The invention of gunpowder in ancient China (grade 5). Ancient China: Inventions

The first prototype of the compass is believed to have appeared during the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) when the Chinese began to use north-south magnetic iron ore. True, it was not used for navigation, but for divination. In the ancient text "Lunheng", written in the 1st century AD, in chapter 52, the ancient compass is described as follows: "This instrument resembles a spoon, and if it is placed on a plate, its handle will point to the south."

The description of a magnetic compass for determining the cardinal points was first described in the Chinese manuscript "Wujing Zongyao" 1044. The compass worked on the principle of residual magnetization from heated steel or iron ingots, which were cast in the shape of a fish. The latter were placed in a bowl of water, and as a result of induction and residual magnetization, weak magnetic forces appeared. The manuscript mentions that this device was used as a course indicator paired with a mechanical "chariot that points south."

A more advanced compass design was proposed by the already mentioned Chinese scientist Shen Ko. In his Notes on the Stream of Dreams (1088), he described in detail the magnetic declination, that is, the deviation from the direction to true north, and the device of a magnetic compass with a needle. The use of a compass for navigation was first proposed by Zhu Yu in the book "Table Talk in Ningzhou" (1119).

Compass: history and features of the invention.

Everyone knows that a good compass is designed for orientation in space. It is used by tourists and athletes, researchers and scientists. Like other unique things, this item was invented by the Chinese, namely Hen Fei-tzu, a famous philosopher and traveler. This is a historically recognized fact, but scientists are still arguing about the date of its appearance.

Every schoolchild knows how to use a compass, and earlier it was necessary to organize a whole ritual for this - to lay out elements of iron ore on a flat surface, which exactly lined up in a north-south direction. The compass began to acquire new parts as the need arose to use an unusual device. The inhabitants of ancient China needed to accurately navigate in space. After all, it was through this country that the routes of the Great Silk Road ran, and the Chinese were active participants in extensive trade relations.

The modern magnetic compass in its appearance does not even remotely resemble an ancient invention. Initially, a device for orientation in space was an almost shapeless piece of ore that was attached to some kind of base. The directions of the cardinal points could be found out by lowering it into the water. This is how the invention was described in the books of the XI century. The price for such a compass was high, so it was available only to high-ranking officials and military leaders. The craving of the Chinese for everything beautiful and rational contributed to the further improvement of the compass. The first compass needles looked like thick needles, were made of iron ore and minerals that had magnetic properties. Similar devices were used by travelers and merchants in the 12th century AD.

In the XIV century, new models of the compass were introduced to the world by the Italian researcher F. Gioia, who put a magnetic pointer on a hairpin, perpendicularly attached to the base (a piece of wood). Only in the 16th century the device was placed in a special gimbal, which allowed the compass to work flawlessly even in conditions of rocking on the ship. Currently, anyone can purchase an electronic compass. To remember the Chinese soothsayers with a kind word and, with the help of an accurate device, arrange pieces of furniture according to “Feng Shui”, the love for which, by the way, was instilled in us by the inhabitants of the same country.

The most ancient period of Chinese civilization is the era of the existence of the Shang state, a slave-owning country in the Yellow River valley. Already in this era, ideographic writing was discovered, which, through a long improvement, turned into hieroglyphic calligraphy, and a monthly calendar was also drawn up in basic terms.

Chinese culture has made a huge contribution to world culture. So, at the turn of the millennium, paper and ink for writing were invented. Also at about the same time, writing was created in China. The rapid cultural and technical growth in this country begins just with the advent of writing.

But whatever the culture of China, today it is the property of the global culture, as well as any other national culture. Inviting millions of tourists every year, this country willingly shares its cultural attractions with them, talking about its rich past and offering a lot of travel opportunities.

Paper - an invention of ancient China

The first great invention of ancient China is considered paper. According to the Chinese annals of the Eastern Han Dynasty, paper was invented by the court eunuch of the Han Dynasty, Cai Lun, in 105 AD.

In ancient times in China, before the advent of writing paper, bamboo strips rolled into scrolls, silk scrolls, wooden and clay tablets, etc. were used. The most ancient Chinese texts or "jiaguwen" were found on tortoise shells, which date back to the 2nd millennium BC. (Shan Dynasty).

Artifacts such as ancient stuffing material and wrapping paper dating back to the 2nd century BC have been found. BC. The oldest piece of paper is a map from Fanmatan near Tianshui.

In the 3rd century paper already widely used for writing instead of more expensive traditional materials. The paper production technology developed by Cai Lun consisted of the following: a boiling mixture of hemp, mulberry bark, old fishing nets and fabrics turned into pulp, after which it was ground to a homogeneous paste and mixed with water. A sieve in a wooden reed frame was immersed in the mixture, the mass was scooped out with a sieve and shaken to make the liquid glass. In this case, a thin and even layer of fibrous mass was formed in the sieve.

