this regard). And from the southern districts of the Kazan province, new Simbirsk and Penza governorships were allocated. From the northern part of the Astrakhan province, a new Saratov governorship was formed.

In 1781, an independent Perm governorship was separated from the Tyumen province of the Siberian province, with the division of its territory into 2 regions - Perm and Yekaterinburg. In the autumn of 1781, the Little Russian province was abolished, which was divided into the Novgorod-Seversk and Chernigov governorships, and part of it merged with the old Kyiv province into the Kiev governorship. At the same time, the remnants of the old Kazan province (minus the Simbirsk, Penza and Vyatka governorships) were transformed into the new Kazan governorate. In 1781, the Olonetsk region and the Novoladozhsky district were transferred from the Novgorod viceroy to the St. Petersburg province, and the Gdovsky and Luga districts were transferred from the Pskov viceroy. Petersburg province was divided into two regions - Petersburg and Olonets. In October 1781, a new Moscow province was established from the fragments of the former Moscow province. At the very end of the year, the Orenburg province was transformed into the Ufa vicegerency with the addition of the Chelyabinsk district of the Perm viceroy to it. This new governorship (centered in Ufa) was divided into 2 regions - Ufa and Orenburg.

In 1782, the Siberian province was abolished, instead of which a new Tobolsk governorship was established with two regions - Tobolsk and Tomsk. At the end of the same year, the Kolyvan region. was transformed into the Kolyvan governorship. In the next year, 1783, in Siberia, instead of the former Irkutsk province, the Irkutsk governorship was organized with the division of its territory into 4 regions (Irkutsk, Nerchinsk, Okhotsk, Yakutsk).

At the beginning of 1783, two southern provinces (Azov and Novorossiysk) were abolished, from which a new Yekaterinoslav governorate (with a center in Kremenchug) was formed. In the summer of the same year, the Revel province was transformed into the Revel viceroy, the Riga province into the Riga viceroy, and the Vyborg province into the Vyborg viceroy (without changing the territory). In February 1784, from the southern lands (Crimea, Taman, Kuban side) newly annexed in 1783, the Taurida region was formed with the rights of governor. In March 1784, the Vologda governorate was divided into two independent governorships - Arkhangelsk and the smaller Vologda (it was divided into 2 regions - Vologda and Veliky Ustyug). In May of the same year, on the basis of the Olonets province of the St. Petersburg province, the Olonets viceroy with its center in Petrozavodsk was allocated as an independent one.

Finally, the last step of Catherine's reform of the ATD was the transformation in 1785 of the Astrakhan province into the Caucasian vicegerency with the transfer of its center from Astrakhan to the newly created center of Yekaterinograd at the confluence of the Malka with the Terek (in 1790, due to its lack of infrastructure, the center had to be returned back to Astrakhan ). The Kuban side was included in the Caucasian vicegerency, and its territory was divided into two regions - Astrakhan and Caucasian.

The new division of the territory of the empire (Catherine's reform of 1775-1785) was completed, and it began to be divided into 38 governorships, 3 provinces (Petersburg, Moscow and Pskov) and 1 region on the rights of governorship (Tauride). According to Arseniev, in the Russian Empire at the end of 1785 there were the following provinces (Table 8).

Table 8 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1785
Viceroys, provinces, regions	Date of formation	population, shower
Arkhangelsk
Vladimirskoe
Vologda
Voronezh
Vyborgskoe
Yekaterinoslav
Irkutsk
Caucasian
Kazan
Kaluga
Kyiv
Kolyvanskoe
Kostroma
Mogilev
Moscow province
Nizhny Novgorod
Novgorod
Novgorod-Severskoye
Olonets
Orlovskoye
Penza
Perm
Polotsk
Pskov province
Revelskoe
Ryazan
St. Petersburg Governorate
Saratov
Simbirsk
Smolensk
Tauride region
Tambov
Tverskoe
Tobolsk
Tula
Ufimskoe
Kharkiv
Chernihiv
Yaroslavl
Dwellings of the Don Cossacks
Source: Arseniev (1848, pp. 117-129), with corrections by the author.

The size and boundaries of most of the governorships in European Russia, formed in 1775-1785, practically did not change until the 1920s, except for a short period of ATD reforms under Paul I.

With the acquisition by Russia of new lands in the south and west in the early 90s of the XVIII century. new governorships were formed: in 1793 - Minsk, Izyaslav (Volyn), Bratslav (Podolia); in 1795 - Voznesensk (southwest of Novorossiya) and Courland, and the Izyaslav governorship was divided into two new ones - Volyn and Podolsk; in 1796 - Vilna and Slonim.

As a result, by the end of the reign of Catherine II, Russia was divided into 50 governorships and provinces and 1 region (total - 51 units of the highest level of the ATD).

Pavlovian reform (consolidation)

With the accession to the throne of Paul I, the previously created governorships were temporarily enlarged, which were officially renamed into provinces. At the same time, by a decree of December 12, 1796, the provinces of Olonetsk, Kolyvan, Bratslav, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversk, Voznesensk, Yekaterinoslav, Tauride Regions, Saratov, Polotsk, Mogilev, Vilna and Slonim (that is, 13 provinces) were abolished. In addition, a new division of provinces into counties was established, and the number of counties was reduced, and part of county towns was transferred to provincial towns.

Olonets province was divided between Arkhangelsk and Novgorod, Kolyvan - between Tobolsk and Irkutsk, Saratov - between Penza and Astrakhan, Bratslav - between Podolsk and Kyiv.

The abolished Voznesenskaya, Yekaterinoslav provinces and the Tauride region. were united into the huge Novorossiysk province (its center Yekaterinoslav was renamed Novorossiysk).

The abolished Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk provinces were merged into one Little Russian province, the former Polotsk and Mogilev - into one Belarusian province (center - Vitebsk), Vilna and Slonim - into one Lithuanian (center - Vilna).

Several provinces were renamed and enlarged: Kharkov became known as Sloboda-Ukrainian (restored within the boundaries of 1780), Caucasian - again Astrakhan, Ufa - Orenburg (the center was transferred from Ufa to Orenburg). The Riga province began to be called Livonian, Revel - Estland.

In March 1797, the Penza province was renamed Saratov, and its center was transferred from Penza to Saratov. In October of the same year, most of the former Penza province was divided between the neighboring Tambov, Simbirsk, and Nizhny Novgorod provinces. In July 1797, the enlargement of the Kyiv province was carried out. Paul I canceled all the changes made by Potemkin to the management of the Don army.

In the course of the Pavlovian reform, the number of provinces decreased from 51 to 42, and counties were also enlarged. The main idea of ​​the reform of Paul I was the enlargement of the provinces (Table 9).

Restoration of Catherine's and the formation of new provinces in the XIX century.

