How did the Mongol domination end?

With the death of Kublai Khan in 1294, the decline of Mongol rule begins. The imperial authorities failed to subjugate the northern nomadic tribes. The strife began. Riots broke out, the Mongol officials were enriched, while the Chinese peasants became more and more impoverished.

One of the rebels was Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398), who experienced all the hardships of peasant life during the years of Mongol rule. During the great famine, he took refuge in a Buddhist monastery. At the age of 23, he joined the rebels and, leading them, won victories one after another. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered Dadu, present-day Beijing, expelled the Mongols, and established the Ming Dynasty in Nanjing. In the following decades, he systematically strengthened and expanded his power and adopted the imperial name Taizu. He proceeds to restore the country, frees the peasants from taxes and transfers land allotments to them. With the establishment of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), China freed itself from foreign domination.

The Ming Dynasty's glorious period begins with its third Yongle Emperor, who reigned from 1402 to 1424. He moved the capital from Nanjing back to Beijing and set about building an imperial city, which has partially survived to this day.

Who built the "forbidden city"?

The Imperial City is the longest residence on earth. It was surrounded by a 7-kilometer wall, and its area was 720,000 square meters. m. The city consisted of numerous palaces, temples, houses, gardens and lakes. All buildings were covered with yellow roofs (yellow is the color of the emperor). Inside the imperial city there was a "forbidden city" - a palace ensemble, where the uninitiated were forbidden to enter under pain of death.

Yongle himself lived in a luxurious palace for only 4 years.

Before the Ming Dynasty came to power, China was politically fragmented. During the three centuries of Ming rule, the unity of the empire was managed to be maintained. To protect against the Mongols, they fortified the Great Wall. They improved the canal network, but above all they revived the traditions of the Chinese dynasties. However, the desire to rely on the country's historical past has increasingly isolated China from the rest of the world, inevitably dooming it to cultural stagnation.

The Ming era was also the era of great navigators. China has not only expanded its borders on land, but has also become a major maritime power. The Portuguese and Spanish navigators had yet to make great discoveries, while the Chinese already possessed excellent shipbuilding techniques.

Who turned China into a maritime power?

At the Ming court, eunuchs were the emperor's advisers and servants. They exercised widespread control, subordinating even the secret police. By the end of the Ming Dynasty, there were supposedly 70,000 eunuchs in the imperial court.

One of them was the Muslim Zheng He. He was originally from Annan, his real name is Ma, in 1404 he changed it to Chinese. He made a career serving in the female quarters of the Yongle Emperor, then as a military leader. However, he became famous for seven sea expeditions, which he visited from 1405 to 1433. He sailed to Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and to the east coast of Africa.

Zheng He's fleet consisted of several hundred huge junks. Supplying more than 20,000 sailors and covering such gigantic distances is in itself an amazing achievement. In addition to the sailors, countless detachments of translators, doctors and officials served on the ships.

More than 300 ships took part in the first voyage. The first three expeditions were sent to India. The next target was Hormuz in the Persian Gulf and the East African coast. Thanks to Zheng He's expeditions, China's trade ties with many countries were strengthened. Unlike European navigators, who, several centuries after the Chinese, made expeditions to the Far East, Zheng He did not build bases, the countries were subjected to tribute only in connection with an opportunity.

The reign of the Ming Dynasty dates from 1368-1644.

Until the accession of the dynasty, the power of the Mongol conquerors (the Mongol Yuan dynasty, which reigned at the end of the 13th century) remained in China. Mongol domination fell as a result of a broad popular movement led by Zhu Yuan-chang.

Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant, later a wandering monk, then a soldier, and finally a rebel leader, was declared emperor of the new empire and became the founder of the Ming dynasty. In a short time, the Minsk troops expelled the Mongols from the country and completed the unification of the country.

However, despite the victory of the rebel forces, the foreign policy danger continued to persist. The final expulsion of the Mongol feudal lords and local rulers loyal to them from the outlying provinces continued for almost 20 years after the founding of the Ming dynasty. In addition, the forces of the Mongol khans outside of China had not yet been broken, and there was a threat of a new invasion. In addition, on the way to victory and power, Zhu Yuanzhang had to overcome the resistance of not only the Mongol conquerors, but also other rival rebel groups, among which there were many powerful and influential feudal lords. Therefore, after accession to the throne, the new emperor was forced to take certain steps to stabilize the situation in the country.

