40. I M Sechenov The doctrine of reflexes

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov(1829-1905) graduated from the military engineering school, and after it - Moscow University. After that, he taught at Moscow, Odessa, St. Petersburg universities. Sechenov was fired from St. Petersburg University for his radical materialistic views, and continued to work at Moscow University in the Department of Physiology. Let us designate the main directions of Sechenov's research activity:

1) chemistry of breath;

2) physiology of the nervous system;

3) the physiological foundations of mental activity. So, I. M. Sechenov became the founder of Russian physiology. He was the founder of the materialistic school of Russian physiologists. This school played an important role not only in the development of psychology, physiology and medicine in Russia, but throughout the world.

Sechenov for the first time began to consider the activity of the brain as a reflex. Before Sechenov, only those types of activity that were associated with the spinal cord were considered reflex. I. M. Sechenov established that in the brain of a person (and animals) there are special nervous mechanisms that have an inhibitory effect on involuntary movements. Sechenov called such mechanisms "delay centers".

In numerous experiments, a physiological center was discovered, which is located in the middle parts of the brain. This center was called the “Sechenov center”, and the phenomenon itself, established in these experiments, was called “Sechenov inhibition”.

I. M. Sechenov laid the foundation for the modern natural-scientific substantiation of the materialistic theory of reflection, creating the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, extending the concept of "reflex" to the activity of the higher department of the nervous system. Here some works by I. M. Sechenov

1. "To whom and how to develop psychology" (1873).

2. "Objective Thought and Reality" (1882).

3. "Elements of Thought" (1902).

In the above works, Sechenov developed the materialistic doctrine, thereby proving the formation and influence of the external environment.

I. M. Sechenov also dealt with the problems of occupational health, emphasized the paramount importance of upbringing and the external environment in the formation of personality, and emphasized the role of training and work skills.

Of all the works of Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, the work "Reflexes of the Brain".

The physiology of Sechenov was strongly influenced by the materialistic philosophy of N. G. Chernyshevsky, A. N. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev, who shared dialectical, evolutionary views, they also supported the teachings of Charles Darwin, and opposed vulgar materialists and racists.

The correct presentation of one's thoughts is a real art, which is not given to everyone. This needs to be learned throughout life and in each situation to apply the necessary strategy and methodology. Our career, relationships with family and friends, family well-being and our own success depend on how we can gather our thoughts, how we can express our position.

Why is it important to express yourself correctly?

How to gather your thoughts and put everything on the shelves? Unfortunately, different people perceive differently all the information that enters their brain, it depends on the personal perception of the world by this person, firstly, and secondly, on the correctly stated point of view of the interlocutor. Imagine that you and your opponent have completely different points of view, while you still cannot correctly express your thoughts. Will he understand you even for a second? Will he be able to continue the dialogue? A striking example is the communication of two foreigners, one of whom does not speak the language. Also with each person: we have different languages, even hearing the same phrase, we perceive it differently. That is why you need to learn how to express your views as accurately, clearly and specifically as possible. For this, there are special techniques, methods and techniques.

What will help you express your thoughts correctly?

The first thing that will help you competently and correctly express your thoughts is reading. Ever since childhood, at our school they tested the reading technique, forced to read books in the summer and insisted on their detailed study. You need to start with classical literature. It will help to correctly deliver speech and diversify vocabulary for daily communication. It could be Tolstoy, Bulgakov, Pasternak and other Russian classics. If you need to learn how to correctly express your thoughts in the professional field, then, of course, you need to continue reading special literature: economic, technical, etc. This will allow you not only to speak competently, but also to grow up the career ladder. Literature that will always be relevant not only for reading, but also for looking at communication techniques is the books of Dale Carnegie, Robin Sharma, John Maxwell and other world speakers.

The second effective method is the intentional increase in vocabulary. Here you will be helped by an explanatory dictionary, the study of synonyms of words, as well as solving crossword puzzles.

You should not pay the most attention to the last point, otherwise you will not speak in sentences but in words from a crossword puzzle.

Presentation: "Cognitive processes and abilities of the individual"

The third is the development of memory. How to develop memory can be read here (link to the article). It is very important to understand that you will not be able to learn new words, read a lot and memorize if you have memory problems. Get rid of them.

The fourth is public speaking. Yes, for many it is scary. But in the process of preparing for a public speech, you will not only learn a lot of new things, but also write yourself a speech plan, theses that will help you make a logical chain and arrange them correctly in your head. The more practice you have, the better your presentation will be.

