Paris Peace Conference January 1919 - January 1920 French President R. Conference opened 27 Poincaré states about German (there was no Soviet Russia and Germany) Decisive role: England, USA, France, Japan, Italy "Council of Ten" (country leaders + ministers foreign affairs) of the empire at the opening of the conference: "Born in injustice, it ended in dishonor" January 18, 1919, on the same day and in the same place when and where the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871 - Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles In fact the main issues were decided by: US President Woodrow Wilson, prime ministers: France - Georges Clemenceau (chairman at the conference); Great Britain - David Lloyd George; Italy - Vittorio Orlando

League of Nations l Purpose - to ensure peace and international security Assembly Council of the League (USA, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan) Creation of a mandatory system of colony administration Introduction of a system of sanctions against the aggressor Sanctions against the aggressor (according to the Charter of the League of Nations): 1) Breaking trade and financial relations (if the aggressor is a member of the LN) 2) Recommendations in case of war to the governments concerned to send troops against the aggressor

Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France. The Saar region was transferred for 15 years to the control of the League of Nations, and the Saar coal basin to France (then a plebiscite) Germany recognized the independence of Luxembourg, Poland, Czechoslovakia, pledged to respect the sovereignty of Austria Part of the German lands was transferred to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Denmark Germany lost privileges in China , all colonies that were transferred to France, Belgium, Portugal, Great Britain, Japan (in the form of League of Nations mandates - powers to govern) Versailles Peace on June 28, 1919 German army - no more than 100 thousand people (Reichswehr), a ban on having tanks, aviation, submarine fleet, introduce universal military service Payment of reparations to the winners for damage from the war (132 billion marks) German lands east of the Rhine (50 km) made up the Rhine demilitarized zone, where it was forbidden to keep troops and build fortifications

Outcomes of the Paris Peace Conference l Growth of German nationalism l Creation of the League of Nations l Contradictions between the leading countries of the West emerged due to claims for primacy in the post-war world

Peace treaties with Germany's allies Territorial losses (South Tyrol - Italy, Czech Republic and September 10, 1919 Moravia - Czechoslovakia, Bukovina - Romania) Saint Germain n Limitation of the army (up to 30 thousand) agreement n Payment of reparations with Austria accession to Germany) n November 27, 1919 Treaty in Neuilly with Bulgaria June 4, 1920 Treaty of Trianon with Hungary Territorial losses (Eastern Thrace - Greece; access to the Aegean Sea was actually lost) n Army limitation (up to 20 thousand) n n Reduction of territory (~ 70%) and population (~ 50%) - non-Hungarian lands ceded to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania and inhabited by non-Hungarians Limitation of the army (up to 33 thousand) n Cancellation of compulsory military service; payment of reparations n August 10, 1920 n Collapse of the Ottoman Empire (behind Turkey ~ 1/5 of the territory) Sevres n International control over the Black Sea straits treaty (Bosporus and Dardanelles) with Turkey

Washington International Conference November 12, 1921 - February 6, 1922 USA, Great Britain, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, Holland, China Objectives: l limiting naval armaments l limiting the rise of Japan (doctrine "Asia for Asians")

Washington Treaties Treaties Treaties Parties Terms of Treaties "Treaty of Four" USA, Great Britain, France, Japan 1) Respect for mutual rights to islands in Oceania. 2) Their joint defense. "Treaty of the Five" USA, Great Britain, France, Japan, Italy 1) Prohibition of ships with a displacement of more than 35,000 tons. 2) The ratio of military fleets (battleships) - 5: 5: 3, 5: 1, 75. "Treaty of the Nine" All participants 1) Respect for the independence and territorial integrity of China. 2) The principle of "open doors" and "equal opportunities" of all countries in China. 3) Japan's refusal from the Shandong Peninsula and its return to China (revision of the Treaty of Versailles). Growth of revanchist sentiments in Japan The first real attempt to limit arms at the international level Creation and consolidation of the Versailles-Washington system

Exacerbation of social contradictions as a result of the war Great sacrifices and destruction Hardships of rear life Growth of the influence of left-wing ideology 1917 - October socialist revolution in Russia 1918 - November bourgeois democratic revolution in Germany 1918 - national liberation movements in Austria. Hungary Collapse of the Empire Fall of the Monarchy Collapse of the Empire ·Russia ·Finland ·Poland ·Latvia ·Lithuania ·Estonia 1919 - an attempt to create the Bavarian Soviet Republic - red biennium 12.11.1918 - Republic of Austria 28.10.1918 - Czechoslovakia 01.12.1918 - Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1927 - Yugoslavia) 1918 -1919 – Hungarian revolution

Labor movement n n March 1919 - III International (Communist) - Comintern - course towards world socialist revolution 1920 - revival of the Second International (since 1923 - Workers' Socialist International - Socialist International) - course towards social reforms, expansion of workers' rights, cooperation with the authorities

Consequences of World War II

The Second World War was the most difficult and bloody war in the history of mankind. During the war, at least 60 million people died, including about 27 million citizens of the Soviet Union. Tens of millions of people were injured and disabled. The war devastated entire countries, turned cities and villages into ruins, turned millions of people into refugees. In Europe alone, the number of so-called displaced persons forced to leave their place of residence has exceeded 11 million. The human losses in the Second World War were almost six times greater than in the First World War, and the material damage was 12 times greater. Of the 4.5 million Soviet servicemen captured by Germany, only 1.8 million returned home. In specially created German death camps, the Nazis killed more than 11 million people, including 6 million Jews.

As a result of the Second World War, the balance of power on the world stage changed dramatically. Germany, Italy, Japan, which before the war belonged to the number of great powers, were defeated, for a time turned into dependent countries, occupied by foreign troops. Their economies were destroyed by the war, and for a number of years they could not compete with their former competitors. France, defeated by Germany in 1940 and for four years - from 1940 to 1944 - occupied by Nazi troops, temporarily lost its position as a great power. Britain successfully ended the war as one of the three great victorious powers, but its position was weakened. Economically and militarily, it lagged far behind the United States and was dependent on American aid. Only the United States of America emerged from the war significantly strengthened. Without conducting military operations on their territory, having avoided military destruction and major human losses, they far outstripped all other countries in economic and military terms. Only the United States had atomic weapons; their navies and aircraft were the strongest in the world, their industrial output was greater than in all other countries combined. The United States has become a giant "superpower" leader of the capitalist world claiming world hegemony.

The second "superpower" was the Soviet Union. Having won a victory despite colossal casualties and destruction, having made a decisive contribution to the defeat of Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union increased its power, influence and prestige to an unprecedented degree. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the largest land army in the world and an enormous industrial potential that surpassed that of any other country except the United States. The armed forces of the USSR were in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, in East Germany, in North Korea. The Soviet Union controlled the situation in the People's Democracies and enjoyed their full support, as well as the support of North Korea and China, the most populous country in the world.