This mass was then overturned onto smooth boards. Boards with castings were laid one on top of the other. They tied the pile and laid the load on top. Then the sheets hardened and strengthened under pressure were removed from the boards and dried. A paper sheet made using this technology turned out to be light, even, durable, less yellow and more convenient for writing.

Inventions of ancient China: paper huiji banknote, printed in 1160

A Han chronicle from 105 reports that Cai Lun "made paper from tree bark, rags, and fishing nets and presented it to the emperor." Since then, paper has ousted silk and bamboo from Chinese office supplies, and paper production has reached gigantic proportions (trade departments alone consumed about 1.5 million sheets annually). It was made both writing paper, the raw material for which was mulberry bark, ramie, algae, and various exquisite papers, for the manufacture of which, for example, sandalwood bark was used, which gave it a persistent aroma. For household use, paper was made from rice or wheat flour (for example, paper wallpaper or toilet paper). Since Chinese paper absorbs ink well, it was ideal for painting and calligraphy. Production technology changed in the 10th century, when bamboo was used instead of mulberry bark to make writing paper. Bamboo branches cut in spring were soaked in water for a long time, after which the bark was separated from the fibers, the wood was mixed with lime, and the resulting mass was dried. But with the advent of cheap paper produced by an industrial method, from the middle of the 19th century. handicraft paper production began to decline rapidly.

Typography - an invention of ancient China

The advent of paper, in turn, led to the advent of printing. The oldest known example of woodblock printing is a Sanskrit sutra printed on hemp paper between approximately 650 and 670 BC. AD However, the Diamond Sutra, made during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), is believed to be the first standard size printed book. It consists of 5.18 m long scrolls. According to Joseph Needham, a researcher of Chinese traditional culture, the printing methods used in the calligraphy of the Diamond Sutra are far superior in perfection and sophistication to the miniature sutra printed earlier.

Typesetting fonts

The Chinese statesman and polymath Shen Kuo (1031-1095) first outlined the method of printing with typesetting in his work Notes on the Stream of Dreams in 1088, attributing this innovation to the unknown master Bi Sheng. Shen Kuo described the technological process for the production of fired clay letters, the process of printing and the manufacture of typefaces.

Bookbinding technique

Emergence of printing in the ninth century significantly changed the technique of weaving. Towards the end of the Tang era, the book of rolled paper turned into a stack of sheets, reminiscent of a modern brochure. Subsequently, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the sheets began to be folded in the center, making a “butterfly” type of dressing, which is why the book has already acquired a modern look. The Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) introduced the stiff paper spine, and later, during the Ming Dynasty, sheets were stitched with thread. Printing in China has made a great contribution to the preservation of a rich culture that has been formed over the centuries.

In ancient times, in China, a seal with carved family hieroglyphs instead of a signature was used to certify the identity of an official or master. They are used by Chinese artists today. Carving hieroglyphs on a stone seal has always been considered not only a skill, but also a refined art. These seals were the forerunners of the boards from which printing began. The oldest examples of printed books date back to the first half of the 8th century, while their widespread distribution dates back to the period of the Song Dynasty (X-XIII). The absence of state monopoly and censorship for a long time favored the development of the book market. By the XIII century. there were more than 100 family publishing houses in Zhejiang and Fujian provinces alone. In China, printing spread in the form of woodcuts (printing from boards on which a mirror image of the printed text was cut), which made it possible to preserve the graphic features of the original manuscript and, if necessary, replace characters, as well as combine printed text and engravings. The Chinese printed book wandered into its final form by the 16th century, largely reproducing samples of the Sung era and had the appearance of a stitched notebook. And from the 17th century In China, the technique of color engraving was mastered.

Inventions of ancient China: The illustration given in the book of the scholar Wang Zhen (1313) shows typesetting characters arranged in a special order across the sectors of the round table.

Compass - an invention of ancient China

First prototype compass is thought to have originated during the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) when the Chinese began to use north-south magnetic ore. True, it was not used for navigation, but for divination. In the ancient text "Lunheng", written in the 1st century. AD, in chapter 52, the ancient compass is described as follows: "This instrument resembles a spoon, and if it is placed on a plate, then its handle will point south."

Inventions of ancient China: Model of a Chinese compass from the Han Dynasty

Description magnetic compass to determine the cardinal points was first described in the Chinese manuscript "Wujing Zongyao" in 1044. The compass worked on the principle of residual magnetization from heated steel or iron ingots, which were cast in the shape of a fish. The latter were placed in a bowl of water, and as a result of induction and residual magnetization, weak magnetic forces appeared. The manuscript mentions that this device was used as a course indicator paired with a mechanical "chariot that points south."