Table 9 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1800
provinces	Date of formation
Arkhangelsk
Astrakhan
Belarusian
Vladimirskaya
Vologda
Volyn
Voronezh
Vyborgskaya
Irkutsk
Kazanskaya
Kaluga
Kyiv
Kostroma
Courland
Lithuanian
Livonian
Little Russian
Moscow
Nizhny Novgorod
Novgorod
Novorossiysk
Orenburg
Orlovskaya
Perm
Podolskaya
Pskovskaya
Ryazan
St. Petersburg
Saratov
Simbirskaya
Sloboda-Ukrainian
Smolensk
Tambov
Tverskaya
Tobolsk
Tula
Estonian
Yaroslavskaya
Dwellings of the Don Cossacks

With the accession to the throne of Alexander I in 1801, the former grid of provinces was restored, but a number of new Pavlovian provinces were preserved. By a decree of September 9, 1801, 5 provinces abolished by Paul were restored within the old borders until 1796, including Olonets, Penza; The Lithuanian province was abolished and divided into Vilna and Grodno (former Slonim). Incorporated into the empire, Georgia received the status of a province.

In January 1802, the Little Russian province created by Pavel was abolished, which was divided into the former Chernigov and the new Poltava (coinciding in many respects with the Novgorod-Seversk province liquidated in 1796). In March 1802, the Belarusian province was liquidated, which broke up into Mogilev and Vitebsk provinces. At the same time, the center of the Orenburg province from Orenburg was transferred again to Ufa. In October 1802, another Pavlovsk province, Novorossiysk, was disbanded. Its territory was divided between three provinces - Nikolaev (in 1803 its center was transferred from Nikolaev to Kherson and the name of the province was changed to Kherson), Yekaterinoslav and Tauride. At the end of 1802, the Vyborg province was renamed Finland.

Thus, by the end of 1802, of the Pavlovian innovations of 1796, only the Sloboda-Ukrainian province remained "alive", but only nominally, since 3 of its Sloboda districts (Bogucharsky, Ostrogozhsky, Starobelsky) were returned to their former owner - the Voronezh province. True, the Kolyvan province was not restored. In fact, thanks to the reform of Alexander I, all the enlargement measures of Paul were reduced to zero. In addition, the number of counties was increased, that is, their size was reduced on average.

In 1803, the Astrakhan province was divided into two independent provinces - Caucasian (center - Georgievsk) and Astrakhan. In 1822, the Caucasian province was transformed into the Caucasian region, and its center was transferred to Stavropol.

In 1803-1805. small changes took place in Siberia as well. From the composition of the Irkutsk province in 1803, it was separated into an independent Kamchatka region (although already in 1822 it was deprived of independence and again subordinated to Irkutsk under the name of the Kamchatka coastal administration), in 1805 - an independent Yakut region. In February 1804, instead of the Kolyvan province abolished by Pavel, a new Tomsk province was organized approximately within the same boundaries (separated from the Tobolsk province).

In 1808, the Belostok region was formed from the annexed lands, in 1809 Finland was annexed with its ATD, in 1810 - the Tarnopol region (returned to Austria in 1815), in 1810 - the Imeretin region, in 1811 The Finnish (former Vyborg) province was included in the Finnish Principality. In 1812, Bessarabia was annexed to Russia (in 1818, the Bessarabia region was organized here, transformed in 1873 into the Bessarabia province), in 1815, according to the Congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Poland (Kongressovka).

In January 1822, according to the reform of M.M. Speransky, the entire territory of Siberia was divided into 2 governor-generals - West Siberian (center - Omsk) and East Siberian (center - Irkutsk). The first of them included the provinces of Tobolsk and Tomsk, as well as the newly allocated Omsk region, and the second - the newly organized Yenisei (center - Krasnoyarsk) and the former Irkutsk province, as well as the Yakutsk region, the coastal administrations of Okhotsk and Kamchatka, the border with China Troitsko- Savo administration. Speransky put into effect the “Decree on the Siberian Kirghiz”, which introduced a special administration of the Kirghiz-Kaisaks (Kazakhs) in the territory of the present north of Kazakhstan with 2 districts subordinate to Omsk.

In 1825, there were 49 provinces in Russia (32 Russian, 13 special and 4 Siberian) and 7 regions (Bessarabian, Caucasian, Don troops, Bialystok, Imeretin, Omsk and Yakutsk; among the "special" provinces were 3 Ostzey (Baltic) , 8 western (Belarus and western Ukraine) and 2 Little Russian.

In 1835, the lands of the Don army were divided into 7 civil districts. In the same year, the Sloboda-Ukrainian province was returned to its old Catherine's name - Kharkov.

In 1838, the Omsk region was abolished, part of which, including Omsk and Petropavlovsk, was assigned to the Tobolsk province, and the rest, including Semipalatinsk and Ust-Kamenogorsk, to the Tomsk province. At the same time, Omsk became the center of the border and military administration of the Governor-General of Western Siberia.

In 1840, in the western part of Transcaucasia, the Georgian-Imereti province (center - Tiflis) was created, and in the east - the Caspian region (center - Shemakha; Azerbaijan and Dagestan). The latter included the whole of Dagestan, which was included in Russia in parts in 1806-1813. In 1844, the Djaro-Belokan region. and the Ilisu sultanate in Transcaucasia were united into the Dzhar-Belokansky district, which in 1859 was renamed Zakatalsky. In December 1846, Transcaucasia was divided into 4 new provinces: the Georgian-Imereti province - into Tiflis and Kutaisi, and the Caspian region. - to Shemakha and Derbent provinces.

In 1842, a new Kovno province was separated from the northern parts of the Vilna province, and in 1843 the Belostok region was liquidated, the territory of which was included in the Grodno province.

In May 1847, the Caucasus region. was renamed the Stavropol province.

As of 1847, there were 55 provinces and 3 regions in the Russian Empire (Table 10).

Table 10 Provinces of the Russian Empire in 1846-1847.
Provinces, regions	Date of formation	population, shower	Area, km2
Arkhangelsk
Astrakhan
Bessarabian region
vilenskaya
Vitebsk
Vladimirskaya
Vologda
Volyn
Voronezh
Grodno
Derbent
Yekaterinoslavskaya
Yenisei
Irkutsk
Kazanskaya
Kaluga
Kyiv
Kovno
Kostroma
Courland
Kutaisi
Livonian
Mogilevskaya
Moscow
Nizhny Novgorod
Novgorod
Olonetskaya
Orenburg
Orlovskaya
Penza
Perm
Podolskaya
Poltava
Pskovskaya
Ryazan
St. Petersburg
Saratov
Simbirskaya
Smolensk
Stavropol
Tauride
Tambov
Tverskaya
Tiflis
Tobolsk
Tula
Kharkiv	1780 (1796, 1835)
Kherson	1803 (1795, 1802)
Chernihiv
Shemakha
Estonian
Yakutsk region
Yaroslavskaya
Land of the Don Army

At the beginning of the XIX century. there was an official consolidation of the boundaries of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe. The St. Petersburg Conventions of 1824 defined the borders with American () and English possessions. The Americans undertook not to settle north of 54 ° 40 "N on the coast, and the Russians - to the south. The border of Russian and British possessions ran along the coast from 54 ° N to 60 ° N at a distance of 10 miles from the edge of the ocean taking into account all the bends of the coast.The St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826 established the Russian-Norwegian border.

Academic expeditions of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Sherer in 1802-1804. to the north-west of Russia, to Belarus, the Baltic states and were devoted mainly to mineralogical research.