It is very important to have clarity of thought when communicating with people, because when you yourself cannot deal with your thoughts, then who can? How to work out the clarity of thought, we will consider further.

How to acquire and maintain clarity of mind?

1. Regular physical activity. Constant training brings to life not only the muscles, but also the mind, constantly supplying it with blood and oxygen, which has a very positive effect on maintaining a sober memory. And it will help to express your point of view correctly.
2. Lots of water. Drink water in the morning. This will allow you to feel cheerful all day, water activates the work of the gastrointestinal tract, brain and microsystems.
3. Use scents to activate your brain. Clarity of thought depends not only on the amount of vocabulary. It largely depends on mood, inspiration and other factors. So, using smells can greatly improve your thoughts and their quality. Use aromas of thyme, basil, rosemary, rose. This will help you focus your attention.
4. Focus on the positive aspects. Do not load the brain with negative information, and everything will be much easier.
5. Play puzzles: chess, sudoku and other board games that will train your brain.
6. Use quality information from the web. Raking up piles of material on the Internet, you can work out great clarity of thought and learn to "throw unnecessary" out of your head.
7. Eat right and sleep well. Sound sleep is the key to a successful day. Everyone knows that clarity of thought is absent with constant lack of sleep. In such a stressful state, it is impossible to express your thoughts correctly.

• keep a personal diary or blog on the Internet. Describe everything vividly and eloquently, then you can speak beautifully and correctly, expressing your thoughts and emotions.
• enter into discussions. Not in quarrels! Visit interest clubs, forums, circles where you can talk and discuss issues of concern.
• to study logic, it will allow you to consistently and accurately express your requirements, conclusions, etc.
• develop communication skills, do not close at home, communicate with people.

Hello, Pavel Yamb is with you again!

If you write articles, then you need to be able to express your thoughts clearly and to the point. How to achieve the necessary clarity, what three important components a quality text consists of, we will talk today.

The main thing is the idea

To clearly articulate an idea, you either need to be a kid or have a serious knowledge base. The unclouded mind of a child immediately and often without the usual diplomacy of adults grabs the essence of what is happening. Life stories when kids put parents or other people in an awkward position are probably familiar to you.

A father and a five-year-old child ride in a packed trolleybus. Cold weather, windows fogged up. The boy begins to rub the glass so that it squeals under his fingers. The father makes a remark, the child does not react.

- How many times can you tell? he explodes. “I talk, I talk, but you still don’t listen!”

- And your mother tells you not to pee in the bath, but you pee anyway! the boy retorts loudly.

An educated and well-read person draws analogies in the same way and captures the essence of events - however, he already distinguishes what and when to say, and what is better to refrain from.

Therefore, the first and most important condition for the successful formulation of thought is the main idea. Without it, it will be just a stream of consciousness.

It happens that there is even an idea, but the problem is in the presentation. In this case, three necessary conditions - three whales "- will help to convey it to the reader or listener:

• clarity and simplicity of thought;
• structuredness;
• facts.
• Mirra peace and...

Explaining with words

The clarity of expression will not arise from scratch. To choose the right words, you need to know a sufficient number of them. Synonyms, semantic shades - all this comes into our speech with the presence of a sufficient vocabulary.

For comparison: Dahl's explanatory dictionary consists of 200 thousand words. The vocabulary of a person with higher education is approximately equal to 10 thousand words, and an erudite uses no more than 50 thousand. The passive vocabulary, of course, is larger. Here is an interesting test: http://www.myvocab.info/ My passive vocabulary, according to this questionnaire, is 58,000 words. And yours?

Self-confidence is also an important factor. An insecure and illiterate person will try to hide gaps in knowledge with abstruse phrases. Those who know and are sure, on the contrary, are interested in the accessibility and understandability of their ideas. However, one should beware of confusing simplicity with primitivism, and elementary knowledge of the material with abstruseness. Even when explaining the basics of quantum physics to children, one can hardly avoid a certain number of terms:

Although the idea is presented gracefully: clearly and simply.

Structure is the basis for understanding

The importance of a structured presentation of thoughts, I hope, does not need to be explained. How to learn to structure your thoughts? Plan the message you want to make. Decide what to talk or write about first, how to develop the idea further. From simple to complex or from complex to simple, whichever you prefer. However, the consistent presentation of information is our “second whale” of a clear and precise presentation of our thoughts. Then, when experience comes, this plan can simply be kept in mind. The clear structure of the message will immediately show that it is made by a master who knows how to correctly present the idea.