A more advanced compass design was proposed by the already mentioned Chinese scientist Shen Ko. In his Notes on the Stream of Dreams (1088), he described in detail the magnetic declination, that is, the deviation from the direction to true north, and the device of a magnetic compass with a needle. The use of a compass for navigation was first suggested by Zhu Yu in his book Table Talk in Ningzhou (1119).

Magnet has been known to the Chinese since ancient times. Back in the III century. BC. they knew that a magnet attracted iron. In the XI century. the Chinese began to use not the magnet itself, but magnetized steel and iron. At that time, a water compass was also used: a magnetized steel arrow in the shape of a fish 5-6 cm long was placed in a cup of water. The arrow could be magnetized by means of strong heating. The head of the fish always pointed south. Later, the fish underwent a number of changes and turned into a compass needle.

Already during the Han Dynasty in China, they knew that identical magnetic poles repel each other, and different ones attract each other. In the X-XIII centuries. The Chinese discovered that the magnet only attracted iron and nickel. In the West, this phenomenon was discovered only at the beginning of the 17th century. English scientist Gilbert.

In navigation compass began to be used by the Chinese in the 11th century. At the beginning of the XII century. the Chinese ambassador, who arrived in Korea by sea, said that in conditions of poor visibility, the ship kept its course solely on a compass attached to the bow and stern, and the compass needles floated on the surface of the water.

Around the end of the XII century. The Arabs brought the Chinese water compass to the West.

Gunpowder - an invention of ancient China

Powder was developed in China in the 10th century. At first, it was used as a filling in incendiary shells, and later explosive powder shells were invented. Gunpowder barrel weapons, according to Chinese chronicles, were first used in battles in 1132. It was a long bamboo tube where gunpowder was placed and then set on fire. This "flamethrower" inflicted severe burns on the enemy.

A century later, in 1259, the first bullet gun was invented - a thick bamboo tube that held a charge of gunpowder and a bullet. Later, at the turn of the XIII - XIV centuries. in the Celestial Empire, metal cannons loaded with stone cannonballs spread.

In addition to military affairs, gunpowder was actively used in everyday life. So, gunpowder was considered a good disinfectant in the treatment of ulcers and wounds, during epidemics, and it was also used to bait harmful insects.

fireworks

However, perhaps the most "bright" invention that appeared due to the creation of gunpowder are fireworks. In the Celestial Empire, they had a special meaning. According to ancient beliefs, evil spirits are very afraid of bright light and loud sound. Therefore, since ancient times, on the Chinese New Year, there was a tradition in the yards to burn bonfires from bamboo, which hissed in the fire and burst with a crash. And the invention of powder charges, of course, frightened the "evil spirits" in earnest - after all, in terms of the power of sound and light, they significantly exceeded the old method. Later, Chinese craftsmen began to create colorful fireworks by adding various substances to gunpowder. Today, fireworks have become an indispensable attribute of the celebration of the New Year in almost all countries of the world. Some believe that the inventor of gunpowder or the forerunner of the invention was Wei Boyang in the 2nd century BC.

Chinese technology in metallurgy

In (403-221 BC) the Chinese had the most advanced technology in metallurgy blast furnaces and cupolas, while the bloomery and blacksmith-pudling process were known during the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD). The emergence of a complex economic system in China gave rise to the invention of paper money during the Song Dynasty (960-1279). The invention of gunpowder gave rise to a number of unique inventions such as the burning spear, land mines, sea mines, squeakers, exploding cannonballs, multi-stage rockets, and rockets with aerodynamic wings. Using a navigational compass and using the one known from the 1st century. a helm with a sternpost, Chinese sailors achieved great success in steering a ship on the high seas, and in the 11th century. they sailed to East Africa and Egypt. As for the water clock, the Chinese have used the escapement mechanism since the 8th century, and the chain drive since the 11th century. They also created large mechanical puppet theaters powered by a water wheel, a spoked wheel, and a vending machine driven by a spoked wheel.

The simultaneously existing Peiligang and Pengtoushan cultures are the oldest Neolithic cultures of China, they originated around 7000 BC. Neolithic inventions of prehistoric China include sickle-shaped and rectangular stone knives, stone hoes and shovels, millet, rice and soybean cultivation, sericulture, construction of zembit structures, houses plastered with lime, potter's wheel making, pottery making with cord and basket designs, the creation of a ceramic vessel on three legs (tripod), the creation of a ceramic steamer, and the creation of ceremonial vessels for divination. Francesca Bray argues that the domestication of bulls and buffaloes in the Longshan culture period (3000-2000 BC), the lack of irrigation and high-yielding crops in the Longshan era, the fully proven cultivation of drought-resistant crops that give high yields "only when the soil carefully crafted." This explains the high agricultural yields that led to the growth of Chinese civilization during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1050 BC). Together with the subsequent invention of the seed drill and the steel moldboard plow, Chinese agricultural production could feed a much larger population.