The period of geographical discoveries in the inhabited European part of Russia is over. In the 19th century expeditionary research and their scientific generalization were mainly thematic. Of these, one can name the zoning (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal bands, proposed by E.F. Kankrin in 1834; botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Caspian Seas, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by K. M. Baer; the work of N. A. (1855) on the animal world of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the animal world and physical and geographical conditions, and also established patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil studies of VV in the zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V. Dokuchaev, organized by the Forest Department for a comprehensive study of the nature of the steppes and finding ways to deal with. In this expedition, the stationary research method was used for the first time.

Caucasus

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia necessitated the exploration of new Russian lands, which were poorly studied. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences, led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. Kh. Lenz, explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus, determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks of the Caucasus. In 1844-1865. the natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G. V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Bolshoy and Dagestan, the Colchis lowland, and compiled the first general orographic scheme of the Caucasus.

Ural

The description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836, is among the works that developed the geographical idea of ​​the Urals. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; the publication of "The Natural History of the Orenburg Territory" by E. A. Eversman (1840), which gives a comprehensive description of the nature of this territory with a well-founded natural division; Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Gofman, V.G. Bragin), during which the Konstantinov Kamen peak was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled that served as the basis for mapping the studied part of the Urals . A notable event was the journey in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and to the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Siberia

In the 19th century continued exploration of Siberia, many areas of which were studied very poorly. In Altai, in the 1st half of the century, the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P. A. Chikhachev carried out physical-geographical and geological studies.

In 1843-1844. A. F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East, for the first time information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr, the Stanovoy Range. Based on travel materials, A.F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published "Journey to the North and East of Siberia" - one of the best examples of systematic reports on the nature of the studied territories. This work gives a description of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the features of the relief of Central Siberia, the peculiarity of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, and gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.

In 1853-1855. R. K. Maak and A. K. Zondhagen investigated the geology and life of the population of the Central Yakut Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the river.

In 1855-1862. The Siberian expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia.

A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of the south of Eastern Siberia. In 1858, L. E. Schwartz carried out geographical research in the Sayans. During them, the topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P. A. Kropotkin, who paid special attention to the relief and. He explored the rivers Oka, Amur, Ussuri, ranges, discovered the Patom Highlands. The Khamar-Daban ridge, the coasts, the Angara region, the Selenga basin, were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky explored the basins of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska and Olenyok rivers, and I. D. Chersky studied the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska. Geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition N. P. Bobyr, L. A. Yachevsky, Ya. P. Prein. The study of Sayanskaya in 1903 was continued by V. L. Popov. In 1910, he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.

In 1891-1892. during his last expedition, I. D. Chersky explored the Nera Plateau, discovered three high mountain ranges Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistai and Tomuskhai behind the Verkhoyansk Range.

Far East

Research continued on Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and the seas adjacent to them. In 1805, I. F. Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811, V. M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849, G. I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur mouth for large ships. In 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky and others continued research, Sakhalin, adjacent parts of the mainland. In 1860-1867. Sakhalin was explored by F.B., P.P. Glen, G.W. Shebunin. In 1852-1853. N. K. Boshnyak investigated and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, the Everon and Chukchagirskoye lakes, the Bureinsky Range, and the Khadzhi Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).

In 1842-1845. A.F. Middendorf and V.V. Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.

In the 50-60s. 19th century coastal parts of Primorye were explored: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posyet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin surveyed the northern coast of the Sea of ​​Japan and Peter the Great Bay. The Lower Amur and the northern part of the Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budischev. In 1858, M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. and Ussuri were studied by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869. made a major trip to the Ussuri region. He carried out comprehensive studies of the nature of the basins of the Ussuri and Suchan rivers, crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.

middle Asia

As individual parts and Central Asia were annexed to the Russian Empire, and sometimes even anticipating it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists investigated and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, the Common Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was studied by E. A. Eversman. In 1825-1836. conducted a description of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoy Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau G. S. Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. AI Shrenk studied East Kazakhstan.

In 1840-1845. the Balkhash-Alakol basin was discovered (A.I. Shrenk, T.F. Nifantiev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantyev conducted the first surveys of lakes, Zaisan. In 1848-1849. A. I. Butakov carried out the first survey, discovered a number of islands, Chernyshev Bay.

Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the expedition of 1857 by I. G. Borshov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba River basin and the Bolshie Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. Steppes and deserts are considered by him as natural geographical complexes and mutual relations between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation are analyzed.

Since the 1840s studies of the highlands of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845. A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857. P.P. Semyonov laid the foundation for the scientific study of the Tien Shan. The heyday of research in the mountains of Central Asia falls on the period of the expeditionary leadership of P.P. Semyonov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867. N. A. Severtsov explored the Kyrgyz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskem and Kakshaal-Too ridges, in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kuhistan, Alay and Zaalay ranges. N. A. Severtsov, A. I. Skassi discovered the Rushansky Range and the Fedchenko Glacier (1877-1879). The conducted research allowed to single out the Pamirs as a separate mountain system.

Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V. A. Obruchev in 1886-1888. (desert of Karakum and ancient valley of Uzboy).

Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902. spent .

North and Arctic

At the beginning of the XIX century. the opening of the New Siberian Islands. In 1800-1806. Ya. Sannikov carried out inventories of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered the island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811. visited by the expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom. In 1815, M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilievsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823. P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental studies, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the New Siberian Islands, explored and described the islands of Semyonovsky, Vasilyevsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenyok rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.

In 1820-1824. F. P. Wrangel, in very difficult natural conditions, traveled through the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukotka Peninsula), and predicted the existence.

Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotzebue discovered a large bay in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska, named after him. In 1818-1819. the eastern coast of the Bering Sea was explored by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the Alaska Delta-Yukon was discovered. In 1835-1838. the lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were investigated by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L. A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior of Alaska. In 1829-1835. the coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F. Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokuim (Kuskokwim) Range. In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.

The archipelago has been intensively explored. In 1821-1824. F. P. Litke on the brig Novaya Zemlya explored, described and mapped the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to make an inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833. the first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the southern island of Novaya Zemlya was made by P.K. Pakhtusov. In 1834-1835. P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A. K. Tsivolka and S. A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the North Island up to 74.5 ° N. sh., Matochkin Shar Strait is described in detail, Pakhtusov Island was discovered. The description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V. A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829. managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from the Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The studies carried out made it possible to begin studying the vegetation, fauna and geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K. M. Baer, ​​1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a major expedition in 1837, A. I. Shrenk explored the Chesh Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, the island, the Pai-Khoi Range, the polar Urals. Exploration of this area in 1840-1845. continued A. A. Keyserling, who conducted the survey, explored the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. Comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula, the North Siberian Lowland were carried out in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850. The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi Ridge was thoroughly explored.

In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, the inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American explorer R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and for the first time explored the interior of the island.

In 1901, the Russian icebreaker "" visited, under the command of S. O. Makarov. In 1913-1914. a Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov wintered in the archipelago. At the same time, a group of members of the distressed expedition of G. L. Brusilov visited the place on the ship “St. Anna”, headed by navigator V.I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all the energy was directed to the preservation of life, V.I. Albanov proved that the Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which appeared on the map of J. Payer, do not exist.