Occupation regimes of Germany, Austria and Japan.

At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the USSR, the USA and Great Britain agreed that after the surrender Germany would be subjected to a long occupation. The goals of the occupation were the disarmament, demilitarization and denazification of Germany, including the complete abolition of its armed forces, the destruction of the fascist party and all other fascist organizations, and preparation for the reconstruction of German political life on a democratic basis.

The territory of Germany was divided into four zones of occupation - Soviet - in the east, English - in the northwest, French - in the west and American - in the southwest and the American Supreme power in Germany was temporarily exercised by the commanders-in-chief of the allied forces, each in his own zone of occupation. The coordination of the actions of the four powers on all issues affecting Germany was carried out by the Control Council, which consisted of the commanders of the occupying forces. The general administration of Berlin was entrusted to the quadripartite inter-allied commandant's office. The Control Council and the Inter-Allied Commandant's Office acted on the principle of unanimity.

Since Austria in 1938-1945. was part of Germany, it was also occupied. Like Germany, Austria was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet, British, American and French. The supreme power in Austria was temporarily exercised by the Allied Council, which consisted of representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France. In October 1945, elections were held in Austria and a government was formed, but the occupation regime remained because the Soviet Union refused to conclude a peace treaty with Austria until a peace treaty with Germany was signed.

In Japan, unlike Germany and Austria, there were no different zones of occupation. The occupation of the territory of the Japanese Islands, as well as the territory of the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean, which were under the rule of Japan before the Second World War, was carried out only by American troops. Created by agreement between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain, the Allied Council and the Far East Commission for Japan, which consisted of representatives of the USA, the USSR, China and Great Britain, did not have real power and could only give non-binding recommendations to the commander-in-chief of the American occupying forces. In fact, the American occupation authorities single-handedly controlled all the activities of the Japanese government.

At a conference in Yalta, an agreement was reached on a dividing line between Soviet and Anglo-American troops operating in Europe. It ran from north to south from the Baltic Sea through Germany and Austria, along the border of Yugoslavia with Italy up to the Adriatic Sea. The territories to the east of this line, with the exception of Greece, were liberated by the Soviet troops, to the west of it - by the Anglo-American. A similar dividing line has been drawn in Korea. South Korea also entered the zone of American occupation (up to the 38th parallel), while North Korea (where the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was subsequently formed) was occupied by Soviet troops

UN Education

An important event in the international life of the first post-war years was the creation of the United Nations (UN), whose main task was to maintain international peace and security, develop cooperation between peoples and states.

According to a preliminary agreement between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain, reached at the conference of the heads of the three great powers in Yalta, the UN founding conference opened in April 1945 in San Francisco (USA). The states that declared war on Germany and other countries of the fascist bloc were invited to it. The conference adopted the UN Charter, which fixed the most important principles of international law, the development of friendly relations between nations on the basis of equality and self-determination of peoples, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, the resolution of international disputes by peaceful means, and refraining from the threat of the use of force. The Charter stated that international cooperation should be carried out in the spirit of "respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion".

According to the Charter, the governing bodies of the UN are the General Assembly and the Security Council. General Assembly, i.e. an assembly of all members of the UN, where each country has one vote, periodically meets in sessions that consider the general principles of international cooperation and problems related to the maintenance of international peace and security. Decisions of the General Assembly are not binding, but recommendatory, but have high international authority. The Security Council, which is entrusted with the main responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, makes decisions that are binding on UN members. The Security Council consists of permanent and non-permanent members. Five great powers are permanent members: the USSR, the USA, Great Britain, China, France. The non-permanent members, originally composed of six countries, are elected by the General Assembly for a two-year term. Decisions of the Security Council are valid only subject to the unanimity of all its permanent members.

The UN has an Economic and Social Council. The Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, elected by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a term of 5 years with the right to re-election for another term. In addition, the UN has a number of international specialized organizations, including the highly respected United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

In 1945, 51 states became members of the UN - participants of the conference in San Francisco. The countries of the fascist bloc - Germany, Japan. Italy and their allies were initially excluded from the UN. Then the number of UN members increased significantly and reached 83 by the end of the 50s. Gradually, the UN became the most authoritative international organization playing a major role in maintaining peace, preventing nuclear war, fighting colonialism, protecting human rights

Trials of major war criminals.

In accordance with the wartime agreements, the USSR, the USA, Britain and France established the International Military Tribunal to try the main war criminals. The sessions of the tribunal opened on November 20, 1945 in the city of Nuremberg, where the congresses of the fascist party used to be held. The 24 surviving main Nazi war criminals were put on trial, including Hitler's deputies Göring and Hess, Admiral Doenitz, former Chancellor Papen, who replaced Hitler as head of government, Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, leaders of the military command Keitel and Jodl, banker Schacht. They were charged with plotting against peace by preparing and waging aggressive wars, with war crimes and with crimes against humanity, which included, in particular, enslavement and mass extermination of civilians for political, racial or religious reasons.

On October 1, 1946, the tribunal sentenced 12 defendants to death by hanging, the rest to various terms of imprisonment. The Tribunal recognized the leadership of the Nazi Party, security and assault detachments (SS, SD and Gestapo) as criminal organizations. Contrary to the special opinion of a member of the tribunal from the USSR, the tribunal considered it possible not to apply the death penalty to Hess, condemning him to life imprisonment, acquitted Schacht and Papen, did not recognize the government, the general staff and the high military command of Germany as criminal organizations.

The main Japanese war criminals were also tried by the International Military Tribunal, which met in the Japanese capital Tokyo from May 3, 1946 to November 12, 1948. Accusations of preparing and unleashing aggressive wars, violating international treaties, rules and customs of warfare (in particular , killings of prisoners of war) were brought against 28 former leaders of Japan. Among them were 4 former prime ministers, 11 ministers in command of the army and navy, 7 defendants, including former prime ministers Tojo and Hirota, were hanged, the rest were sentenced to various prison terms.

The Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of major war criminals were the first trials in history of the organizers of aggressive wars and other crimes against peace and humanity. Their sentences condemning aggression, war crimes, terror against the civilian population not only punished the main war criminals, but also became an important source of international law.

Make a story plan: the main economic, social, political consequences of the Second World War for the countries - its main participants.

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What was the purpose of the Marshall Plan? Why did the USSR demand that the countries of Eastern Europe not take part in this plan?

Compare the content of the fragments of the two treaties (documents in the column on the right) - on the creation of the North Atlantic Union and Warsaw. What common and different points can you point out? What do the dates of the conclusion of these agreements say?