Seismoscope - an invention of ancient China

In the late Han era, the imperial astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139) invented the world's first seismoscope, which noted weak earthquakes at large distances. This device has not survived to this day. Its design can be judged from the incomplete description in Hou Han shu (History of the Second Han). Although some details of this device are still not known, the general principle is quite clear.

seismoscope was cast in bronze and looked like a wine vessel with a domed lid. Its diameter was 8 chi (1.9 m). Along the circumference of this vessel were placed the figures of eight dragons or only the heads of dragons, oriented in eight directions of space: four cardinal points and intermediate directions. Dragon heads had movable lower jaws. In the mouth of each dragon was a bronze ball. Next to the vessel under the heads of the dragons were placed eight bronze toads with wide open mouths. The inside of the vessel probably contained an inverted pendulum, of the kind found in modern seismographs. This pendulum was connected by a system of levers to the movable lower jaws of the dragon's heads. During an earthquake, the pendulum began to move, the mouth of the dragon, located on the side of the epicenter of the earthquake, opened, the ball fell into the mouth of the toad, producing a loud noise that served as a signal to the observer. As soon as one ball fell out, a mechanism worked inside to prevent other balls from falling out during subsequent shocks.

According to the chronicles, the device acted quite accurately. Zhang Heng's seismoscope was sensitive even to register small shocks passing at a distance of hundreds of li (0.5 km.). The effectiveness of this device was demonstrated shortly after its manufacture. When the ball first fell out of the dragon's mouth, no one at court believed that this meant an earthquake, since the tremors were not felt at that moment. But a few days later, a messenger arrived with news of an earthquake in the city of Longxi, which was located northwest of the capital at a distance of more than 600 km. Since then it has been the duty of the officials of the astronomical department to record the directions of origin of earthquakes. Later, similar instruments were repeatedly built in China. After 3 centuries, the mathematician Xintu Fang described a similar instrument and, possibly, made it. Ling Xiaogong made a seismoscope between 581 and 604. By the time of the Mongol rule in the XIII century. the principles of making a seismoscope were forgotten. The first seismograph appeared in Europe in 1703.

Chinese tea

In China tea has been known since ancient times. In sources dating back to the 1st millennium BC. there are references to a healing infusion obtained from the leaves of the tea bush. The first book about tea, "Classic Tea", written by the poet Lu Yu, who lived during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), tells about the various methods of growing and preparing tea, about the art of drinking tea. Tea became a common drink in China already in the 6th century BC.

There are many legends about the origin of tea. One of them tells about a holy hermit who moved away from the world, settling on a hillside in a secluded hut. And then one day, as he sat, immersed in thought, he began to be overcome by sleep. No matter how he struggled, he became more and more sleepy, and his eyelids began to close against his will. Then, so that sleep would not interrupt his thoughts, the hermit took a sharp knife, cut off his eyelids and threw them aside so that his eyes could not close. From these centuries the tea bush grew.

According to another legend, Emperor Shen Non was the first to accidentally taste tea. Leaves from a nearby wild camellia fell into the boiling water. The aroma that emanated from the drink was so seductive that the emperor could not resist and took a sip. He was so impressed with the taste that he made tea the national drink.

Today in China, tea is grown mainly in the provinces of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Fujian and Guangdong. The lower slopes of the hills are best suited for growing the tea bush. The seeds of the tea bush are first sown in special "nurseries", from where, after a year, the sprouts are transplanted to the plantation. From a three-year-old bush, you can already start collecting leaves. During the summer season, as a rule, 4 collections are held: the first - in April (white tea is obtained from the leaves of this collection), the second - in May, the third - in July and the fourth - in August. Each successive harvest yields a coarser leaf with less flavor. The best tea is obtained in the first two harvests. Only a young green tea shoot is collected, at the end of which there are no more than 2-3 leaves and a bud. The kidney can be either just started or half-blown. Fully blooming flowers for tea have no value, because. do not transfer their flavor to the brew. The top of a tea shoot (2-3 leaves and a bud) is called a flush. The best tea is obtained when the picker picks a flush with 1-2 upper leaves and a half-blown bud. In addition, the best tea flushes are harvested from the top shoots, not the side shoots, where they are coarser. As a general rule, tea made from the top three leaves (including the bud) is labeled as "Golden Tea" on the packs, while tea made from the top three leaves without buds is labeled as "Silver Tea". Often on elite teas there are also indications - “first sheet”, “second sheet”, “third sheet”. This indicates that this varietal blend of tea is dominated by hand-picked top leaves.