In 1878-1879. For two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N. A. E. on a small sailing and steam vessel “Vega” for the first time passed the Northern Sea Route from west to east. This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.

In 1913, the Northern Hydrographic Expedition led by B. A. Vilkitsky on the icebreaker ships Taimyr and Vaigach, exploring the possibilities of passing north of Taimyr, encountered solid ice and, following their edge to the north, discovered islands called the Earth Emperor Nicholas II (now - Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and next year - southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now -). The western and northern shores remained completely unknown.

Russian Geographical Society

The Russian Geographical Society (RGO), founded in 1845 (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO), has made great contributions to the development of domestic cartography.

In 1881, the American polar explorer J. De Long discovered Jeannette, Henrietta, and Bennett Islands northeast of New Siberia Island. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886. the study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the New Siberian Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.

Already at the beginning of 1852, it published its first twenty-five-verst (1:1,050,000) map of the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, compiled on the basis of materials from the Ural expedition of the Russian Geographical Society in 1847-1850. For the first time, the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge was depicted on it with great accuracy and detail.

The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river regions of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and the Yenisei, and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).

Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGS, led by N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V. I. Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov and V. A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the survey of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and filmed (of which over 30,000 km are accounted for by N. M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined, and the heights of 3,533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as the lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this greatly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.

The heyday of expeditionary activities of the IRGS falls on 1873-1914, when the Grand Duke Konstantin was at the head of the society, and P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia and other regions of the country; two polar stations have been established. Since the mid 1880s. expeditionary activities of the society are increasingly specialized in individual branches - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.

The IRGS made a great contribution to the study of the country's relief. A hypsometric commission of the IRGO was created to process the leveling and make a hypsometric map. In 1874, the IRGS conducted, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, the Aral-Caspian leveling: from Karatamak (on the northwestern shore of the Aral Sea) through Ustyurt to the Dead Kultuk Bay of the Caspian Sea, and in 1875 and 1877. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A. A. Tillo to compile the “map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50 thousand elevation marks were used to compile it obtained as a result of leveling. The map made a revolution in the ideas about the structure of the relief of this territory. It presented in a new way the orography of the European part of the country, which has not changed in its main features to the present day, for the first time the Central Russian and Volga Uplands were depicted. In 1894, the Forest Department, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo with the participation of S. N., organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, on lakes).

The Military Topographic Service, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, carried out a large number of pioneer reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps of many territories were compiled, which were previously "white spots" on the map.

Mapping of the territory in the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries.

Topographic and geodetic works

In 1801-1804. “His Majesty's Own Map Depot” issued the first state multi-sheet (on 107 sheets) map at a scale of 1:840,000, covering almost the entire European Russia and called the “Hundred-sheet Map”. Its content was based mainly on the materials of the General Land Survey.

In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff, under the leadership of Major General F. F. Steinchel (Steingel), with the extensive use of Swedish-Finnish officers-topographers, carried out a large-scale topographic survey of the so-called Old Finland, i.e., areas annexed to Russia along the Nishtadt (1721) and Abosky (1743) to the world. Survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.

After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were merged. At the same time, the Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for the training of professional topographers - a military school, founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanyem Topographic Corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.

In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with officers-topographers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.

Since 1819, topographic surveys began in Russia at a scale of 1:21,000, based on triangulation and carried out mainly with the help of a beaker. In 1844 they were replaced by surveys on a scale of 1:42,000.

On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Staff of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping has become one of the main tasks of military topographers. The remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer F. F. Schubert was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.

In 1816-1852. in Russia, the largest triangulation work for that time was carried out, stretching 25 ° 20 "along the meridian (together with the Scandinavian triangulation).

Under the direction of F. F. Schubert and K. I. Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on the materials of these surveys in the 20-30s. 19th century semi-topographic (semi-topographic) maps were compiled and engraved for the provinces on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.

In 1821, the military topographic depot began compiling an overview topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1:420,000), which was extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten-layout of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on the creation of the map continued intermittently until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half sheets).

A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of military topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829. detailed maps were drawn up on a scale of 1:210,000 of the Baku province, the Talysh Khanate, the Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.

In 1828-1832. a survey was also made of Wallachia, which became a model of the work of its time, as it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were summarized in an atlas of 1:16,000. The total survey area reached 100,000 sq. m. verst.

From the 30s. geodetic and boundary work began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulation became the basis for creating accurate topographic maps of the Crimea. Geodetic networks were developed in Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and in other areas.

In 1833, the head of the KVT, General F. F. Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition to the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points related trigonometrically, provided a reliable basis for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.

From 1857 to 1862 under the guidance and at the expense of the IRGO in the Military Topographic Depot, work was carried out to compile and publish on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasus region on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map was created for the first time in Russia in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the initial meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was repeatedly reprinted.

In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst and forty-verst orographic maps of the Caucasus were published.

Among the best cartographic works of the IRGS is the “Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their environs” compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, on the proposal of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.

The Caucasian Military Topographical Department, under the leadership of General I. I. Stebnitsky, conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.

In 1867, a cartographic institution was opened at the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin, opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.

Relief maps occupied a special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO. A large relief map was completed in 1868 and exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances at a scale of 1:420,000, and for vertical distances at 1:84,000.

The Caucasian Military Topographic Department under the leadership of I. I. Stebnitsky compiled a 20-verst map of the Transcaspian Territory based on astronomical, geodetic and topographic works.

Work was also carried out on topographic and geodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. So, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in Peter the Great Bay.

The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at that time. Such, in particular, is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland attached to it” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V. P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).

Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographic service has been the creation of the Military Topographic Map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of the military topographic map had been published, and by 1917, 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was rendered in strokes.

In 1848-1866. under the leadership of Lieutenant General A. I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps and atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of ​​about 345,000 square meters. verst. Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst to an inch (1:42,000), Yaroslavl - two versts to an inch (1:84,000), Simbirsk and Nizhny Novgorod - three versts to an inch (1:126,000) and the Penza province - on a scale of eight miles to an inch (1:336,000). Based on the survey results, the IRGO published multi-color topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84,000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1:336,000).

The surveys of Mende had an undeniable impact on the further improvement of the methods of state mapping. In 1872, the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map at a scale of 2 versts in an inch (1:84,000), which was the most detailed source of information about the area used in troops and the national economy until the 30s. 20th century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow and. It was one of the first Russian topographic maps, on which the relief was depicted by contour lines.

In 1869-1885. a detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one verst in an inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. One-verst maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, the Crimea, the Caucasus and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.

By the 60s. 19th century the Special Map of European Russia by F. F. Schubert on a scale of 10 versts in an inch is very outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed captain of the General Staff I.A. works. In 1872, all 152 sheets of the map were completed. The ten-versustka was repeatedly reprinted and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.

By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments traveled more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and eye surveys. According to their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.

In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic work in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the KVT, General N. D. Artamonov. It was decided to develop a new class 1 triangulation according to a specific program proposed by General I. I. Pomerantsev. The implementation of the KVT program began in 1910. By 1914, the main part of the work had been completed.