Describe the UN. For what purpose was it created? What structure does it have?

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Introduction

1. Consequences of the First World War for the countries of Western Europe

2. Creation of new states in Europe after World War I

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The First World War is one of the key events in world history. It determined the world evolution of all subsequent time. In four years, a genuine revolution has taken place in the economy, communications, national organization, and in the social system of the world.

The First World War gave a modern form to the national question. It brought into the arena of public life the masses of the people who had not actually participated before in world history. It gave an unprecedented impetus to the technical revolution, and at the same time opened up unprecedented depths of humanitarian fall, which man turned out to be capable of despite all the achievements of civilization.

It actually destroyed the optimistic culture of Europe, crushed all the achievements of the century of the post-Napoleonic world, made violence a legitimate tool for resolving international disputes and an instrument of social change. It left behind an unprecedented bitterness of the peoples, which spilled over into the alienation of the 1920s and 1930s and the bloody drama of the Second World War.

Called the Great, the First World War left wounds that even time can hardly heal. In France, Germany and Britain there is not a city or a village where there would be no monument to those who did not return from the Great War.

Two million Russian soldiers, two million Frenchmen, two million Germans, a million Englishmen and countless hundreds of thousands from various countries and corners of the earth - from New Zealand to Ireland, from South Africa to Finland - died in this war. And the survivors became part of what would later be called the "lost generation."

Therefore, the relevance of this topic is beyond doubt.

The purpose of the work is to briefly reveal the consequences of the First World War for the countries of Europe.

The work consists of an introduction, the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. Consequences of the First World War for the countries of Western Europe

In August 1914, the world did not yet know how grandiose and catastrophic the war declared on the first day of the last summer month would become. No one knew yet what incalculable victims, disasters and upheavals it would bring to humanity and what an indelible mark it would leave in its history. And absolutely no one imagined that it was precisely those terrible four years of the First World War - as it was later called - that, despite the calendars, were destined to become the true beginning of the 20th century.

World War I is one of the largest armed conflicts in human history.

AT the war began in Europe between the Austro-German bloc and the coalition of England, France, Russia. It lasted 4 years, 3 months and 10 days (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918), drew 38 states of the world into its orbit. Military operations took place in Europe, the Far and Middle East, Africa, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

The reasons for the war were the uneven economic and political development of the capitalist countries, which at the beginning of the 20th century led to a change in the balance of forces on the world stage and rivalry between the largest Western countries for markets, sources of raw materials, and the redivision of an already divided world.

First, the war covered 8 states of Europe: Germany and Austria-Hungary, on the one hand, Great Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro, on the other. Later, most of the countries of the world were involved in it. In total, 4 states participated in the war on the side of the Austro-German bloc, 34 states on the side of the Entente (including 4 British dominions and the colony of India, which signed the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919).

By its nature, the war was predatory and unjust on both sides; only in Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro did it include elements of a national liberation war.

Goals of the Great Powers in World War I: France sought to return the lost Alsace and Lorraine, the banks of the Rhine and preserve their colonies.

United Kingdom- crush the main rival in Europe and the colonies. Austria-Hungary - put an end to Serbia and the pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans, led by Russia. Germany- defeat France and eliminate her as a competitor in Europe, oust England from Europe and seize her colonial possessions, gain access to Russia's raw materials. Austria-Hungary- to preserve the multinational empire, to suppress the national liberation movement of the Slavic peoples, to seize the territories of the Balkan Peninsula liberated by Turkey. Italy- to capture part of the Turkish possessions in Africa, to gain an advantage in the Balkans, to strengthen its influence in the Mediterranean. After long hesitation, she entered the war on the side of the Entente. Russia- expel Turkey from the Balkans and consolidate its presence there, put the Bosphorus and Dardanelles under its control, support the national liberation struggle of the Slavic peoples.

This war raised the question of the further coexistence of various peoples and states in a new way. And in the human dimension, its price turned out to be unprecedentedly high - the great powers that were part of the opposing blocs and assumed the brunt of the hostilities lost a significant part of their gene pool.

The historical consciousness of the peoples turned out to be so poisoned that for a long time it cut off the path to reconciliation for those of them who acted as opponents on the battlefields. Those who passed through the crucible and survived the world war “rewarded”, albeit driven inside, but constantly reminding of themselves with bitterness. Man's faith in the reliability and rationality of the existing world order was seriously undermined.

On November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed at Compiègne, ending World War I - a conflict unheard of in the history of mankind, which ended in the complete defeat of Germany and its allies.

The ending World War I was fromthe most significant event in the world in2- th decadeXXcentury. This event was awaited by many millions of peoples of the states devastated by the war, and ordinary people had high hopes for it. After the horror of massive bombings, gas attacks, more deaths than any other war has known, people wanted peace.

The First World War was one of the main reasons for the collapse of the four empires - German, Russian, Ottoman empires and Austria-Hungary, the latter two being divided. One can, of course, argue about whether this collapse was a foregone conclusion, as well as about who was right and who was wrong. But these disputes themselves are now only of interest to scientific circles. Much more interesting is the question of what were the consequences of the First World War for mankind in general and for Europe in particular.

As a result, the political map of the world changed significantly, the so-called Versailles-Washington system of international relations was approved. It was based on the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 and other agreements and treaties concluded at the Washington Conference (1921-1922). These documents consolidated the redistribution of the world in favor of the victorious powers. Germany, having ceased to be a monarchy, was cut down territorially and weakened economically. According to the Treaty of Versailles the territory of Germany was reduced by 70 thousand square meters. km, she lost all the few colonies; military articles obligated Germany not to introduce military service, to dissolve all military organizations, not to have modern types of weapons, to pay reparations. The map of Europe was fundamentally redrawn.

The composition of the main actors in world politics has changed: the revolution in Russia excluded the country from among the influential countries of the world. The countries of the Quadruple Bloc were defeated and dropped out of the ranks of the countries that determined world politics. The position of England and France weakened due to the growing influence of the USA and Japan.

New states arose on the territory of Europe: the Polish Republic, the Czechoslovak Republic, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 - Yugoslavia), Austria, Hungary, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, which radically changed the balance of power in Eastern Europe. The violation of the ethnic principle during the establishment of the borders of the new states and the ambitions of their leaders turned this region into a permanent hotbed of tension.

The borders of modern Europe were 70% formed as a result of the First World War. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany:

Returned Alsace-Lorraine to France (within the borders of 1870).

Transferred to Belgium - the districts of Malmedy and Eupen.

Transferred to Poland - Poznan, parts of Pomerania and other territories of East Prussia; southern part of Upper Silesia (1981); (at the same time: the original Polish lands on the right bank of the Oder, Lower Silesia, most of Upper Silesia - remained with Germany).

G. Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a free city.

The city of Memel (Klaipeda) was transferred to the jurisdiction of the victorious powers (in 1923 it was annexed to Lithuania).

Transferred to Denmark - the northern part of Schleswig (in 1920).

Transferred to Czechoslovakia - a small section of Upper Silesia.

The Saarland passed for 15 years under the control of the League of Nations.

The German part of the left bank of the Rhine and a strip of the right bank 50 km wide were subject to demilitarization.

Military operations have led to the destruction of the economy of many countries. Indeed, in all the warring countries, democracy was curtailed, the sphere of market relations narrowed, giving way to strict state regulation of the sphere of production and distribution in its extreme statist form, i.e. state intervention in production and its regulation increased significantly.

The First World War led to a significant deterioration in people's lives. The civilian population, suffering from the incredible hardships that they put up with in the first years of the war, in the conditions of protracted hostilities, began to fight not only for their rights, but also against the forces that unleashed this war. They wanted big change: more justice, more equality, more democracy. A new stage in the national liberation struggle of the peoples who were in colonial dependence began. The process of politicization of this struggle has intensified. As a result, revolutions broke out in some countries (Russia, Germany, Hungary, Austria, Finland, Slovakia), reforms were carried out in others (England, France, USA). A fascist dictatorship was established in Italy. War and revolutions led to the collapse of the monarchies: out of 41 ruling dynasties in Europe, only 17 remained after the end of the war.

The results of the First World War were the February and October revolutions in Russia and the November revolution in Germany. The October Revolution in Russia was followed by socialist revolutions in Finland, Germany, and Hungary; in other countries there was an unprecedented upsurge of the revolutionary movement, and in the colonies - anti-colonial.

The creation of democratic republics with a more just social order was the main goal of the revolutionary forces. But there were also those who, under the influence of the October Revolution in Russia, sought to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of Soviet power. But nowhere in Europe, except Russia, this goal has not been achieved. The most important was the German Revolution of 1918-1919, the establishment of the Weimar Republic in the country.

Tension in international relations persisted. In the 1920s, the great powers tried to strengthen this system. The position of Germany was alleviated. She was accepted into the League of Nations, and the burden of reparations was reduced. Western countries recognized Soviet Russia.

The consequences of the war were catastrophic for the national economy of most countries. They resulted in widespread long-term economic crises, which were based on the gigantic economic disproportions that arose during the war years. In the 20-30s. In the twentieth century, the world was shaken by two powerful crises - the post-war crisis of 1920-21, and the most severe in the history of world capitalism - the crisis of 1929-33.

Being a "war of economies", the First World War led to a crisis in varying degrees, all the warring countries. The situation was especially difficult in the defeated countries (Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). Living standards fell so low that discontent grew into revolutionary movements. In 1924 - 25 years. there was a “partial stabilization of capitalism. A short period of stability and prosperity was replaced in 1929 by the most severe global crisis of overproduction, which hit the rapidly developing countries (USA, Germany) the hardest.

The usual economic crisis is a mismatch between the flow of manufactured products and the purchasing power of the population (ie, overproduction of goods). Countries came out of such crises by reducing production naturally (bankruptcy or forced closure of enterprises), lowering prices by reducing production costs (for example, increasing the working day and reducing wages), and stopping investment. As a result, gradually production is compared with consumption (supply with demand) and a new rise begins.

At the end of the 20s. industry has experienced a change in the technical and technological base, which has led to too large an increase in production, which was impossible to reduce by the old methods without receiving a powerful social explosion of indignation. Therefore, the new crisis has become so protracted and painful.

There have been economic crises before. This one turned out to be unique in terms of the depth of the decline in production, in terms of the scope of the global economy and in duration. The reason for this is the breakdown of the world economy after the First World War. Western governments were not prepared to deal with such a disaster. They could not even achieve a coordinated response to the crisis, although they were all victims of it. The crisis also caused severe social consequences. Unemployment has become massive and prolonged.

Reduced demand for food worsened the situation of farmers. A similar fate befell small merchants and artisans. The middle class was also under the threat of ruin: employees, doctors, teachers. Under such conditions, the mood of the people began to change. There was a disappointment in the existing order. The political influence of those parties and movements that advocated its demolition began to grow. Among them were both communists and fascists. Political stability is also a thing of the past. The search for ways out of the crisis began. In some countries fascism eventually came to power, in others democratic reforms were carried out.

The socio-political and socio-economic consequences of the First World War for the main participating countries are briefly presented in the appendix.

The crisis also affected international relations. The countries of the West, unable to find ways to jointly fight the crisis, tried to shift its burden on each other. This weakened their ability to jointly maintain world order.

Thus, the First World War, without resolving any of the previous contradictions, gave rise to new serious contradictions, which caused subsequent military conflicts and then a new world war.

2. Creation of new states in Europe after World War I

The countries of Western Europe have always played a prominent role in world politics and economics. First of all, this applies to England, Germany, France, Russia. In 1900, the balance of power in world industrial production was as follows - England accounted for 18.5%, France - 6.8%, Germany - 13.2%, USA - 23.6%. Europe as a whole accounted for 62.0% of the world's total industrial production.

After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Czechs and Slovaks united and created an independent state - Czechoslovakia. When it became known in Prague that Austria-Hungary had sued for peace, on October 28, 1918, the Prague National Committee assumed power in the Czech and Slovak lands and created a Provisional National Assembly from representatives of various parties. The assembly elected the first president of Czechoslovakia, Tomas Masaryk. The borders of the new republic were determined at the Paris Peace Conference. It included the Czech lands of Austria, Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine, which were previously part of Hungary, and later part of Silesia, which is part of Germany. As a result, about a third of the country's population were Germans, Hungarians and Ukrainians. Major reforms were carried out in Czechoslovakia. The nobility was deprived of all privileges. An 8-hour working day was established and social insurance was introduced. The land reform abolished German and Hungarian large landownership. The Constitution of 1920 consolidated the democratic system that had developed in Czechoslovakia. Being one of the most developed industrial countries in Europe, Czechoslovakia was distinguished by a relatively high standard of living and political stability.