Initially, Chinese teas were only green. Black tea appeared much later, but here the Chinese were the pioneers. And as new fermentation technologies developed, white, blue-green, yellow, and red teas arose.

The most popular varieties of tea are green tea (lu cha) and black tea (hon cha). Although they are prepared from the leaf of the same shrub, they differ in color, taste, etc. This difference appears due to the processing methods. To obtain green tea, castings are poured onto mats for two to three hours to fall through. After that, they are placed for five minutes in round iron pans, slightly heated from below by fire, and constantly stirred and turned over. Under the influence of heat, the leaves burst, become moist and soft from the juice. After that, they are placed on bamboo tables and rolled out by hand. At the same time, part of the juice is squeezed out and flows out through the cracks of the table, while the leaves themselves curl up. Then they are again laid out on mats and kept for some time in the shade in the open air. Next comes the roasting process. The leaves are again placed in the pans and subjected to heat, stirring constantly. From this, they gradually dry out, shrink, curl up. After about an hour, the roasting is over, and after sifting through a whole series of sieves and sorting, the tea is ready.

To get the same black tea the first drying in the air lasts from twelve to twenty hours. During this time, a slight fermentation occurs in the leaves. Roll the leaves on the tables more vigorously, so as to squeeze out as much juice as possible. Then they are laid out in the open air for two or three days for further fermentation. The main difference in the preparation of green and black tea lies precisely in this process. Heating in pans and rolling is repeated until all the juice is squeezed out. The final toasting stops fermentation. The tea is then sieved and sorted. There is a huge variety (more than 600) of different varieties of Chinese tea, special rituals and methods of brewing tea, tea drinking ceremonies. These traditions have not been lost in China to this day.

China is the birthplace of silk

For a long time, for the West, China was primarily the homeland silks. Even the Greek name for China - Seres, from which the names of China in most European languages \u200b\u200bderived, goes back to the Chinese word Si - silk. Weaving and embroidery have always been considered an exclusively female occupation in China; absolutely all girls, even from the highest class, were taught this craft. The secret of silk production has been known to the Chinese since ancient times. According to legend, to breed silkworms, process silk and Chinese women were taught to weave from silk threads by Xi Ling, the wife of the first emperor Huang Di, who reigned, according to legend, more than 2.5 thousand BC. As the patroness of sericulture, a separate temple was dedicated to her. Every spring, the elder wife of the emperor collected mulberry leaves and sacrificed them. Silk fabric is made from threads obtained from the cocoons of silkworms. Their breeding requires a lot of attention and painstaking work. Great care must be taken, as even noise, draft or smoke can harm them, and the temperature and humidity in the room must be carefully regulated. And you can feed the worms only with the leaves of the mulberry tree, and they are completely clean, exceptionally fresh and dry. Worms are very fragile creatures, prone to various diseases: an entire colony can die in just one day with insufficient care. In early April, small caterpillars hatch from the testicles, and in 40 days they reach adulthood and can already twist cocoons. An adult caterpillar, as a rule, is flesh-colored, 7-8 cm long and as thick as a little finger. These caterpillars weave cocoons on specially prepared bundles of straw. The process lasts 3-4 days, and the length of the thread of one cocoon is from 350 to 1000 meters. Silk is obtained from the cocoon by the so-called unwinding. The cocoon consists of a silk thread and glue that holds this thread together. To soften it, the cocoon is thrown into hot water. Since the thread of one cocoon is too thin, as a rule, the threads of 4-18 cocoons are taken and, having connected, they are passed through an agate ring and attached to a reel, which slowly rotates, and the threads, passing through the ring, are glued into one. Thus, raw silk is obtained. It is so light that for 1 kg of finished fabric there are from 300 to 900 kilometers of thread.

Primarily sericulture practiced in South and Central China. Natural silk can be white or yellow. The first is produced mainly in the provinces of Guangdong, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shandong and Hubei. This variety is given by the caterpillars of the “domestic silkworm”, which is fed only with garden mulberry leaves. Natural yellow silk is produced in the provinces of Sichuan, Hubei and Shandong. To get the yellow color of the caterpillars, the first half of their life is fed with the leaves of the Zhe trees (it looks like mulberry and grows in the mountains), and only in the other half of their life they are given the leaves of the garden mulberry. There is another kind of silk - wild silk, it is given by the caterpillar of the "wild silkworm", which feeds on the leaves of different species of oak. This silk is brown in color and difficult to dye.