By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys was carried out on the territory of Poland completely, in the south of Russia (the triangle of Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces partially; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partially in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in the Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, to the east of the survey sites of half- and verst scales.

The results of topographic surveys of the previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: a half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21,000); verst map of the Western border area, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42,000); a military topographic two-verst map (1:84,000), a three-verst map (1:126,000) with a relief expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1:420,000); 25-verst military road map of European Russia (1:1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map (1:1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and adjacent foreign states.

In addition to the above maps, the Military Topographic Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and the states adjacent to them, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of the entire Asian Russia.

The corps of military topographers over the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918) carried out a huge amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: geodetic points were identified - 63,736; astronomical points (in latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis at various scales over an area of ​​7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out over an area of ​​506,247 km2. In 1917, the supply of the Russian army was 6739 nomenclatures of maps of various scales.

In general, by 1917, a huge field survey material had been obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works had been created, however, the topographic coverage of the territory of Russia was uneven, a significant part of the territory remained topographically unexplored.

Exploration and mapping of the seas and oceans

Russia's achievements in the study of the World Ocean were also significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting from the first voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the leadership of Yu. V. Lisyansky, they made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic knowledge of the World Ocean.

In addition to the hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian Navy, participants in round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among which were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F. P. Wrangel, A. K. Etolin and M D. Tebenkov, continuously updated the knowledge of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and improved the navigational charts of these regions. Especially great was the contribution of M. D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed “Atlas of the Northwestern coasts of America from to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the Northeastern coast of Asia”, published by the St. Petersburg Naval Academy in 1852.

In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the finalization of geographical ideas about the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 20-30s. 19th century expeditions of F. P. Litke, P. K. Pakhtusov, K. M. Baer and A. K. Tsivolka, who laid the foundations for the physical and geographical study of these seas and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. To solve the problem of developing transport links of the European Pomorye, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most productive of which were the Pechora expedition of I.N. Ivanov (1824) and the inventory of I.N. Ivanov and I.A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps compiled by them had a solid astronomical and geodetic justification. Studies of sea coasts and islands in the north of Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago by Russian industrialists, as well as the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. during the expedition led by M. M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, who explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole was created for the first time, as well as the mainland sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands was made. In the 20s. Yanskaya (1820-1824) under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and Kolymskaya (1821-1824) - under the leadership of F.P. Wrangel - expeditions were equipped in the same areas. These expeditions carried out on an extended scale the work program of the expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom. They were supposed to survey the banks from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenyok River to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands group. In the eastern part of Wrangel's map, according to local residents, an island was marked with the inscription "Mountains are seen from Cape Yakan in the summer." This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I.F. Kruzenshtern (1826) and G.A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867, it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and in commemoration of the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer named after Wrangel. The results of the expeditions of P. F. Anzhu and F. P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 handwritten maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.

Not only scientific, but also of enormous geopolitical significance for Russia were carried out in the middle of the 19th century. G. I. Nevelsky and his followers intensive marine expeditionary research in Okhotsk and. Although the insular position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, however, the problem of accessibility of the Amur mouth for ships from the south and north was finally and positively resolved only by G. I. Nevelsky. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur Region and Primorye, showing the enormous potential of these richest regions, provided, as G. I. Nevelsky's studies proved, with end-to-end water communications leading to the Pacific Ocean. These studies themselves were carried out by travelers sometimes at their own peril and risk in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G. I. Nevelsky paved the way for the return of Russia to the Amur region under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and joining the Empire of Primorye (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographical research in the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in the boundaries in the Far East in accordance with the treaties between Russia and China, were declared cartographically on maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published as soon as possible.

Russian hydrographs in the XIX century. continued active work on the European seas. After the annexation of Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian navy on the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, the navigation atlas of I.N. Billings on the northern coast, in 1807 - the atlas of I. M. Budischev on the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - the “General Map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In 1825-1836. under the leadership of E. P. Manganari, on the basis of triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western seas was carried out, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Black Sea” in 1841.

In the 19th century intensive study of the Caspian Sea continued. In 1826, based on the detailed hydrographic works of 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Colleges under the leadership of A.E. Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully met the requirements of the shipping of that time.

In subsequent years, the maps of the atlas were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the western coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836) and others. on the eastern coast of the Caspian. In 1847, I. I. Zherebtsov described the bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsov, who over the course of 15 years carried out a systematic survey and description, compiling several plans and 26 maps that covered almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.

In the 19th century Intensive work continued to improve the maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the “Atlas of the entire Baltic Sea…” compiled by G. A. Sarychev (1812). In 1834-1854. based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of F. F. Schubert, maps were compiled and published for the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea.

Significant changes were made to the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula by the hydrographic works of F. P. Litke (1821-1824) and M. F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the Reinecke expedition, in 1833 the “Atlas of the White Sea ...” was published, the maps of which were used by seafarers until the beginning of the 20th century, and the “Hydrographic description of the northern coast of Russia”, which supplemented this atlas, can be considered as an example of a geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to MF Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.

Thematic mapping

Active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the formation of special (thematic) mapping. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th-early 20th centuries.

In 1832, the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire was published by the Main Directorate of Communications. It included general maps on a scale of 20 and 10 versts per inch, detailed maps on a scale of 2 versts per inch, and plans on a scale of 100 fathoms per inch and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were compiled, which contributed to an increase in the cartographic knowledge of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.

Significant cartographic work in the XIX-early XX centuries. carried out by the Ministry of State Property formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of civilian topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.

An important achievement of domestic cartography was the Marx's Great World Desktop Atlas, published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), containing over 200 maps and an index of 130,000 geographical names.

Mapping nature

Geological mapping

In the 19th century intensive cartographic study of the mineral resources of Russia and their exploitation continued, special geognostic (geological) mapping is being developed. At the beginning of the XIX century. many maps of mountain districts were created, plans for factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, and mineral springs. The history of exploration and development of minerals in the Altai and Nerchinsk mining districts is reflected in particular detail in the maps.

Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Salt Mine Maps” compiled by the Mining Department. The maps of the collection belong mainly to the 20-30s. 19th century Many of the maps in this atlas are much broader in content than ordinary salt mine maps and are, in fact, early examples of geological (petrographic) maps. So, among the maps of G. Vansovich in 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The “Map of the Pskov and part of the Novgorod province” also has a rich geological content: showing rock and salt springs discovered in 1824…”

An extremely rare example of an early map is the “Topographic Map of the Crimean Peninsula…” with the designation of the depth and quality of water in the villages, compiled by A.N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on the cartographic basis of 1817. having different water supply, as well as a table of the number of villages by counties in need of watering.

In 1840-1843. The English geologist R. I. Murchison, together with A. A. Keyserling and N. I. Koksharov, conducted research that for the first time gave a scientific picture of the geological structure of European Russia.

In the 50s. 19th century The first geological maps began to be published in Russia. One of the earliest is the Geognostic Map of the St. Petersburg Province (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research found expression in the Geological Map of European Russia (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).