Zhu Yuan-chang pursued a policy of strengthening the army and military power, as well as improving the economic life of the country. The main direction of his policy was to strengthen the imperial power, for which purpose a system of destinies was created, headed by the sons of the emperor. According to the plan of Zhu Yuanzhang, the introduction of the appanage system was supposed to ensure the strengthening of the central authority along several lines at once. First, it raised the primacy of the entire royal house. Secondly, the appearance in areas remote from the center of persons directly connected with the emperor and possessing considerable political influence (albeit without clear rights) served as a counterbalance to the local authorities. The duality of government in the provinces was artificially created, which, if necessary, could be used by the center in its own interests. Thirdly, the location of many destinies in the outlying territories also assumed their defensive purpose in case of external danger.

However, in reality, the calculations of Emperor Zhu Yuan-zhang did not materialize. Over time, the vans (rulers of destinies) began to strive for more and more local power, for less dependence on the center, and then for separatism. In doing so, they hindered centralization rather than ensured it. At the same time, the despotic methods of the emperor's rule gave rise to mass discontent and powerful unrest, which resulted in peasant wars. And often the leaders of these movements found support from local rulers.

In 1398, after the death of Zhu Yuan-zhang, his grandson Zhu Yun-wen ascended the throne. The main direction of his activity was attempts to abolish the destinies that had become dangerous. This policy has led to conflict between the central government and the local authorities. At the head of the rebellious forces stood one of the vans, the son of Zhu Yuan-zhang, Zhu Di. The confrontation between the emperor and the destinies resulted in the "Jingnan" war (1399-1402), which ended in the victory of Zhu Di. He became the third emperor of the Ming dynasty, deposing his nephew Zhu Yun-wen from the throne.

After ascending the throne, Zhu Di found himself in opposition to the forces that he had recently led. Not wanting to put up with the growing separatism of the appanage rulers, the government of Zhu Di (1402-1424) took a number of steps to curb their strength: they gradually took away their troops, and partially their subordinate officials, individual rulers were deprived of appanages; the confrontation between the local authorities and the center continued. It culminated in the rebellion of the specific ruler Han-wang, after the suppression of which the government finally abandoned the idea of ​​seeking support in the person of the specific rulers. Instead, Zhu Di took the path of duplicating the administrative apparatus and moving the military and economic center to the north of the country, moving his capital from Nanjing to Beijing.

At the same time, Zhu Di, unlike his predecessors, significantly limited the influence of the titled nobility, which consisted of the emperor's relatives and the so-called honored dignitaries who received titles from the emperor. Honored dignitaries could be both representatives of ancient aristocratic families, and nominees of new emperors - Zhu Yuan-zhang and Zhu Di himself. The emperor retained her former privileges for the titled nobility, but mercilessly punished for any sins and violations of the established law.

By the method of threats, encouragement and checks, Zhu Di tried to achieve the ideal work of the bureaucratic apparatus. The bureaucracy in this period was one of the essential strata of the ruling class. The bureaucracy was formed mainly from representatives of wealthy families. It was also an integral part of the state machine. Zhu Di recognized the role that the bureaucracy traditionally played in the life of the country and even exalted its importance - opposing the titled nobility and giving them wider powers than any of his predecessors. However, at the same time, he tried to establish tighter control over it, subordinating the bureaucracy to the needs of the central government.

In addition to strengthening the bureaucratic apparatus, the emperor pursued a policy of strengthening military power. Having taken the throne as a result of a military victory, Zhu Di could not underestimate the importance of a regular army. However, the desire of the emperor to reward his military associates by granting former commanders of lands and estates led to the erosion of the officer corps. At the same time, in an effort to increase the size of the army, the emperor allowed the recruitment of people who had committed a crime or were being prosecuted by law. Thus, the activities of the emperor led to the weakening, and then the disintegration of the army.

On the other hand, the administrative and economic policy of the imperial government and the achievement of a certain balance in relations with the specific rulers, in general, the successful suppression of the indignation of the masses, further internal colonization and the pursuit of an active foreign policy - all this strengthened the position of Zhu Di on the throne. During his reign, the domestic political situation in the country noticeably stabilized.

In general, during the first century of its existence, the Ming dynasty pursued a successful policy, both internal and external, although various incidents occurred. So, in 1449, one of the Mongol khans, the leader of the Oirat tribe Esen, managed to make a successful expedition deep into China up to the walls of Beijing. But that was just an episode; practically nothing threatened the capital of Ming China, as well as the empire as a whole.