Weaving art of China

The Chinese tradition of artistic weaving and dyeing has a rather long history. Samples of weaving art dating back to the second half of the 1st millennium BC have survived to this day almost unchanged. These are the most different types of silk, from thin gauze to brocade. Many of them are embroidered with ornaments in the form of mythical animals and various geometric figures. The heyday of Chinese weaving falls on the era of the Tang Dynasty. Sources of that time mention 50 varieties of ornament on silk: “dragons frolicking among flowers”, “lotus and reeds”, “water herbs with fish”, “peonies”, “dragon and phoenix”, “palaces and pavilions”, “pearls with grains of rice”, etc. Many of these motifs already existed in the Han era and have survived to this day. In the Song era, beautiful woven images on silk appeared, made in the style of "engraved silk" (ke si). Silk paintings are an integral part of China's cultural heritage. They often reproduced calligraphic inscriptions and landscapes of famous artists. In his books on fine household items, Wen Zhenheng states that "an exalted husband cannot help but keep one or two such canvases among other paintings in his house." The quality of Chinese woven products, which typically used gold and silver threads, is unparalleled in the world. Suffice it to say that the frequency of threads in the works of Chinese masters is 3 times higher than in the best French tapestries, and the gold embroidery in them has not faded even after the 6th-7th centuries.

Chinese porcelain

Chinese porcelain is known all over the world and highly valued for its extraordinary quality and beauty, the very word "porcelain" in Persian means "king". Europe in the thirteenth century. it was considered a great treasure; in the treasuries of the most influential persons, samples of Chinese ceramic art were kept, set by jewelers in a gold frame. Many myths are associated with it, for example, in India and Iran it was believed that Chinese porcelain has magical properties and changes color if poison is mixed into food.

ceramic art traditionally well developed in China, ceramics of the Shang time (2 thousand BC) is not only of historical, but also of artistic value. Later, products from proto-porcelain appeared, which the Western classification refers to the so-called stone masses, since it does not have transparency and whiteness. The Chinese, on the contrary, appreciate in porcelain, first of all, its sonority and strength, therefore they consider proto-porcelain to be true porcelain. Among the beautiful ceramics of the Tang period, there are the first examples of "real" white matte porcelain. At the beginning of the 7th century Chinese ceramists learned how to make porcelain masses mixed from feldspar, silicon and kaolin - the most important element of porcelain mass, which got its name from Mount Gaoling, where it was first mined. Firing the porcelain mass at a high temperature made it possible to obtain hard, white, translucent ceramics. Tang porcelain ceramics continued in their massive and rounded forms the traditions of ancient potters, but the necks in the form of bird heads and serpentine handles, imitating the forms of Iranian vessels, speak of a noticeable foreign influence. Then there was a desire for the uniformity of the surface of the vessel, which was subsequently developed by the Sung ceramists.

heyday ceramic production in China during the Song Dynasty. The increased demand for porcelain products spawned a huge number of new kilns and led to imperial patronage of production. From the 5th - 6th centuries in the north and south of China, there were special departments that oversaw the production of high-quality ceramics. Sung porcelain is characterized by simplicity and elegance of forms, smooth monochrome glazes and restraint of ornaments. The thinnest milky-white ceramics with delicate carved or stamped patterns were called “din” ceramics, sometimes iron oxides were added to the glaze and then black, brown, green, purple or red vessels were obtained. Much later, during the Qing Dynasty, the popularity of single-colour vessels led to an almost infinite number of glaze colors.

Production of polychrome painted porcelain began during the Yuan Dynasty, when they began to make the famous blue underglaze painting on a white background. During the Ming Dynasty, this technique improved and began to be combined with five-color overglaze paintings (wucai). The development of the technique of colored enamels led to the emergence of three "families" of Chinese porcelain. "Green Family" - these are products painted on a white background in several shades of green. Usually, battle scenes or simply figures and flowers were depicted on the vessels of this family. Products with color painting on a deep black background were called the “black family”. Porcelain painted in soft pink tones with iridescent shades on the theme of "women and flowers" was named "pink family".

In the era of the Ming Dynasty, porcelain became in some way a strategic commodity and was supplied in huge quantities to the countries of Europe and Asia, through Arab traders even got to South Africa. The huge scale of porcelain exports in the Ming and subsequent years is evidenced by the fact that in 1723, 350 thousand porcelain products were sold to the French city of Lorian alone. And for many Europeans to this day, the term "Minsk vase" means all Chinese pottery.

Suspension bridges - an invention of ancient China

Since ancient times, the Chinese have paid great attention to the construction of bridges. Initially, they were built only from wood and bamboo. The first stone bridges in China date back to the Shang-Yin era. They were built from blocks laid on overpasses, the distance between which did not exceed 6 m. This method of construction was also used in subsequent times, having undergone significant development. So, for example, during the Song Dynasty, unique giant bridges with large spans were built, the size of which reached 21 m. Stone blocks up to 200 tons in weight were used.

suspension bridges were invented in China, and the links of their chains were made of forged steel instead of woven bamboo. Cast iron was called "raw iron", steel was called "great iron", and malleable steel was called "ripened iron". The Chinese were well aware that during the "maturation" iron loses some important component, and they described this process as "the loss of life-giving juices." However, not knowing the chemistry, they could not determine that it was carbon.