The main task of the Geological Committee was the creation of a 10-verst (1:420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map were published out of the planned 170. Since the 1870s. geological mapping of some regions of Asiatic Russia began.

In 1895, the Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism was published, compiled by A. A. Tillo.

Forest mapping

One of the earliest handwritten maps of forests is the Map for Reviewing the State of Forests and the Timber Industry in [European] Russia, compiled in 1840-1841, as established by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state-owned forests, the forest industry and forest-consuming industries, as well as on improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for it were collected by inquiries through local departments of state property, as well as other departments. In the final form in 1842, two maps were drawn up; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the earliest samples of soil-climatic maps, on which climatic bands and dominant soils in European Russia were marked. A soil-climatic map has not yet been discovered.

The work on mapping the forests of European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of the device and mapping and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols were created for the preparation of forest plans and maps, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state lands in Siberia, which became especially widespread after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.

soil mapping

In 1838 a systematic study of soils began in Russia. Mostly on the basis of interrogation information, many handwritten soil maps were compiled. Prominent economic geographer and climatologist Academician K. S. Veselovsky in 1855 compiled and published the first consolidated “Soil Map of European Russia”, which shows eight types of soils: black soil, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, solonetzes, tundra , swamps. The works of K. S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V. V. Dokuchaev, who proposed a truly scientific classification for soils based on the genetic principle, and introduced their comprehensive study taking into account factors soil formation. His book Cartography of Russian Soils, published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text for the Soil Map of European Russia, laid the foundations for modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882, V. V. Dokuchaev and his followers (N. M. Sibirtsev, K. D. Glinka, S. S. Neustruev, L. I. Prasolov and others) carried out soil, and in fact complex physical and geographical studies in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works was soil maps of provinces (on a scale of 10 versts) and more detailed maps of individual districts. Under the leadership of V. V. Dokuchaev, N. M. Sibirtsev, G. I. Tanfilyev and A. R. Ferkhmin compiled and published in 1901 the “Soil Map of European Russia” at a scale of 1:2,520,000.

Socio-economic mapping

Economy Mapping

The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a deeper study of the national economy. To this end, in the middle of the XIX century. survey economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was the “Map of the Industry of European Russia Showing Factories, Factories and Industries, Administrative Places in the Manufactory Section, Major Fairs, Water and Land Communications, Ports, Lighthouses, Customs Houses, Major Quays, Quarantines, etc., 1842” .

A significant cartographic work is the “Economic and Statistical Atlas of European Russia from 16 Maps”, compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. It was the first economic atlas in our country devoted to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climatic, agricultural). In the atlas and its text part, an attempt was made to summarize the main features and directions of development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. 19th century

Of undoubted interest is the handwritten "Statistical Atlas", compiled in the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the direction of N. A. Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms, reflecting a wide variety of socio-economic parameters. It, apparently, was compiled in parallel with the "Economic and Statistical Atlas" of 1851 and, in comparison with it, provides a lot of new information.

A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the Maps of the Most Important Branches of Productivity in European Russia compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1:2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement in the organization of statistical affairs in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society P. P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky. The materials collected during the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that multifacetedly and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map was an excellent reference tool and valuable material for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of content, expressiveness and originality of mapping methods, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance up to the present.

The first capital atlas of industry was the “Statistical Atlas of the Main Branches of the Factory Industry of European Russia” by D. A. Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (the Urals, the Nerchinsk District, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic charts of cargo flows along railways and waterways were published.

One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early 20th century. is the “Commercial and industrial map of European Russia” by V.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shan scale 1:1,680,000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and regions.

We should dwell on one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas-album "Agricultural trade in Russia" (1914), representing a set of statistical maps of agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of "cartographic propaganda" of the potential possibilities of the agricultural economy in Russia to attract new investments from abroad.

Population mapping

P. I. Keppen organized a systematic collection of statistical data on the number and ethnographic characteristics of the Russian population. The result of P. I. Keppen’s work was the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1:3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General A.F. Rittich. At the Paris International Geographical Exhibition, the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasus region were published at a scale of 1:1,080,000 (A.F. Rittikh, 1875), Asiatic Russia (M.I. Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), and others.

Among other thematic cartographic works, one should mention the first map of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), “The General Map of the Entire Russian Empire with the Significance of the Degree of Population” by A. Rakint at a scale of 1:21,000,000 (1866), which also included Alaska.

Integrated research and mapping

In 1850-1853. The police department issued atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).

In 1897, a student of V. V. Dokuchaev, G. I. Tanfilyev, published the zoning of European Russia, which for the first time was called physiographic. Zonality was clearly reflected in Tanfiliev's scheme, and some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions were also outlined.

In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland was published, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1910, the second edition of this atlas appeared.

The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the capital "Atlas of Asian Russia", published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, with an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions for the agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this edition for the first time included a detailed review of the history of mapping in Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later a well-known historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The content of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflects the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas contains an extensive set of economic maps for Asian Russia. Its central section is made up of maps, on which backgrounds of different colors show the general picture of land ownership and land use, which displays the results of the ten-year activity of the Resettlement Administration for the arrangement of settlers.

A special map has been placed showing the distribution of the population of Asiatic Russia by religion. Three maps are devoted to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. The cartograms for agriculture show the proportion of different crops in field cultivation and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are devoted to communication routes, post offices and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for sparsely populated Asiatic Russia.

So, by the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided for the needs of the country's defense, national economy, science and education, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. By the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire had vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state, published by the cartographic institution of A. A. Ilyin in 1915.

Along with the collapse of the Russian Empire, the majority of the population chose to create independent nation-states. Many of them were never destined to remain sovereign, and they became part of the USSR. Others were incorporated into the Soviet state later. And what was the Russian Empire at the beginning XXcentury?

By the end of the 19th century, the territory of the Russian Empire was 22.4 million km2. According to the 1897 census, the population was 128.2 million people, including the population of European Russia - 93.4 million people; The kingdom of Poland - 9.5 million, - 2.6 million, the Caucasus region - 9.3 million, Siberia - 5.8 million, Central Asia - 7.7 million people. More than 100 peoples lived; 57% of the population were non-Russian peoples. The territory of the Russian Empire in 1914 was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions; there were 931 cities. Part of the provinces and regions was united into governor-generals (Warsaw, Irkutsk, Kiev, Moscow, Amur, Steppe, Turkestan and Finland).

By 1914, the length of the territory of the Russian Empire was 4,383.2 versts (4,675.9 km) from north to south and 10,060 versts (10,732.3 km) from east to west. The total length of land and sea borders is 64,909.5 versts (69,245 km), of which land borders accounted for 18,639.5 versts (19,941.5 km), and sea borders accounted for about 46,270 versts (49,360 km). .4 km).

The entire population was considered subjects of the Russian Empire, the male population (from 20 years old) swore allegiance to the emperor. The subjects of the Russian Empire were divided into four classes ("states"): the nobility, the clergy, urban and rural inhabitants. The local population of Kazakhstan, Siberia and a number of other regions stood out in an independent "state" (foreigners). The emblem of the Russian Empire was a double-headed eagle with royal regalia; the state flag - a cloth with white, blue and red horizontal stripes; national anthem - "God Save the Tsar". National language - Russian.