Facts on the table

The “third whale” on which clear thinking rests is facts. Give weight to your messages with confirmed facts, real examples, they inspire confidence. For example, Dale Carnegie's books are filled with examples from the lives of different people - from outstanding personalities to his unknown students, friends, relatives and acquaintances. And he has long become a real classic of self-improvement techniques.

In addition, thanks to the facts, it becomes clearer what idea the author wants to convey to the reader or listener.

Is this skill necessary in everyday life? Of course, if you want to improve the quality of communication with other people.

If the dispute ends in a quarrel or a fight, it means that none of the participants could express their thoughts clearly and clearly. The skill of discussion, like many other things, can and should be learned. However, everything is subject to us, if we only set such a task. And I'm sure you will succeed!

Presentation is the most common form of testing on . About what a presentation is and how to write it, we will describe in detail in the article.

Before moving on to the practical part, it is necessary to decide what it means to expound. Express - it will be explained b, interpret both orally and in writing information that has been read or heard.

In contact with

What is a presentation

A presentation is a retelling of a text read or listened to using an audio recording. The most common form is a written presentation, as it allows you to check not only the degree of memory training, but also the correct spelling (without grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors).

Presentation is not only a reproduction of the text, but also speech style training, the correctness of the presentation of events, understanding the main idea of ​​the author, which he wanted to convey to the reader.

What types exist?

A summary is a form that provides the most concise retelling, but at the same time preserving the main ideas.

Detailed requires the student to describe everything that he remembers, to the smallest detail. This view helps to develop the beauty of speech and its completeness. Narration - the main role is to describe events in the order that was in the source.

How is a presentation different from an essay?

This type of work is often confused with. Remember: these are two different ways of writing thoughts. The first type is aimed at a competent and complete retelling of the text read or listened to. Writing is your personal thoughts and thoughts of the child, his vision of a particular problem. It has no restrictions on the number of words, and the form of writing is diverse.

Important! A memo designed specifically to make writing easier will help you learn how to correctly present the content much faster.

If your child is preparing for the first time to write such a paper, before starting, reassure him that he will be able to cope with all the tasks assigned. As practice shows, schoolchildren receive negative marks for this type of work precisely because of absent-mindedness.

Then start reading or listening to the text and proceed to compiling.

How to make a plan

After the text is read or listened to by the child, he will need to systematize his memories that relate to the text. A plan will help you deal with this. It acts as the main element.

Mentally break what you heard into three parts:

• introductory;
• main;
• final.

This will help to arrange the events correctly and remember text faster. In the course of re-reading or listening, determine for yourself the most memorable words (for example, at the boundary of the interaction of constituent parts), which can also indicate the characters, their actions and the main idea.

Further actions

After the presentation plan is drawn up, time will be given for re-reading. Explain to the child that it is necessary to highlight the supporting phrases. They will refresh the memories.

Ask a child come up with an association for each part of the plan, as well as imagine yourself in the place of the protagonist, feel a personal attitude to the situation, which is written in the passage.

Only after these manipulations can a written presentation begin. . To facilitate the task, invite the student to break the future work into parts and write the introductory first, and then all the rest.

It is the separate writing of all components that will help reduce the number of grammatical errors, and most importantly, refresh memories and convey author's main idea.

After all the paragraphs are written, the student must combine them into a single whole. Re-read them, determine the fit with the plan, and also note any errors, both punctuation, grammar, and spelling, and correct them. This is necessary not only for the beauty of the reconstructed passage, but also for high appreciation.

As a rule, the first mark (for retelling the text) is always positive, and for the correct spelling it often does not exceed three due to the inattention of school-age children, distracted attention and ignorance of the rules of the Russian language. From what person to write a statement? Need to write changing first person to third.

It is worth remembering that the presentation is a reproduction of the author’s thoughts in your own words, and not inventing your own.

How to write a concise summary

A simple written statement, the writing rules of which we examined above, differs from a concise one in that a summary does not tolerate a full description. all happening events in the passage. To get the highest score for a summary , text compression methods must be applied.