The Ming emperors after Zhu Di, with rare exceptions, were mostly weak rulers. Affairs at their courts were usually run by temporary workers from among the relatives of the empresses or eunuchs.

In 1368, the Yuan dynasty in China was succeeded by the Ming dynasty, whose sixteen emperors ruled the Celestial Empire for the next 276 years. The Ming Empire gained power as a result of a popular uprising and was overthrown by Li Zicheng's army and the Manchus in 1644 during the Peasants' War. Today we will get acquainted with the history of the Ming dynasty: its emperors, as well as the prerequisites for the foundation and fall.

Zhu Yuanzhang

The founder of the Ming Dynasty, under whose leadership the Yuan Dynasty was overthrown, was called Zhu Yuanzhan. He came from a poor peasant family who made a living by washing the golden sand and farming. Zhu Yuanzhang was forty years old when the Mongol Yuan dynasty fell as a result of the Red Turban Rebellion. Having overthrown the former power, he became emperor and called the throne name Tai Zu. The new emperor made the city of Nanjing the capital of China, along the perimeter of which he ordered the construction of a thirty-mile wall.

The thirty-year reign of the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty in China was remembered for the most severe repression: any offense, even the most insignificant, was punishable by death. Not forgetting his origin, Tai Zu did his best to protect the peasants, and he severely punished the officials who, using their position, oppressed the common people, starting with branding and ending with hard labor and execution.

Despite the cruel manner of the emperor's rule, it was quite calm inside the state, and the economy was developing rapidly. The Ming Dynasty strengthened its position in Manchuria, liberated the provinces of Sichut and Yuan from the Mongols, and even burned Karakorum. There were also serious problems, one of them was the raids of pirates from Japan.

Zhu Di

In 1398, the first emperor and founder of the Ming Dynasty died. Power passed into the hands of the rightful heir to the throne, the gentle and educated Jian Wen. In 1402, he fell at the hands of the arrogant and power-hungry prince Zhu Di, the middle son of the first emperor Ming. The following year, the prince proclaimed himself the new emperor and ordered scholars to rewrite Chinese history to prove his legitimacy. Despite the usurpation of the throne and the harsh manner of government, especially in the initial stages, historians consider Zhu Di to be a magnificent ruler.

To calm the protest mood of the population and avoid riots, the emperor encouraged Buddhist holidays and rituals, adhered to Confucian norms and revised the administrative structure of the empire. He paid special attention to the fight against corruption and secret societies. Thanks to the restoration of the examination system, a new generation of officials and officers entered the government.

In addition, Zhu Di worked to restore the economy. With his filing, the lands of the Yangtze Delta were developed, the production of textiles and products was increased, the riverbeds were cleared, the Great Chinese Canal was rebuilt and expanded.

In terms of foreign policy, the emperor's reign was more successful at sea than on land. At the shipyards of the city of Nanjing, huge ocean-going ships were built - nine-masted junks, the length of which was 133 and a width of 20 meters. The Chinese fleet included about three hundred such ships. Under the leadership of Admiral Zheng He (one of the court eunuchs), the fleet made trips to Ceylon, India, Southeast Asia and even the Persian Gulf. As a result of these campaigns, many foreign rulers were captured, for whom the Minsk state received a considerable tribute. Through sea expeditions, the Ming Dynasty greatly expanded its influence. It is worth noting that they are considered the greatest marine explorations in the history of mankind, ahead of the era of European geographical discoveries by several decades.

It was during the reign of Zhu Di that the capital of the state was moved to Beijing, where the construction of the Forbidden City began, which was fully completed only in 1420. By the will of fate, the emperor did not enjoy the new palace for long: in 1424, returning from a campaign against Mongolia, he died.

Xuan Zong

After Zhu Di's death, the throne passed to his eldest son, who died less than a year later due to a heart attack. Then the power fell into the hands of Zhu Di's grandson, whose name was Xuan Zong. Peace and tranquility returned to the country, as well as to the border of the state. Diplomatic relations with Korea and Japan gradually improved. When Emperor Xuan Zong died in 1435, Chinese historians called him the model of a Confucian monarch, inclined towards benevolent rule and versed in the arts.