On October 31, 1918, the Emperor of Austria-Hungary and at the same time the King of Hungary, Charles IV, instructed the Hungarian Count M.Karoyi to form a government from democratic parties. This government was guided by the Entente and tried to keep Hungary within the pre-war borders. November 16, 1918 Hungary was proclaimed a republic. But it was not possible to consolidate democracy in Hungary. The Hungarian communists called for a revolution and began to create Russian-style Soviets throughout the country. The Entente "helped" them to come to power, in an ultimatum form, demanding the liberation of the territories that were now to be transferred to Hungary's neighbors. The ultimatum was perceived in the country as a national catastrophe. The government and Karolyi himself resigned. It seemed that there was only one way out of this crisis - to try to rely on the help of Soviet Russia. This could not have been done without the communists. On March 21, 1919, they and the Social Democrats united and bloodlessly proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Banks, industry, transport, large land holdings were nationalized. Communist leader Béla Kun became People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and proposed an "armed alliance" with Russia. This call was supported in Moscow. Two Red Armies tried to break through to each other, the Hungarian, while pushing back the Czechoslovak troops and entered the Transcarpathian Ukraine. But their connection never happened. On July 24, the offensive of the Czechoslovak and Romanian armies began. On August 1, the Soviet government resigned, and soon Romanian troops entered Budapest. Power in Hungary passed to anti-communist groups, who, in addition, advocated the restoration of the monarchy in Hungary. Under these conditions, parliamentary elections were held in 1920. The Soviet Republic fell, Miklos Horthy came to power. He banned the communist party. In the summer of 1920, the new government signed the Treaty of Trianon. According to him, Hungary lost 2/3 of the territory, 1/3 of the population and access to the sea. 3 million Hungarians ended up in neighboring states, while Hungary itself received 400,000 refugees. The foreign policy of Horthy Hungary was unambiguously aimed at restoring Hungary to its former borders. Her relationship with her neighbors was constantly strained.

was in a difficult situation and Austria. In Austria, on October 30, 1918, the Provisional National Assembly and the State Council, a coalition government headed by the Social Democrat Karl Renner, assumed power. The Provisional National Assembly abolished the monarchy. Emperor Charles IV, who succeeded the deceased Franz Joseph in 1916, became the last Habsburg on the Austrian throne. The terms of the peace treaty, which Austria was forced to sign, were unusually difficult for her. For centuries, the emerging economic ties of Austria with Hungary and the Slavic lands were artificially severed, the country lost access to the sea. Vienna, hailed as the capital of a vast empire and rivaling London and Paris in grandeur, became the capital of a small state. Having become almost a purely Austrian-German state, Austria naturally began to gravitate towards Germany. But these connections were limited. This became a breeding ground for the growth of nationalist and fascist mentality.

The Yugoslav peoples that were part of Austria-Hungary united around Serbia and created on December 4, 1918 Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. However, the Serbs sought to occupy a leading position in this state. At the same time, they did not want to reckon with the interests of other nations, which are very different from each other, despite their common origin (Croats and Slovenes are Catholics, Macedonians, Montenegrins and the Serbs themselves are Orthodox, some of the Slavs converted to Islam, Albanians are non-Slavs, professing in the majority Islam). This almost immediately made the national question the main source of instability in political life. At the same time, the main contradiction turned out to be between Serbs and Croats - the two largest peoples of the country. The authorities tried to suppress any discontent. The country became known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was supposed to symbolize the "national unity" of the population. In response, Croatian nationalists killed the king in 1934. Only in 1939 did the ruling regime decide to make concessions on the national question: it announced the creation of an autonomous Croatian region.

Lost independence and divided in the 18th century Poland fought for the restoration of their state for more than a century. The First World War created the conditions for achieving this goal. The restoration of an independent Polish state is associated with the name of Jozef Pilsudski. Observing the growing contradictions between Russia and Austria-Hungary, he came up with the idea of ​​using these contradictions to achieve his goal. He offered the services of the revolutionary underground to the Austrians to fight against Russia. With the outbreak of the First World War, Piłsudski got the opportunity to form Polish national units, which already in 1914 entered into battle with the Russian army. The retreat of the Russian army from Poland in 1915 contributed to the growth of Pilsudski's influence, which caused alarm among the Germans and Austrians, who least of all thought about Polish independence. They assigned Piłsudski only the role of a weapon in the anti-Russian struggle. The February revolution in Russia and the recognition by the new government of the Poles' right to independence changed the situation. Piłsudski even thought about going over to the Russian side, and for a start he stopped cooperation with the Austrians and Germans. They did not stand on ceremony with him: he ended up in a German prison. But this episode further contributed to the growth of his authority in Poland and, no less important, made him an acceptable figure for the Entente as the leader of Poland, the restoration of independence of which became inevitable. The German revolution made it possible to proclaim the independence of Poland, it also freed Pilsudski.

Arriving in Warsaw, becoming the head of the resurgent Polish state, he concentrated all his energy on creating a combat-ready Polish army from scattered units and detachments, which, in his opinion, was to play a decisive role in determining the borders of the Polish state. Poland's western borders were determined at the Paris Peace Conference. Pilsudski tried to recreate the eastern ones in the form in which they were in 1772, when, in addition to the Polish lands proper, it included all of Belarus, Lithuania, part of Latvia and Right-Bank Ukraine. Such plans could not but meet opposition from the peoples inhabiting these territories. They also contradicted the principle of self-determination of peoples, which was the basis of post-war reconstruction.

In December 1919, the Supreme Council of the Entente established the “Curzon Line” as the temporary border of Poland in the east, which ran along the approximate border of Poles on the one hand, Ukrainians and Lithuanians on the other. However, relying on the support of France, which saw in a strong Poland a reliable counterbalance to Germany in the east, Piłsudski could ignore this decision. This was facilitated by the weakness of the states that had just declared their independence (Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus) after the collapse of the Russian Empire.

Polish troops successively established control over Galicia (this part of Ukraine was part of Austria-Hungary before the First World War), the Vilna region of Lithuania, and in May 1920 they occupied Kyiv. After the signing of the peace treaty, in March 1921, the Soviet-Polish border passed east of the Curzon Line, and the western part of Ukraine and Belarus became part of Poland. Soon the Poles again captured the Vilna region from Lithuania. This is how the borders of Poland developed, in which a third of the population was non-Poles.

In 1921, a constitution was adopted declaring Poland a parliamentary republic. In foreign policy, Poland, being in alliance with France since 1921, pursued an anti-German and anti-Soviet policy.

On December 31, 1917, independence was granted Finland. As early as January 1918, the leftist Social Democrats and the Finnish Red Guard attempted to establish Soviet power. They captured the capital of Finland, Helsinki, industrial centers in the south of the country, created a revolutionary government, which concluded a treaty of friendship with Soviet Russia. In addition, after the proclamation of independence, parts of the Russian army remained on the territory of Finland, which supported the revolution. The Finnish government moved to the city of Vasya on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia and began to form a national army, entrusting this to the former Russian general K.G.E. Mannerheim. The presence of Russian troops gave Finland a reason to ask for help from Germany. In early April 1918, about 10,000 German soldiers landed in Finland. The revolutionaries were defeated. But the country turned out to be dependent on Germany, plans were discussed for declaring Finland a kingdom and inviting a German prince to the throne. After the defeat of Germany in the First World War, a republic was proclaimed in Finland, German troops left the country. Before the formation of elected authorities, the new state was headed by Mannerheim. Soviet-Finnish relations remained tense.