1. As you listen to the passage for the first time, pay close attention to the salient details of each paragraph. Associate less memorable sentences and thoughts with pictures. Associative thinking will help you remember what you have written much faster.
2. Determine microthemes of each paragraph, so it will be easier to remember not only what the passage was about, but also the main idea that the author wanted to convey. As a rule, it stands out after the first reading of the text.
3. Next to certain micro-topics, write support words that will orient you and help you express your thoughts correctly. Determine the style and type of work.
4. The second reading makes it possible to fix impressions and correct microthemes. At this stage, decide on the number of paragraphs.
5. Start writing your work.

Important! You should start by writing paragraphs separately, and only after joining them together. So it will be easier for the student to notice errors and correct them before handing over the work to the teacher.

During compression, do not allow distortion of meaning. While the principles of exclusion and substitution apply, logical structure of thoughts author in your work should not be violated.

How to start the retelling depends on the individuality of the text. The main thing is not to lose the main idea and start writing an essay. You can use as linking words: it follows from this, here. It is allowed to use introductory words and all constructions that are in the Russian language. Your task - express an idea without deviating from the meaning, conveying the main idea of ​​the author, while not making mistakes, both in writing words and in punctuation.

An example of how to write an essay

Blaise Pascal
Thoughts
“Let a man know what he is worth. Let him love himself, for he is capable of good”, “let him despise himself, for the ability for good remains in him in vain”…
“A purely mathematical mind will work correctly only if all definitions and beginnings are known to it in advance, otherwise it becomes confused and unbearable.” “The mind, knowing directly, is not able to patiently seek out the primary principles underlying purely speculative, abstract concepts that it does not encounter in everyday life and is “unaccustomed” to it. “It happens that a person who talks sensibly about phenomena of a certain order talks nonsense when the question concerns phenomena of another order.” “He who is used to judging and evaluating by the prompting of the senses does not understand anything in logical conclusions, because he strives to penetrate the subject of research at a glance and does not want to investigate the principles on which it is based. On the contrary, he who is accustomed to studying the principles understands nothing of the arguments of the senses, because he is looking for what they are based on,