Ying Zong

After the death of Xuan Zong, the throne passed to one of his sons, 6-year-old Ying Zong. Since the new emperor was very young, the power was in the regency council, which included three eunuchs. Chief among them was Wang Jin. The situation in the state began to deteriorate: floods, droughts, epidemics and the hardest work that again fell upon the peasants ... Ordinary people, forced to participate in exhausting large-scale construction, rebelled against the authorities. Several of these uprisings were extremely difficult to suppress.

At the same time, Mongolian troops began to approach from the northern side of the state. Under the leadership of Wang Jin, who did not understand anything in military affairs, the emperor gathered a 500,000-strong army and moved towards the enemy. The Mongols completely defeated the Chinese army and took the 22-year-old emperor prisoner. This military defeat was one of the greatest in Chinese history.

When Ying Zong was captured, the throne passed to his half-brother, who took the name Jing Zong. He managed to repel the attack of the Mongols, defend Beijing, reform the army and carry out large-scale work to restore the state. Somewhat later, Ying Zong was released from captivity, and as a result of a palace coup, he again became the emperor of China. Soon his half-brother died - according to some sources, he was strangled by one of the court eunuchs.

Xian Zong

When Ying Zong died, the throne went to his son Xian Zong (Zhu Jiangshen). During his reign, the Great Wall of China was reconstructed and completely completed. According to some estimates of historians, the construction of this greatest fortification cost the lives of 8 million people. Another notable event during the reign of Xian Zong was the 10-year war between China and Mongolia, as a result of which the situation with raids was stabilized.

In addition to the official childless wife, the emperor had an older wife - his former nanny named Weng. Weng was twice as old as Xian Zong. When her only child died, she was ready to go to any lengths so that the emperor would not have children from other concubines. In this pursuit, Wen was even ready to commit murder. One day, she nevertheless miscalculated: as a result of an accidental relationship between Xian Zong and a girl from the Yao tribe, a boy was born, whose appearance was hidden from Weng. The emperor saw his son when he was already five years old. It was this boy who became the next emperor, taking the throne name Xiao Zong.

Xiao Zong

With the advent of a new ruler, as usual, followed by exile and execution. The emperor got rid of officials who had received their positions dishonestly, greedy eunuchs, dishonest ministers of the church and depraved favorites of the previous imperial couple.

Xiao Zong strictly professed Confucian principles: he took care of the well-being of the peasants, performed all the rituals, trusted high positions only to Confucians, and was faithful to his only wife, Lady Chan. This woman was the emperor's only weakness, which ultimately played a cruel joke on him - she caused significant damage to the treasury. The wife of the emperor was extremely wasteful and awarded titles and lands to all her relatives and friends.

The number of eunuchs at court gradually increased. As a result, there were more than 10 thousand people. This huge apparatus began to work in parallel with the civil administration, competing with it for positions and the level of influence on the emperor. The situation deteriorated rapidly, especially when Emperor Xiao Zong passed away, and his 13-year-old son named Wu Zong took his place.

Wu Zong

The new emperor did not inherit the positive qualities of his father: he not only preferred the company of eunuchs to the company of his lawful wife, but also became an inveterate alcoholic who terrified and panicked the entire state. In some sources, there is information that Wu Zong, while traveling around the country, liked to kidnap women from houses, and this was just one of his amusements. In the end, in 1522, the 21-year-old emperor died, leaving no positive memories and no heir.

Shi Zong

After another palace intrigue, the rule of the Ming dynasty went to the 15-year-old Shi Zong, the emperor's cousin. The new ruler was distinguished by a sharp temper and vindictiveness. Everyone was afraid of him, even the concubines. Once, several of them decided to kill the emperor, but the attempt was unsuccessful - Shi Zong was saved, and the girls were painfully executed.

The emperors of the Ming Dynasty differed radically in their style of government. Shi Zong was on the throne for 44 years, but there were no outstanding achievements during this long period. He preferred to lead a reclusive life without leaving the Palace of Eternal Life, located in the west of the Forbidden City. Fearing spies and dangerous contacts with representatives of other countries, the emperor pursued an isolation policy. Therefore, trade was banned in the country, which could significantly improve its economic situation. As a result, the east coast of China suffered from pirate raids from Japan and lived only on smuggling.

Gradually, Shi Zong began to move away from business and devote more and more time to divination and the search for the elixir of immortality. One of the chief Taoist advisers to the emperor prescribed him a medicine that included red lead and white arsenic. Because of these pills, the health of the emperor was greatly undermined. In 1597, being very weak, Shi Zong died in the Forbidden City.