In the III century. BC. suspension bridges have gained popularity. They were built mainly in the southwest, where there are many gorges. The most famous Chinese suspension bridge is the Anlan Bridge in Guanxiang. It is believed that it was built in the III century. BC. engineer Li Bing. The bridge has a total length of 320 m, a width of about 3 m and is composed of eight spans.

Other inventions of China

Archaeological finds of escapement mechanisms suggest that crossbow weapon appeared in China around the 5th century. BC. The found archaeological materials are made of bronze devices of a certain weapon throwing arrows. In the famous dictionary "Shi Ming" (Interpretation of names), created by Lu Xi during the Han dynasty in the 2nd century. BC, it is mentioned that the term "ji" is used in relation to this type of weapon resembling a crossbow.

Throughout the long history of horsemanship, people have done without footholds. Ancient peoples - Persians, Medes. Romans, Assyrians, Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks - stirrups were not known. Approximately in the III century. the Chinese managed to find a way out, By that time they were already quite skillful metallurgists and began to pour stirrups bronze and iron. This invention was brought to the West by the warriors of the Zhuan-Zhuan tribe, which became known as the Avars. The success of their cavalry is due to the fact that it was equipped with cast iron stirrups. Approximately in the middle of the VI century. the Avars settled between the Danube and the Tisza. In 580, Emperor Mark Tiberius issued the military charter "Strategikon", which outlined the basics of cavalry equipment. It also emphasized the need to use iron stirrups. This was the first mention of them in European literature.

Decimal system Calculus, fundamental to all modern science, first arose in China. You can find evidence confirming its use, starting from the XIV century. BC, during the reign of the Shang dynasty. An example of the use of the decimal system in ancient China is an inscription dated to the 13th century. BC, in which 547 days are indicated as "five hundred plus four tens plus seven days." Since ancient times, the positional number system was understood literally: the Chinese really put counting sticks in the boxes allotted to them.

Ancient China made an invaluable contribution to the development of science and technology. All the richness of their culture is amazing, and it is impossible to overestimate its significance for world culture. Many discoveries made by Europeans were much later, and technologies, long kept secret, allowed China to flourish and develop for many centuries independently of other countries. It is obvious that this heritage gives the Chinese the strength to actively develop even now, because the country's culture, its history is something that no one can take away, it is something that instills pride and confidence in every decent citizen.

Student: Tuikov A.S.
Head: Zapariy V.V.

The Chinese invented original technologies in the field of mechanics, hydraulics, mathematics, applied to the measurement of time, metallurgy, astronomy, agriculture, mechanical design, music theory, art, navigation and warfare.

Ancient China;
paper;
compass;
powder;
typography;
typesetting fonts;
binding technique;
fireworks;
seismoscope;
silk;
porcelain.

http://ru.admissions.cn/Culture/2009-8/view10172.html
http://www.epochtimes.ru/content/view/37664/4/
http://ru.wikipedia.org/
http://www.abc-people.com/typework/art/antich1-txt.htm
http://kitaia.ru/kultura-kitaya/neprehodyashchie-cennosti/
http://intway-holiday.com/page2b.htm

One of the most ancient civilizations, which gave the world many unique inventions, was Ancient China. Having experienced periods of prosperity and decline, this state left a rich legacy - scientific ideas and inventions that are successfully used to this day. Gunpowder belongs to such inventions of the ancient world.

How gunpowder was invented

One of the most important inventions of ancient China was gunpowder. This is an explosive mixture consisting of small particles of sulfur, coal and saltpeter, which, when heated, forms the effect of a small explosion.

The main component of gunpowder is saltpeter, which was quite abundant in ancient China. In regions with alkaline soils, it was found in its pure form and outwardly resembled snow flakes.

In ancient times, the Chinese often used saltpeter in cooking instead of salt, it was used as a medicinal drug and a popular ingredient in alchemists' bold experiments.

Rice. 1. Saltpeter in nature.

The first who invented the recipe for gunpowder was the Chinese alchemist Sun Si-miao, who lived in the 7th century. Having prepared a mixture of saltpeter, locust wood and sulfur, and heated it, he witnessed a bright flash of flame. This sample of gunpowder did not yet have a well-pronounced explosive effect. Subsequently, the composition was improved by other scientists, and soon the most optimal version of it was derived: sulfur, coal and potassium nitrate.