In administrative terms, the Russian Empire by 1914 was divided into 78 provinces, 21 regions and 2 independent districts. The provinces and regions were subdivided into 777 counties and districts, and in Finland - into 51 parishes. Counties, districts and parishes, in turn, were divided into camps, departments and sections (2523 in total), as well as 274 Lensmanships in Finland.

Important in the military-political terms of the territory (capital and border) were united in the viceroyalty and general government. Some cities were separated into special administrative units - townships.

Even before the transformation of the Grand Duchy of Moscow into the Russian Tsardom in 1547, at the beginning of the 16th century, Russian expansion began to go beyond its ethnic territory and began to absorb the following territories (the table does not indicate lands lost before the beginning of the 19th century):

Territory	Date (year) of joining the Russian Empire	Facts
Western Armenia (Asia Minor)		The territory was ceded in 1917-1918
Eastern Galicia, Bukovina (Eastern Europe)		In 1915 it was ceded, in 1916 it was partially recaptured, in 1917 it was lost
Uryankhai region (Southern Siberia)		Currently part of the Republic of Tuva
Franz Josef Land, Emperor Nicholas II Land, New Siberian Islands (Arctic)		Archipelagos of the Arctic Ocean, fixed as the territory of Russia by a note of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Northern Iran (Middle East)		Lost as a result of revolutionary events and the Civil War in Russia. Currently owned by the State of Iran
Concession in Tianjin		Lost in 1920. At present, the city of central subordination of the People's Republic of China
Kwantung Peninsula (Far East)		Lost as a result of defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Currently Liaoning Province, China
Badakhshan (Central Asia)		Currently Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous District of Tajikistan
Concession in Hankou (Wuhan, East Asia)		Currently Hubei Province, China
Transcaspian region (Central Asia)		Currently owned by Turkmenistan
Adjarian and Kars-Childyr sanjaks (Transcaucasia)		In 1921 they were ceded to Turkey. Currently Adjara Autonomous Region of Georgia; silts of Kars and Ardahan in Turkey
Bayazet (Dogubayazit) sanjak (Transcaucasia)		In the same year, 1878, it was ceded to Turkey following the results of the Berlin Congress.
Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Adrianople Sanjak (Balkans)		Abolished by the results of the Berlin Congress in 1879. Currently Bulgaria, Marmara region of Turkey
Khanate of Kokand (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan
Khiva (Khorezm) Khanate (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan
including Åland		Currently Finland, Republic of Karelia, Murmansk, Leningrad regions
Tarnopol District of Austria (Eastern Europe)		Currently Ternopil region of Ukraine
Bialystok District of Prussia (Eastern Europe)		Currently Podlaskie Voivodeship of Poland
Ganja (1804), Karabakh (1805), Sheki (1805), Shirvan (1805), Baku (1806), Quba (1806), Derbent (1806), northern part of the Talysh (1809) khanate (Transcaucasia)		Vassal khanates of Persia, capture and voluntary entry. Fixed in 1813 by an agreement with Persia following the war. Limited autonomy until 1840s. Currently Azerbaijan, Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
Kingdom of Imereti (1810), Megrelian (1803) and Gurian (1804) principalities (Transcaucasia)		Kingdom and principalities of Western Georgia (since 1774 independent from Turkey). Protectorates and voluntary entry. They were fixed in 1812 by an agreement with Turkey and in 1813 by an agreement with Persia. Self-government until the end of the 1860s. Currently Georgia, the regions of Samegrelo-Upper Svaneti, Guria, Imereti, Samtskhe-Javakheti
Minsk, Kiev, Bratslav, eastern parts of the Vilna, Novogrudok, Beresteisky, Volyn and Podolsky voivodeships of the Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently Vitebsk, Minsk, Gomel regions of Belarus; Rivne, Khmelnytsky, Zhytomyr, Vinnitsa, Kyiv, Cherkasy, Kirovohrad regions of Ukraine
Crimea, Yedisan, Dzhambailuk, Yedishkul, Lesser Nogai Horde (Kuban, Taman) (Northern Black Sea region)		Khanate (independent from Turkey since 1772) and nomadic Nogai tribal unions. Annexation, secured in 1792 by treaty as a result of the war. Currently Rostov Region, Krasnodar Territory, Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol; Zaporozhye, Kherson, Nikolaev, Odessa regions of Ukraine
Kuril Islands (Far East)		Tribal unions of the Ainu, bringing into Russian citizenship, finally by 1782. Under the treaty of 1855, the South Kuriles in Japan, under the treaty of 1875 - all the islands. Currently, the North Kuril, Kuril and South Kuril urban districts of the Sakhalin Region
Chukotka (Far East)		Currently Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Tarkov shamkhalate (Northern Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of Dagestan
Ossetia (Caucasus)		Currently Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, Republic of South Ossetia
Big and Small Kabarda		principalities. In 1552-1570, a military alliance with the Russian state, later vassals of Turkey. In 1739-1774, according to the agreement, it was a buffer principality. Since 1774 in Russian citizenship. Currently Stavropol Territory, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Chechen Republic
Inflyantsky, Mstislavsky, large parts of Polotsk, Vitebsk voivodeships of the Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently Vitebsk, Mogilev, Gomel regions of Belarus, Daugavpils region of Latvia, Pskov, Smolensk regions of Russia
Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn (Northern Black Sea region)		Fortresses, from the Crimean Khanate by agreement. Recognized by Turkey in 1774 by treaty as a result of the war. The Crimean Khanate gained independence from the Ottoman Empire under the auspices of Russia. Currently, the urban district of Kerch of the Republic of Crimea of ​​Russia, Ochakovsky district of the Nikolaev region of Ukraine
Ingushetia (Northern Caucasus)		Currently Republic of Ingushetia
Altai (Southern Siberia)		Currently Altai Territory, Republic of Altai, Novosibirsk, Kemerovo, Tomsk regions of Russia, East Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
Kymenigord and Neishlot flax - Neishlot, Wilmanstrand and Friedrichsgam (Baltic)		Len, from Sweden by treaty as a result of the war. Since 1809 in the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland. Currently Leningrad region of Russia, Finland (region of South Karelia)
Junior zhuz (Central Asia)		Currently West Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
(Kyrgyz land, etc.) (Southern Siberia)		Currently Republic of Khakassia
Novaya Zemlya, Taimyr, Kamchatka, Commander Islands (Arctic, Far East)		Currently Arkhangelsk Region, Kamchatka, Krasnoyarsk Territory

The division of the country into controlled regions has always been one of the foundations of the state structure of Russia. Borders within the country change regularly even in the 21st century, subject to administrative reforms. And at the stages of the Muscovy and the Russian Empire, this happened much more often due to the annexation of new lands, a change in political power or course.

The division of the country in the 15th-17th centuries

At the stage of the Muscovite state, the main territorial-administrative unit was the uyezds. They were located within the borders of the once independent principalities and were ruled by governors appointed by the king. It is noteworthy that in the European part of the state, large cities (Tver, Vladimir, Rostov, Nizhny Novgorod, etc.) were administratively independent territories and were not part of the county, although they were their capitals. In the 21st century, Moscow found itself in a similar situation, which is the de facto center of its region, but de jure it is a separate region.