Shen Zong

The eldest son of Emperor Long-qing became the heir to the throne, but he stayed on the throne for only five years, interfering in the government of the country in a minimal way. In 1573, the throne went to the son of Long-qing, whose name was Shen Zong. He was distinguished by a reasonable and sober approach to state activity. Nevertheless, every year the emperor's interest in politics faded, and his contradictions with the bureaucracy grew. According to historians, in the second half of his reign, Shen Zong simply began to ignore the officials who gathered in crowds near the Forbidden City and, on their knees, shouted the name of the emperor in order to attract his attention.

Around that time, it became clear that the years of the Ming Dynasty were numbered. Poorly coordinated government work was not the only problem in China at that time - the threat from the West was becoming more and more serious. In 1578, having received permission from China to purchase goods in Canton, the Portuguese began to trade in Macau. Gradually, they completely settled in the city, which attracted the attention of the Spaniards to Asia, who sent an expedition to colonize Manila, where the Chinese dominated. In 1603, a conflict broke out in the Philippines, as a result of which the Chinese were expelled from the archipelago.

In addition to the Philippine confrontation, which took the lives of 20 thousand people, internal conflicts periodically arose in the country, in particular, between the government and the unconquered Miao tribe, as well as between the Chinese and the Japanese who invaded Korean lands. However, the decisive event in the fate of the Celestial Empire was the campaign against the Jurchens - a tribal union between the Mongols and the Tungus, which arose in the 12th century and was forced out to the northeastern lands. When the Jurchens mixed with Korean migrants and representatives of some other neighboring peoples, they became known as the Manchus.

At the end of the 16th century, the 24-year-old Manchu leader Nurkhatsi united the Manchu aimags into a single empire and proclaimed himself emperor. To save his people from vassalage, he undertook a series of military campaigns against China. All of them ended well for Nurhatsi and disastrously for the Ming Empire: the economic crisis in the country worsened, which led to higher taxes and popular discontent. In addition, military failures had a bad effect on the well-being of the emperor. Shen Zong died in 1620.

After the death of the emperor, the country's situation began to deteriorate sharply. The fall of the Ming Dynasty was only a matter of time. At that time, the population of China already exceeded 150 million people. Due to inflation, congestion in cities, the gap between the rich and the poor, piracy and natural disasters, people organized uprisings. The economic crisis hit the peasants' lives especially hard: severe winters raged in northern China for several years, resulting in a severe famine, during which even cases of cannibalism were recorded. Many families had to sell their children into slavery. The youth took on any job. Part of her poured into large cities, and part went on an immoral path: the guys became robbers, and the girls became servants or prostitutes.

In addition to internal rebellions, a serious external threat loomed over China: starting in 1642, the Manchus resumed raids, eventually capturing 94 cities. The Manchus and rebels besieged the imperial court from all sides. In 1644, the rebel peasants, led by Li Zicheng, approached Beijing. The last emperor of the Ming Dynasty - Chongzhen - did not run away and hanged himself right in the palace in order, according to beliefs, to ascend to heaven on a dragon. After 20 years, the Manchus executed the Ming prince Yun-li, who had fled to Burma. Thus came the end of the Ming Dynasty.

Conclusion

Today we have considered such a significant period in Chinese history as the reign of the Ming Dynasty. Tourists coming to China are offered to get to know this period even closer: the tombs of the Ming Dynasty, the city wall park and other attractions are waiting for everyone. Well, for those who want to learn more about the spirit of the Ming Empire without leaving their homes, there are several feature films about this era. "The Founding Emperor of the Ming Dynasty" (2007), "The Daredevil of the Ming Dynasty" (2016), "The Fall of the Ming Dynasty" (2013) are the main ones.

As a result of a long struggle in the middle of the XIV century, the Mongols were expelled from China. One of the leaders of the uprising came to power - the son of a peasant Zhu Yuanzhang, who founded the Ming state. China became an independent state again. The Ming Empire subjugated part of the Jurchen tribes, the state of Nanzhao (modern provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou), part of the modern provinces of Qinghai and Sichuan.

Zhu Yuanzhang was an educated man well versed in Chinese history and philosophical traditions. He had his own ideas about the ideal social structure, which he drew from Chinese traditions. His ideas were based on the idea of ​​the need for powerful imperial power, based on a community freed from the oppression of property inequality. Having become the ruler, Zhu Yuanzhang made an unsuccessful attempt to realize these plans.