And is not able to cover the subject with a single glance. "Feeling is as easy to corrupt as the mind." “The smarter a person is, the more originality he finds in everyone with whom he communicates. For an ordinary person, all people look the same.”
“Eloquence is the art of speaking in such a way that those to whom we address will listen not only without difficulty, but also with pleasure.” “It is necessary to preserve simplicity and naturalness, not to exaggerate the little things, not to underestimate the significant.” “The form must be elegant”, “correspond to the content and contain everything necessary”. “Otherwise, the words spaced take on a different meaning, otherwise the spaced thoughts produce a different impression.”
“The mind should be distracted from the work begun, only to give it rest, and even then not when it pleases, but when necessary”: “rest does not tire at the right time, and fatigue distracts from work.”
“When you read a work written in a simple, natural style, you involuntarily rejoice.”
"It's good when someone is called" "just a decent person."
"We are not capable of either comprehensive knowledge or complete ignorance." “The middle, given to us as an inheritance, is equally removed from both extremes, so does it matter whether a person knows a little more or less?”
“Imagination” is “a human faculty that deceives, sowing errors and delusions.” “Put the wisest philosopher on a wide board over the abyss; no matter how much reason tells him that he is safe, still imagination will prevail. “Imagination controls everything – beauty, justice, happiness, everything that is valued in this world.”
“When a person is healthy, it is not clear to him how sick people live, but when he is in pain”, “he has other passions and desires”. “By our very nature, we are unhappy always and under all circumstances.” “A person is so unhappy that he languishes with longing even for no reason, simply because of his special position in the world.” "The human condition: impermanence, melancholy, anxiety." “The essence of human nature is in movement. Complete rest means death.” “We are consoled by every little thing, because every little thing brings us down.” “We will understand the meaning of all human activities if we delve into the essence of entertainment.”
"Of all positions" "the position of the monarch is the most enviable." “He is satisfied in all his desires, but try to deprive him of entertainment, give him thoughts and reflections about what he is,” “and this happiness will collapse,” “he will involuntarily plunge into thoughts about the threats of fate, about possible rebellions,” “ about death and inevitable illnesses. “And it will turn out that the monarch deprived of entertainment” “is more unfortunate than his most miserable subject, who indulges in games and other entertainments.” “That's why people so appreciate games and chatter with women, so eager to get into the war or to take a high position. It's not that they expect to find happiness in it”: “we are looking for” “disturbances that entertain us and lead us away from painful thoughts.” “The advantage of the monarch lies in the fact that they vied with each other to entertain and give him all the pleasures in the world.”
"Entertainment is our only solace in grief." “A person from childhood” is “burdened with studies, learning languages, bodily exercises, tirelessly suggesting that he will not be happy if he” fails to maintain “health, a good name, property”, and “the slightest need for something will make him unfortunate." “And so many tasks and duties fall upon him that from dawn to dusk he is in vanity and worries.” “Take away these worries from him, and he will begin to think what he is, where he came from, where he is going - that is why it is necessary to plunge him headlong into business, turning him away from thoughts.”
“How empty is the human heart and how many impurities are in this desert!”
“People live in such a complete misunderstanding of the vanity of all human life that they are completely bewildered when they are told about the senselessness of the pursuit of honors. Well, isn't that amazing!”
“We are so pathetic that at first we rejoice in luck,” and then “we are tormented when it cheats on us.” “Whoever learns to rejoice in success and not to grieve because of failure, he would make an amazing discovery, it would be like inventing a perpetual motion machine.”
“We carelessly rush to the abyss, shielding our eyes with anything, so as not to see where we are running.” But even realizing “all the sadness of our being, which brings us troubles”, we “still do not lose some instinct, indestructible and uplifting us”.
“It's not good to be too free. It is not good not to know the need for anything.”
“Man is neither an angel nor an animal”, but his misfortune is that “the more he strives to become like an angel, the more he turns into an animal”. “Man is so constituted that he cannot always go forward, he either goes or returns.” "The greatness of a man lies in his ability to think." “Man is only a reed, the weakest of the creatures of nature, but he is a thinking reed.”
"The strength of the mind is that it recognizes the existence of many phenomena." “Nothing is more in harmony with reason than its distrust of itself.” “We must obey reason more unquestioningly than any ruler, for whoever contradicts reason is unhappy, and whoever contradicts the ruler is only stupid.” “Reason always and in everything resorts to the help of memory.” “The soul is not kept on the heights that the mind sometimes reaches in a single impulse: it rises there not like on a throne, not forever, but only for a short moment.”
“We comprehend the existence and nature of the finite, for we ourselves are finite and extended, like it. We comprehend the existence of the infinite, but do not know its nature, for it is extended, like us, but has no boundaries. But we do not comprehend either the existence or the nature of God, for he has neither extension nor limits. Only faith reveals to us its existence, only grace reveals its nature.” “Faith speaks differently than our feelings, but never contradicts their testimonies. She is above the senses, but does not oppose them.”
“It is fair to obey justice, it is impossible not to obey force. Justice, not supported by force, is weak; force, not supported by justice, is tyrannical. Powerless justice will always be opposed, because bad people are not translated, unjust power will always be indignant. So, we need to combine force with justice.” However, "the concept of justice is as subject to fashion as women's jewelry."
“Why do people follow the majority? Is it because it's right? No, because it's strong." “Why follow ancient laws and views? Because they are healthy? No, because they are generally accepted and do not allow the seeds of discord to germinate. "Those who know how to invent new things are few, and the majority wants to follow only the generally accepted." “Do not boast about your ability to innovate, be content with the knowledge that you have it.”
“He who does not love the truth turns away from it under the pretext that it is contestable, that the majority denies it. This means that his delusion is conscious, it stems from a dislike for truth and goodness, and there is no forgiveness for this person.
“People do not get bored of eating and sleeping every day, because the desire to eat and sleep is renewed every day, and if it were not for this, no doubt it would be boring. Therefore, one who does not experience hunger is burdened with spiritual food, The hunger for truth: the highest bliss. “I work hard for him” is the essence of respect for another person, and it is “profoundly right”.
"Human weakness is the source of many beautiful things."
“The greatness of man is so certain that it is confirmed even by his insignificance. For we call insignificance in man what is considered nature in animals, thereby confirming that if now his nature is not much different from the animal, then once, while he was awake, it was blameless.
“Self-interest and strength are the source of all our actions: self-interest is the source of conscious actions, strength is the source of unconscious actions.” “A person is great even in his self-interest, because this property taught him to observe an exemplary order in business.”
“The greatness of a man is great because he is aware of his insignificance. The tree does not realize its insignificance.”
"People are mad, and this is such a general rule that not being mad would be a kind of madness."
"The power of flies: they win battles, stupefy our souls, torment our bodies."

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Summary of Thought