The use of gunpowder in ancient China

Gunpowder has found the widest application both in military affairs and in everyday life.

Ancient Chinese Invention No. 1 - Paper

Paper is considered to be the first great invention of ancient China. According to the Chinese chronicles of the Eastern Han Dynasty, invented paper the court eunuch of the Han Dynasty - Cai Lun in 105 AD.

In ancient times in China, before the advent of writing paper, bamboo strips rolled into scrolls, silk scrolls, wooden and clay tablets, etc. were used. The most ancient Chinese texts or “jiaguwen” have been found on tortoise shells that date back to the 2nd millennium BC. e. (Shan Dynasty).

In the 3rd century, paper was already widely used for writing instead of more expensive traditional materials. The paper production technology developed by Cai Lun consisted of the following: a boiling mixture of hemp, mulberry bark, old fishing nets and fabrics turned into pulp, after which it was ground to a homogeneous paste and mixed with water. A sieve in a wooden reed frame was immersed in the mixture, the mass was scooped out with a sieve and shaken to make the liquid glass. In this case, a thin and even layer of fibrous mass was formed in the sieve.

Ancient Chinese Invention #2 - Printing

The advent of paper, in turn, led to the advent of printing. The oldest known example of woodblock printing is a Sanskrit sutra printed on hemp paper between approximately 650 and 670 CE. However, the Diamond Sutra, made during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), is believed to be the first standard size printed book. It consists of 5.18 m long scrolls. According to Joseph Needham, a researcher of Chinese traditional culture, the printing methods used in the calligraphy of the Diamond Sutra are far superior in perfection and sophistication to the miniature sutra printed earlier.

Typesetting: The Chinese statesman and scholar Shen Kuo (1031-1095) first outlined the method of printing using typesetting in his work Notes on the Dream Stream in 1088, attributing the innovation to an unknown master, Bi Sheng. Shen Kuo described the technological process for the production of fired clay letters, the process of printing and the manufacture of typefaces.

Binding Technique: The advent of printing in the ninth century significantly changed the technique of weaving. Towards the end of the Tang era, the book of rolled paper turned into a stack of sheets, reminiscent of a modern brochure. Subsequently, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the sheets began to be folded in the center, making a “butterfly” type of dressing, which is why the book has already acquired a modern look. The Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) introduced the stiff paper spine, and later, during the Ming Dynasty, sheets were stitched with thread.

Printing in China has made a great contribution to the preservation of a rich culture that has been formed over the centuries.

Ancient Chinese Invention #3 - Gunpowder

Gunpowder is believed to have been developed in China in the 10th century. At first, it was used as a filling in incendiary shells, and later explosive powder shells were invented. Gunpowder barrel weapons, according to Chinese chronicles, were first used in battles in 1132. It was a long bamboo tube where gunpowder was placed and then set on fire. This "flamethrower" inflicted severe burns on the enemy.

A century later, in 1259, a bullet-shooting gun was invented for the first time - a thick bamboo tube into which a charge of gunpowder and a bullet was placed.

Later, at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, metal cannons loaded with stone cannonballs spread in the Celestial Empire.

However, perhaps the most "bright" invention that appeared due to the creation of gunpowder are fireworks. In the Celestial Empire, they had a special meaning. According to ancient beliefs, evil spirits are very afraid of bright light and loud sound. Therefore, since ancient times, on the Chinese New Year, there was a tradition in the yards to burn bonfires from bamboo, which hissed in the fire and burst with a crash. And the invention of powder charges, of course, frightened the "evil spirits" in earnest - after all, in terms of the power of sound and light, they significantly exceeded the old method. Later, Chinese craftsmen began to create colorful fireworks by adding various substances to gunpowder.

Today, fireworks have become an indispensable attribute of the celebration of the New Year in almost all countries of the world.

Ancient Chinese Invention #4 - Compass

The description of a magnetic compass for determining the cardinal points was first described in the Chinese manuscript "Wujing Zongyao" in 1044. The compass worked on the principle of residual magnetization from heated steel or iron ingots, which were cast in the shape of a fish. The latter were placed in a bowl of water, and as a result of induction and residual magnetization, weak magnetic forces appeared. The manuscript mentions that this device was used as a course indicator paired with a mechanical "chariot that points south."

Note:

In addition to the four great inventions of ancient China, the craftsmen of the Celestial Empire gave our civilization the following usefulness: Chinese horoscope, drum, bell, crossbow, erhu violin, gong, wushu martial arts, qigong health gymnastics, fork, noodles, double boiler, chopsticks, tea , tofu soy cheese, silk, paper money, varnish, a bristle toothbrush, toilet paper, a kite, a gas bottle, a Go board game, playing cards, porcelain and much more.

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