During the reign of Zhu, the allotment system was restored. The state fund was created. lands from the state lands of the Song and Yuan era and from the possessions of adherents of the Yuan dynasty and those who were repressed (and given the emperor’s tendency to see conspiracies among officials, there were up to 40 thousand repressed). In the course of these measures, lease relations were eliminated in the Yangtze basin and in the northern provinces of China, and the independent peasant landowner became the main figure in the countryside. Land and subjects were registered. Thus, the following year after the founding of the dynasty, an imperial decree was issued ordering all subjects to register when compiling new poll registers.

In 1370, the first population census was carried out, which aimed not only to take into account all subjects, but also to determine the size of the property of each court. Depending on the property status, households were subject to land tax and labor duties in such a way that their size depended on the amount of land, workers, property in a separate farm.

In 1381, changes were made to this system, which made it possible to streamline the procedure for collecting taxes and serving duties. Courtyards were united in groups of 10 units (jia), and every 10 jia were Li. These courts were bound by mutual responsibility in paying taxes and public duties. Thus, Li consisted of 110 households: 100 peasants and 10 elders.

The ruler placed special hopes on the institute of village elders. They had to be chosen from persons who had reached the age of 50 and who had an impeccable moral behavior. The elders had to report to the supreme ruler about all cases of reprehensible behavior of the elders of the licia and local officials, who, under pain of death, were forbidden to appear in the village to collect taxes. After Zhu's death, the institution of village elders gradually fell into decay, but mutual responsibility was preserved.

Information about the economic situation of individual households was collected from Li, then from the volost (Xiang) and about the quarter (Fang) and added up, they had to be wrapped in yellow paper (“yellow registers”), and information about all provinces - in blue paper (“blue registers”). registries). This information served to determine the land tax. In addition to him, every subject of the empire was obliged to bear labor service in favor of the state.

Then Zhu began to create destinies (guo). Allotments were distributed to members of the imperial clan, primarily to sons. The purpose of their creation was to strengthen the power of the emperor through control by the owners of the destinies over the official administration, that is, local officials. However, as history has shown, such an innovation did not bring anything good: his grandson, thanks to specific vans, lost his throne.

Zhu Yuanzhang also carried out military reform. Previously, the army was formed by convening a popular militia. From the middle of the 8th century, China switched to a mercenary system. Zhu Yuanzhang divided the population into "people" (ming) and "army" (jun). This meant that some part of the Chinese population was included in the permanent territorial troops, had plots assigned to them, which they cultivated.

The dominant religion in the country was recognized as a somewhat reformed Confucianism - Zhusianism, the basis of which was the doctrine of unquestioning obedience to the monarch. However, the population was also allowed to practice the Buddhist, Taoist and Muslim religions.

According to the decrees of succession to the throne, the throne was to pass to the eldest son from the eldest wife, and in the event of his death - to the grandson of the ruler. The 16-year-old grandson of the emperor, who ascended the throne after the death of Zhu Yuanzhang, was able to hold power only for 3 years, colliding with the owners of the destinies from among the sons of the late ruler. In 1402 he was deposed from the throne by his uncle Zhu Di (Chengzu, 1403-1424), whose inheritance was located in Northern China. According to some sources, the young emperor died during a fire that engulfed the palace, according to others, he cut his hair, put on a cassock and went to wander around China.

Emperor Yong Le (the reign of Zhu Di was named Yong Le (“Eternal Joy”) is the second and last strong ruler after the founder of the dynasty. Under him, China achieved prosperity - international relations expanded, and China's international influence in Indochina, Southeast Asia grew.

Yun Le abandoned the specific system, but its abolition did not happen immediately. Zhu Yuanzhang's heir clan was still a privileged group. Their political influence was replaced by the fact that large landed property was transferred to them, i.e. it was a kind of ransom of the ruling house from relatives. It was the possessions of the aristocrats that turned out to be the object of the blows of a powerful popular movement that led to the fall of the Mings.

During the Ming period, agriculture flourished in China, thanks to irrigation methods adopted from Vietnam; new agricultural crops appeared - sweet potatoes, peanuts. In the XV century. The division of lands into "state" (guantian) and "civilian" (mintian) was established. State lands - estates of emperors, members of the imperial family, titled nobility of officials, military settlers (up to 1/6 of the entire area of ​​cultivated land). Officials who received state salaries were not liable for taxation.