The territory of the future independent Lithuania already in 1915 it was occupied by German troops. Under the auspices of Germany, the Lithuanian Tariba (Assembly) was created there, headed by A. Smetona. On December 11, 1917, she proclaimed the restoration of the State of Lithuania. Lithuania's independence was recognized by Germany, forcing Soviet Russia to recognize it under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. However, after the Compiegne armistice, the Red Army invaded Lithuania, Soviet power was proclaimed there, Lithuania and Belarus were united into one Soviet republic. Negotiations began on its federal union with Soviet Russia. These plans did not materialize. The Vilna region was captured by Polish troops, and the Red Army was forced out of the rest of Lithuania with the help of volunteer detachments, consisting of the remnants of the German army. In April 1919, Lithuanian Tariba adopted a provisional constitution and elected A. Smetona as president. All decrees of the Soviets were repealed. However, the power of Smetona at first was purely nominal. Part of the country's territory was occupied by the Polish army, the north of Lithuania was controlled by German troops, relations with Soviet Russia remained unsettled. The Entente countries were suspicious of the new government, seeing in it German proteges. It was decided to send the newly formed Lithuanian army to clear the territory of German detachments, then, on the basis of anti-Polish interests, it was possible to regulate relations with Soviet Russia. An agreement was signed with her, according to which the Vilna region was recognized as Lithuanian.

In the Soviet-Polish war, Lithuania adhered to neutrality, but Soviet Russia handed over to it the Vilna region, from which Polish troops were driven out. However, after the retreat of the Red Army, the Poles recaptured the Vilna region, there were continuous clashes between the Polish and Lithuanian armies. Only in November 1920, with the mediation of the Entente countries, a truce was concluded. In 1923, the League of Nations recognized the annexation of the Vilna region to Poland. Kaunas became the capital of Lithuania. As compensation, the League of Nations agreed to Lithuania's capture of Memel (Klaipeda) on the coast of the Baltic Sea - German territory that came under French control after the World War. In 1922, the Constituent Seimas adopted the constitution of Lithuania. It became a parliamentary republic. An agrarian reform was carried out, during which large land ownership, predominantly Polish, was eliminated. About 70 thousand peasants received land as a result of this reform.

Territory of future independent republics Latvia and Estonia by the time of the October Revolution, it was only partially occupied by German troops. Soviet power was proclaimed in the rest of Latvia and Estonia, but in February 1918 the German army captured this territory as well. According to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Soviet Russia recognized the secession of Latvia and Estonia. Germany planned to create a Baltic duchy here, headed by one of the representatives of the Prussian Hohengdollern dynasty. But after the Armistice of Compiegne, Germany transferred power in Latvia to the government of K. Ulmanis, and in Estonia - to the government of K. Päts, who proclaimed the independence of their states. Both governments consisted of representatives of democratic parties. Almost simultaneously, an attempt was made to restore Soviet power here. Parts of the Red Army entered Estonia. The Estland Labor Commune was proclaimed, the RSFSR recognized its independence. At the initiative of the government of the RSFSR, Estonia was transferred to part of the territory of the Petrograd province with a predominantly Russian population.

In Latvia, a Provisional Soviet government was created from the Latvian Bolsheviks, which turned to the RSFSR for help. The Red Army took control of most of Latvia. Then the creation of the Socialist Soviet Republic of Latvia was proclaimed. In the struggle against the Soviet troops, the governments of Ulmanis and Päts were forced to rely on the help of the German army, and after its evacuation, on volunteer detachments consisting of Baltic Germans and soldiers of the German army. From December 1918 aid to these governments began to come from the British; their squadron came to Tallinn. In 1919, the Soviet troops were forced out. Reorienting themselves towards the Entente and creating national armies, the governments of Ulmanis and Päts expelled the German detachments.

In 1920, the RSFSR recognized the new republics. They held elections to Constituent Assemblies and adopted constitutions. An important role in stabilizing the internal life of these states was played, as in Lithuania, by agrarian reforms. Large land holdings, which belonged mainly to the German barons, were liquidated. Tens of thousands of peasants received land on preferential terms. In foreign policy, these states were guided by England and France.

Conclusion

World War I ended with the defeat of Germany and its allies. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919-20 prepared treaties with the defeated countries. The following were signed: the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 with Germany (June 28), the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty of 1919 with Austria (September 10), the Neuilly Peace Treaty of 1919 with Bulgaria (November 27), the Trianon Peace Treaty of 1920 with Hungary (June 4), Sevres 1920 peace treaty with Turkey (August 10).

The conference decided to establish the League of Nations and approved its charter, which became an integral part of the peace treaties. Germany and its former allies were deprived of significant territories, forced to pay large reparations, and significantly limit their armed forces.

The post-war peaceful "settlement" in the interests of the victorious imperialist powers was completed by the Washington Conference of 1921-22. Treaties with Germany and its former allies and agreements signed at the Washington Conference amounted to the so-called. Versailles-Washington system of world organization. Being the result of compromises and deals, it not only did not eliminate the contradictions between the imperialist powers, but significantly strengthened them.

Conclusion. The First World War became an important milestone in the development of mankind. It proved the unity of the world and laid the foundation for fundamental changes in the economy, domestic political life, international relations, culture, and most importantly, in the minds and behavior of people.

Despite the tragedy of what happened, the First World War served as the starting point for fundamental changes in politics, economics and public life not only in Europe, but also in entire continents.

List of used literature

1. Zagladin N.V. Recent history of foreign countries of the XX century. A guide for the teacher / N.V. Zagladin, Kh.T. Zagladina, I.M. Ermakova. - M.: Russian Word, 2006. - 318 p.

2. Zaionchkovsky A. M. The First World War / A. M. Zayonchkovsky. - St. Petersburg: Polygon, 2000. - 878 p.

3. History of the First World War 1914-1918. / Ed. I.I.Rostunova. - in 2 volumes. -- M.: Nauka, 1975.

4. Projector D.M. World wars and the fate of mankind: Reflections / D.M.Proektor. - M.: Thought, 1986. - 320 p.

5. Utkin A.I. First World War / A.I. Utkin. - M.: Algorithm, 2001. - 592 p.

6. Polyak G.B. The World History. World Wars of the 20th century. Causes and consequences. World War I / G.B. Polyak, A.N. Markova. - M.: BEK, 2004. - 210 p.