Each county, in turn, was divided into volosts - districts, the center of which was a large village or small town with adjacent lands. Also in the northern lands there was a division into camps, churchyards, villages or settlements in various combinations.

Border or recently annexed territories did not have counties. For example, the lands from Lake Onega to the northern part of the Ural Mountains and up to the shores of the Arctic Ocean were called Pomorie. And which became part of the Muscovite kingdom at the end of the 16th century, because of its status as "unquiet lands" and the main population (Cossacks), it was divided into regiments - Kyiv, Poltava, Chernigov, etc.

In general, the division of the Muscovite state was very confusing, but it made it possible to develop the basic principles on which the administration of the territories was built in the following centuries. And the most important of them is unity of command.

Division of the country in the 18th century

According to historians, the formation of the administrative division of the country took place in several stages-reforms, of which the main ones occurred in the 18th century. The provinces of the Russian Empire appeared after in 1708, and at first there were only 8 of them - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kyiv, Azov, Kazan and Siberia. A few years later, Rizhskaya was added to them, and each of them received not only land and a vicegerent (governor), but also its own coat of arms.

The educated regions were excessively large and therefore ill-governed. Therefore, the following reforms were aimed at reducing them and dividing them into subordinate units. Key milestones in this process:

1. The second reform of Peter I of 1719, in which the provinces of the Russian Empire began to be divided into provinces and districts. Subsequently, the latter were replaced by counties.
2. The reform of 1727, which continued the process of disaggregation of territories. According to its results, there were 14 provinces and 250 counties in the country.
3. The reform began the reign of Catherine I. During the years 1764-1766, the formation of border and remote territories in the province took place.
4. Catherine's reform of 1775. The "Institution for the Administration of Provinces" signed by the Empress marked the largest administrative-territorial changes in the history of the country, which lasted 10 years.

At the end of the century, the country was divided into 38 governorships, 3 provinces and an area with a special status (Tauride). Within all regions, 483 counties were allocated, which became a secondary territorial unit.

Vicegerencies and provinces of the Russian Empire in the 18th century did not last long within the boundaries approved by Catherine I. The process of administrative division continued into the next century.

Division of the country in the 19th century

The term "provinces of the Russian Empire" was returned during which he made an unsuccessful attempt to reduce the number of regions from 51 to 42. But most of the transformations he carried out were subsequently canceled.

In the 19th century, the process of administrative-territorial division focused on the formation of regions in the Asian part of the country and in the annexed territories. Among the many changes, the following stand out:

• Under Alexander I in 1803, the Tomsk and Yenisei provinces appeared, and the Kamchatka Territory was separated from the Irkutsk lands. In the same period, the Grand Duchy of Finland, the Kingdom of Poland, Ternopil, Bessarabia and Bialystok provinces were formed.
• In 1822, the lands of Siberia were divided into 2 governor-generals - Western, with its center in Omsk, and Eastern, which had Irkutsk as its capital.
• Toward the middle of the 19th century, Tiflis, Shemakha (later Baku), Dagestan, Erivan, Terek, Batumi and Kutaisi provinces were created on the annexed lands of the Caucasus. A special region arose in the neighborhood of the lands of modern Dagestan.
• The Primorskaya Oblast was formed in 1856 from the territories of the East Siberian Governor General with access to the sea. Soon, the Amur Region was singled out from it, which received the left bank of the river of the same name, and in 1884 Sakhalin Island received the status of a special department of Primorye.
• The lands of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were annexed in the 1860s-1870s. The resulting territories were organized into regions - Akmola, Semipalatinsk, Ural, Turkestan, Transcaspian, etc.

There were also many changes in the regions of the European part of the country - the borders were often changed, the lands were redistributed, there were renaming. In the course of the peasant reforms, the counties of the province of the Russian Empire in the 19th century were divided into rural volosts for the convenience of distributing and accounting for land.

Division of the country in the 20th century

In the last 17 years of the existence of the Russian Empire, only 2 significant changes occurred in the sphere of administrative-territorial division:

• The Sakhalin Region was formed, which included the island of the same name and adjacent small islands and archipelagos.
• On the annexed lands of southern Siberia (the modern Republic of Tuva), the Uryankhai Territory was created.

The provinces of the Russian Empire retained their borders and names for 6 years after the collapse of this country, that is, until 1923, when the first reforms in the zoning of territories began in the USSR.

For the first time provinces appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. December 18, 1708 Peter I signed a Decree on the division of the country into provinces: "The Great Sovereign indicated ... for the benefit of the whole people, create provinces and paint cities for them." Since that time, these higher units of administrative division and local government in Russia began to exist.

The immediate cause of the reform of 1708 was the need to change the system of financing and food and material support for the army (land regiments, garrisons of fortresses, artillery and fleet were "painted" by provinces and received money and provisions through special commissars). Initially, there were 8 provinces, then their number increased to 23.

In 1775 Catherine II government reform was carried out. In the preface" Institutions for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire"The following was noted:"... due to the great vastness of some provinces, they are insufficiently equipped, both with governments and with the people necessary to manage ...". The new division into provinces was based on a statistical principle - the population of the province was limited to 300 - 400 thousand revision souls (20 - 30 thousand per county). As a result, instead of 23 provinces, 50 were created. " institution"provided for the sectoral construction of local authorities, the creation on the ground of an extensive network of administrative-police, judicial and financial-economic institutions, which were subject to general supervision and management by the heads of local administrations. Almost all local institutions had a "general presence" - a collegiate body in which several officials (advisers and assessors) met.Among these institutions were: the provincial government, in which the governor-general (or "viceroy"), the governor (this position was retained, but sometimes he was called the "ruler of the viceroy") and two advisers; chamber (the main financial and economic body, headed by the vice-governor or, as he was sometimes called, "ruler's lieutenant"); criminal chamber; civil chamber; order of public charity (issues of education, health protection, etc. were resolved here), and some others.The provinces with the new administrative apparatus were called governorships, although along with the term "governorship" in the legislation and office work of that time, the term "province" was preserved.

Viceroys, in contrast to the former governors, had even broader powers and greater independence. They could be present in the Senate with the right to vote on a par with senators. Their rights were limited only by the empress and the Council at the imperial court. The governors and their apparatus were not at all subordinate to the collegiums. The dismissal and appointment of local officials depended on their will (except for the ranks of the vicegerent government and prosecutorial ranks). " institution"provided the governor-general not only with great power, but also with honor: he had an escort, adjutants and, in addition, a personal retinue consisting of young noblemen of the province (one from each county). Often the power of the governor-general extended to several governorships At the end of the 18th century, the positions of vicegerents (governor-generals) and viceroys themselves were abolished, and the leadership of the provinces was again concentrated in the hands of the governors.

The provisional government, which came to power in early March 1917, retained the entire system of provincial institutions, only the governors were replaced by provincial commissars. But in parallel, the system of Soviets had already arisen and existed. The October Revolution preserved the division into provinces, but liquidated the entire old provincial apparatus. Finally, the division into provinces disappeared in the 30s of the XX century.