Cities developed. About 1 million people lived in Beijing, more than a million people lived in Nanjing. The urban population was subject to taxes and duties in favor of the treasury, and the artisans themselves could be involved in working off at state-owned enterprises. Flourished - silk weaving, cotton weaving, dyeing, production of ceramics, porcelain, paper, book printing, shipbuilding, construction. The city of Jingdezhen (prov. Jiangxi) became a major center for the production of porcelain. The rise of the economy lasted until the second half of the 15th century, after which the decline began. The reasons are population growth, which overtook the introduction of new agricultural lands into circulation, high taxes (for the maintenance of the state apparatus and financed military operations).

A feature of the political life of this period is the participation in it of the eunuchs who served the imperial harem. The ruler believed that eunuchs were the most loyal group of people close to the imperial court. In 1420, a special school was created, where eunuchs were taught public administration. But there were too many eunuchs - in the 16th century. - 100.000, in the XIV century. - 10,000, they sought personal enrichment, not professionals, prone to corruption.

In the XVI century. tax reform was carried out. The essence of the reform, called the "single whip", was to combine taxes and duties into a single tax, as well as to commute taxes and duties, which was based on silver. However, it was not possible to completely replace the tax in kind with cash, but such a goal was not set. Where it was more convenient to continue collecting the tax in kind, the old system was preserved (especially in the rice-producing provinces). This was done during Zhang Juzheng's chancellorship. Under him, regular inspections of the activities of officials were also carried out. They strengthened the army, the border guards, began to select officer cadres more carefully. After the death of Zhang Juzheng, opponents accused the chancellor of state. crime, and members of his family were killed.

At the end of the XVI century. Gu Xiancheng tried to continue the reforms, relying on the academicians of Dunlin, located in Qsi (Jiannan Province). This grouping expressed the interests of commercial and business circles, demanding the promotion of crafts, trade and entrepreneurial activity, protecting the interests of the owners of manufactories using hired labor; at the same time, she advocated limiting large-scale feudal landownership, demanded tax cuts, the abolition of the monopoly on the development of minerals, etc. In 1620, the reformers achieved the coming to power of the young emperor, who supported their plans. But he was poisoned, and the reforms ended. The Donglin were defeated.

Foreign policy.

The first half of the Ming reign is characterized by an active foreign policy. There was a foreign policy doctrine - the whole world around was considered as a barbaric periphery, with which only vassal relations are possible. The tasks are the complete expulsion of the Mongols from the country and the strengthening of the land and sea borders of the country. By the end of the XIV century. Chinese troops inflicted new major defeats on the Mongols and annexed Liaodong. At the northwestern borders of China, military settlements were created and military garrisons were located. The Great Wall of China was being completed.

In 1398, Korea's vassalage to China was confirmed and remained largely nominal. Zhu Yuanzhang stepped up diplomatic and trade relations with the countries of Southeast Asia by sending a diplomatic mission. missions to Java, Cambodia, Japan and other countries. In the first decades of the fifteenth century offensive operations are being carried out against the nomads, expeditions were sent to the Hindustan Peninsula, to the Persian Gulf and to the shores of East Africa. At the beginning of the XV century. China survived the threat of Timur's invasion. In the XV century. China made 7 expeditions (1405-1433) to the countries of Southeast and South Asia. These expeditions were led by Zheng He.

By the middle of the XV century. China has reduced its foreign policy activity. Only campaigns in Northern Burma (1441-1446), which ended with the formal recognition of vassalage, belong to this time. But there were also failures. So, in 1449, the Chinese army was defeated, and the emperor fell into the hands of Essen, the leader of the Western Mongols-Oirats.

By the first half of the XVI century. refers to the first attempt of Europeans to penetrate China (1516-1517), when Portuguese merchant ships with goods approached the Chinese coast near Canton. However, they were expelled from the coast by the Chinese. An attempt by Portuguese merchants to settle near Ningbo (40s of the 16th century) also ended unsuccessfully. Only in 1557 was Macao captured. In the 20s of the XVII century. Dutch and English ships appeared. In 1624, the south of Taiwan was captured. By the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. refers to the appearance in Chinese cities of monks - the Jesuits (Italians, Germans, Portuguese), who were not only missionaries, but also spies, collecting information about the country, traded weapons. In the 17th century the Manchus appeared.