7. Wikipedia: World War I. [Electronic resource]. Access mode: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWI/

8. World wars. World War I. [Electronic resource]. Access mode: http://www.petrograd.biz/worldwars/

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Abstract on the topic:

"Settlement of international relations after the First World War"

Introduction

The topic of world war is relevant. Many people talk about it and each person has his own attitude to the war. We chose a report on the First World War because we wanted to know more about the causes of the war, its results and how countries solved the difficult problem of regulating international relations after the war. After all, the further life of all people on Earth will depend on how the countries agree.

The theme of the World War is well covered in the literature. I noticed that they write about the war not only in documentary, but also in fiction. There are a lot of books by famous writers who, unfortunately, had to face the hardships of the war and they had the courage to write about it. But still, I took the main information in documentary books.

Having chosen this topic, I pursued personal goals - I wanted to learn about the causes and results of the war of 1914-1918, to find out why this war did start, and were there any chances to avoid it?!

Of course, there were chances to avoid war, but on the other hand, it is not known how the fate of mankind would have developed if it had not been. No one can change history, and it makes no sense to talk about what could have been done differently - it will never be different.

It is known that the murder on June 28, 1914 was the reason for the start of the war. in Sarajevo, the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, who arrived in Bosnia and Herzegovina for the teaching of the Austro-Hungarian troops.

In this war, each country pursued its own goals. France intended to return the lost in 1871. territory and, if possible, seize the banks of the Rhine. Britain's goal was to crush Germany as the main rival on the Continent. Austria-Hungary hoped to put an end to Serbia and the pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans and the main stronghold - Russia. Germany sought not only the defeat of France and Great Britain, but also the capture of part of Russian territory for colonization. Some of the claims of the participants in the two military-political blocs were framed in secret agreements.

The First World War (1914-1918) is one of the longest, bloodiest and most significant in terms of consequences in the history of mankind. It went on for over 4 years. It was attended by 33 out of 59 countries that had state sovereignty at that time. The population of the warring countries was over 1.5 billion. person, i.e. about 87% of all inhabitants of the Earth. A total of 73.5 million people were put under arms. More than 10 million were killed and 20 million wounded. Casualties among the civilian population affected by epidemics, famine, cold and other wartime disasters also numbered in the tens of millions.

Chapter I. Treaty of Versailles

The positions of the powers in the international arena as a result of the First World War

By the end of the First World War, the capitalist countries were approaching a peaceful settlement in 1918. in an unusual situation. The problem of peace arose as an immediate task not only because one of the fighting coalitions was defeated on the military front. There was also the threat of a revolutionary exit from the war - especially for the Central Powers.

The alignment of forces in the world after the end of the First World War reflected the contradictions of the system of international relations that had taken shape by the end of the war. One of its most important results was the October Revolution in Russia, the falling away from the capitalist system of 1/6 of the territory of the earth, the beginning of the general crisis of capitalism.

Significant shifts have also taken place within the capitalist world. The most significant were, on the one hand, the defeat of a world-class power - Germany, on the other - the entry of the United States into the international arena as an active contender for world domination. The war enriched the United States unheard of. Over the years of the war, they turned into the military arsenal of the Entente, its most important source of food and equipment. The US has not only paid off its own debt, but has become one of the main creditors of the world. They lent the countries of Europe about $10 billion. About $6.5 billion were private investments by American capitalists.

The ruling circles of the United States sought to use the position of the world creditor to achieve world domination. They expected to dictate their will at a peace conference. Back in July 1917. President Wilson wrote: "England and France do not in the least share our views, but when the war is over, we will be able to get them to join our opinion, since by that time they will be in our hands financially." It was on this confidence that the American "peace program" proclaimed in Wilson's 14 Points on January 8, 1918, was based. Declaring its commitment to "open peace negotiations" (p. 1), the US government thus declared its non-recognition of all secret treaties and agreements signed by the Entente countries without the participation and knowledge of the United States. Wilson put forward the principles of "freedom of the seas" and "freedom of trade" (p. 2, 3), which were considered as instruments of "peaceful" single combat and the victory of the United States in the struggle, primarily with Great Britain, France and Japan. The demand for a "reduction of national armaments" (clause 4) was supposed to cover up the arms race that had begun in the United States, and in the statement on the "free settlement" of colonial problems (clause 5), the United States made claims to strengthen its positions in the colonies and dependent countries. Paragraphs 7-11 dealt with issues that were decided at the armistice talks in Compiègne. Paragraph 12 demanded the autonomy of the peoples that were part of Turkey and the opening of the Black Sea straits, paragraph 13 spoke of the creation of an independent Poland, paragraph 14 - of the creation of the League of Nations. As already noted with regard to the "Russian question" (point 6), the entire American program of "peace settlement" was calculated to be able to cover up the expansionist interests of the US imperialists with pacifist phraseology.

The Compiegne Truce was formally based on Wilson's 14 Points. Germany also appealed to them. But sharp contradictions arose between the former allies. One of the first problems that caused the conflict was the attempts of the Entente powers to link their debts to the United States with reparations that were supposed to be collected from Germany, and with the "general settlement of international debts." However, these attempts were not successful.

The United States also fought hard for European markets. For this purpose, the "Food Administration of the United States" was created. Under the slogan of helping the peoples, American capital sought to strengthen its position in the post-war world to the detriment of its competitors.

Great Britain retained the status of a great power after the war, although it was pushed into the background by the United States. By the beginning of the peace conference, she had already received almost everything for which she fought the war. Germany ceased to be her rival at sea and her competitor on world markets.

The position of France was also strong enough. But the French "peace program" was still far from being realized. Referring to the need to ensure the security of France, French diplomacy hoped to deprive Germany of the possibility of revenge and establish French hegemony in Europe. France's intentions were recorded in a secret treaty with Russia, signed in February 1917. It provided for the rejection of a number of territories from Germany. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, it received the Saar coal basin, its borders with Germany were pushed back to the Rhine.

Representatives of Italy, Japan and other countries arrived at the peace conference with their claims. Despite the fact that the first two of them belonged to the "great powers", their real influence was insignificant and affected only the solution of local issues.

Inter-imperialist contradictions at the Paris Peace Conference

The peace conference began in Paris on January 18, 1919. on the same day as in 1971. The German Empire was proclaimed. The conference was attended by representatives of 27 countries. It was widely advertised as an example of "open diplomacy". More than a thousand delegates came to Paris. But there were no representatives of Germany, whose fate was decided at the conference. But there were no representatives of Soviet Russia either. The Paris Conference, in essence, has become the headquarters of the anti-Soviet intervention. It was on the day of its opening that the Allies approved the document "On the need for Allied intervention in Russia." The Russian Question was one of the most important at the conference. There was not a single meeting at which it was not discussed, either directly or in connection with other issues. There were periods when the Paris Conference dealt only with it, that is, with a set of issues related to the intervention in Russia and its blockade. Contrary to statements about a "just peace" and the rejection of "secret diplomacy", the main decisions of the conference were the result of an unspoken collusion between representatives of the major powers, primarily the United States, Great Britain and France. In parallel, numerous commissions worked on individual problems of the peace treaty with Germany and the post-war order of the world. Wilson insisted on the priority of developing and discussing the League of Nations, emphasizing that it should become an integral part of all treaties. The United States expected to play a leading role in the new "peace preservation" organization.