Fall of the Ming Dynasty

At the beginning of the XVII century. China is in a difficult situation. The increase in taxes, the corruption of officials, the impoverishment of the main part of small landowners and the growth of large landownership led to a popular uprising in 1628-1644. The rebels, united with the Manchus, captured Beijing. The Ming dynasty ended its existence.

In 1368 Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself emperor of the new Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Since the Tang, the frontiers had moved far to the north, and overall, the Ming Empire was larger than any other Chinese empire that preceded it. Zhu Yuan-zhang was a cruel ruler, but he managed to return the country to prosperity.
The Ming dynasty sought to strengthen its position by centralizing power and streamlining the economy. The autocratic power of the emperor increased. In the provinces, the power of the governors was divided among separate administrative, financial, military and judicial institutions. In 1382, Zhu Yuanzhang recreated the three-stage examination system that existed in China until the beginning of the 20th century.
The lands belonging to the Mongols and the Chinese collaborating with them were declared state property. Thus, the state land fund has grown significantly. A special category of land ownership was made up of "official fields", transferred to the service bureaucracy for service in the state apparatus.
Unlike state lands, "people's fields" were subject to state taxes. Part of the nobility, wealthy merchants, artisans and fishermen, the learned class, military leaders, petty bureaucrats, village elders, and others owned the land as private property. Small peasant holdings also belonged to the category of "people's" lands. The main figure in the village became an independent peasant-landowner.
The Minsk court made an inventory of all the lands. Created registries and cadastres became documents by which taxation was calculated and the duties of the population were determined. Yards united in groups connected by mutual responsibility.
In addition to providing a large number of peasants with arable land, Zhu Yuan-chang reduced taxation, abolished certain categories of taxes, and liquidated peasant debts. The slaves were freed.
After the death of Zhu Yuan-zhang, the courtiers elevated his grandson Zhu Di to the throne. Under him, the struggle with the Mongol khans resumed. But now China was no longer defending, but advancing. Then offensive aspirations turned to the northeast. The whole of Manchuria and even the area of ​​the lower reaches of the Amur came under Chinese rule. Neighboring Burma became a vassal of the Ming emperors. The Chinese army managed to briefly conquer Vietnam.
Under the third emperor, Yun Le (1403-1424), Ming China achieved prosperity and power, international relations expanded and its international influence increased.
In the XVI century. The concentration of land in private hands reached an unprecedented high degree, and the peasants were massively dispossessed of land. On the lands of large landowners, hired labor begins to be widely used.
The use of hired labor has become a noticeable phenomenon in urban production. During the reign of the Ming, a significant part of the population of the empire was concentrated in cities.
In urban silk weaving, porcelain production, and in some extractive industries, centralized private manufactories began to take shape. However, state-owned enterprises such as manufactories were significantly larger than private ones.
The Minsk period was marked by new successes in the field of shipbuilding. In the XV century. the ships were armed with cannons. And already in the 16th century, journalism became a public profession.
But gradually the rise turned into a decline. An indicator of the crisis, as always, were popular uprisings against the authorities, noted from the beginning of the 16th century. The political struggle that unfolded at the imperial court also escalated. Arbitrariness and corruption reigned in the bureaucracy. In addition to internal turmoil, the northern nomads constantly disturbed the peace.
In the Ming era, Chinese civilization for the first time began to lag behind the global, especially European progress.
And it was at this time that Europeans appeared off the coast of China. The first were the Portuguese. In 1557 they secured a concession for Macau. In 1624, the Dutch captured the southern part of about. Taiwan. The English were allowed to trade in Canton. The first Russian embassy to China was carried out in 1618 by the Tomsk Cossack Ivan Petlin. It should be noted that the balance in trade with the Europeans was still in favor of the Chinese.
All the external achievements of the Ming Dynasty were neutralized by the fact that the situation of the bulk of the population was deteriorating. In the end, one of the longest and most powerful popular uprisings in the history of China broke out - the war of 1628-1644.
Li Tzu-cheng becomes the most influential and popular leader of the insurgent troops. In 1644, his army occupies the capital.
Refusing to recognize Li Tzu-cheng as emperor, the commander-in-chief Wu San-kui asked the Manchu princes to help him recapture Beijing. He opened a passage in the Great Wall and on June 6, 1644, the Manchus occupied the capital. While Wu San-gui was driving the disintegrated rebel army to the west, the Manchus, who had entrenched themselves in Beijing, proclaimed one of the sons of Khan Abahai emperor of China. Since that time, the reign of the Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) began in the country.