Great Britain, France and Japan actively opposed US hegemony. They feared that the adoption of the charter of the League of Nations would make it difficult to discuss territorial and financial problems. The issue was resolved by the creation of a special commission on the League of Nations, chaired by Wilson.

On February 14 Wilson, in pathetic style, presented the Charter of the League of Nations to the peace conference, characterizing it as the instrument he had finally found for the preservation of "eternal peace." In the Charter of the League of Nations, some general international legal principles were fixed, the renunciation of wars was proclaimed, an attempt was made to distinguish between the aggressor and his victim, and sanctions were provided against the aggressor. However, it was not the “principles” themselves that were decisive, but their interpretation. In fact, the League of Nations secured the victory of the allies in the war and the preservation of the status quo in the world they divided. The admission of Soviet Russia to the League of Nations was ruled out in those years. In the Charter of the League of Nations, at the insistence of Wilson and as a result of the forced consent of the allies, the principle of a mandate (authority to govern) was enshrined - a new form of colonial policy of the imperialist powers.

American diplomacy sought to link the system of mandates with the principle of "open doors" and "equal opportunities" proclaimed by the United States at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The United States insisted on the inclusion of the Monroe Doctrine in the Charter of the League of Nations, demanded the extension of the principle of "open doors" to the colonial possessions of other countries, their "internationalization". The essence of this "new diplomacy" was reduced to attempts to strengthen the position of the United States.

A bitter struggle was waged over the question of "freedom of the seas". Only in April 1919. A compromise solution was reached. In accordance with it, the United States refused to fully implement its naval programs, promising to exchange information on this issue. They recognized Britain's "special position" as a maritime power. In turn, Great Britain recognized the League of Nations as an integral part of the peace treaties. Later, the issue of including the Monroe Doctrine in the Charter of the League was resolved. France made this concession in response to the recognition by the United States of French claims regarding the status of the Saarland and the Rhineland.

Could not solve the Paris Peace Conference and reparations problems. Based on the principle of maximum weakening of Germany, France demanded the establishment of a huge amount of reparations. However, such a prospect was not in keeping with the British program for a post-war peace. Great Britain considered Germany as a market for its goods. A weakened Germany, Wilson reasoned, would not be able to pay reparations, and this would indirectly hurt American creditors.

After lengthy discussions, a reparation commission was created, which was entrusted until May 1, 1921. study the problem and present the final reparations demands to the German government.

Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was the main document of the post-war peace settlement. Then peace treaties were signed with Germany's allies - Bulgaria, Turkey and, since Austria-Hungary broke up, separately with Austria and Hungary. Each of the treaties began with the Charter of the League of Nations.

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, the districts of Eupen, Malmedy and Morenay were transferred to Belgium, Northern Schleswig - to Denmark. Germany recognized the independence of Poland and Czechoslovakia. Part of the Silesian territory departed to Czechoslovakia. Poland received separate regions of Pomerania, Posen, most of West and part of East Prussia, and, in addition, part of Upper Silesia. The city of Danzig (Gdansk) with the territory adjacent to it turned into a "free city" under the control of the League of Nations. It was included in the customs borders of Poland. The territory of the so-called Danzig Corridor separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. Germany recognized the independence of Luxembourg, pledged to "strictly respect" the independence of Austria. Memel (Klaipeda) and the surrounding areas were transferred under the control of the League of Nations (in 1923 they were included in Lithuania). The territory of Germany on the left bank of the Rhine and its right bank to a depth of 50 km. were demilitarized. The Saar coal basin passed "to the full and unlimited property" of France, while the region itself remained under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. In general, Germany lost 1/8 of the territory and 1/12 of the population.

The Treaty of Versailles deprived Germany of all colonies, spheres of influence, property and privileges outside the country. The German colonies were divided (in the form of mandates) between France, Japan, Belgium, Portugal, Great Britain and its dominions. Cameroon and Togo were divided between Britain and France. Australia received part of New Guinea, and New Zealand received Western Samoa. Japan received German concessions in Shandong, as well as the islands in the Pacific Ocean that previously belonged to Germany, which lay north of the equator.

The Treaty of Versailles provided for the disarmament of Germany. The land army was reduced to 100 thousand. people (with 4 thousand officers). The surface navy of Germany was sharply limited, and it was forbidden to have submarines. The same applied to military and naval aviation. Germany was declared responsible for the outbreak of the world war and the damage caused by it. Thus, a legal basis was created for collecting reparation payments from Germany to compensate for "all losses and all losses" of the Allies. Some articles of the treaty reduced Germany to the position of a dependent country.

The text of the Treaty of Versailles in a special section called "Labor" provided for the creation of an international labor office under the League of Nations. This organization was founded on the principles of "class peace" and collaborated with the reformist Amsterdam Trade Union International. The International Labor Office was an information body and had no practical significance in solving the problems of "social justice".

The Treaty of Versailles was the basis of the post-war peace settlement system. He proceeded from the imperialist principles of solving world problems, fixed the existing alignment of forces in the world. However, the positions taken by the powers in 1919 could not remain unchanged. In accordance with the law of uneven development of the capitalist powers, the “balance” fixed in the post-war treaties was unstable.

Chapter II. Washington Treaty

The clash of imperialist interests of Great Britain, the USA, and Japan in the Far East

world war treaty imperialist

An important object of the post-war peace settlement was the Far Eastern knot of inter-imperialist contradictions. Japan, which actually did not take part in the war, took advantage of the fact that its main rivals were busy in the European theater of operations, strengthened its positions in the Pacific Ocean and the Far East, especially in China. Nearly half of China's foreign trade was in the hands of Japan. Under the Treaty of Versailles, she inherited a significant part of the German "inheritance", which, in the opinion of the American ruling circles, seriously infringed on US interests in the Far East.

Japanese expansion in this area was opposed by both Great Britain and the United States, although its forms were different. Having created an international banking consortium after the end of the war, the United States demanded the "internationalization" of China under the slogans of "open doors" and "equal opportunities." Britain, on the other hand, defended the traditional principle of dividing China into "spheres of influence." The atmosphere within this trio of imperialist powers was very tense. Even the possibility of a military clash was discussed in the ruling circles of the USA and Japan. In addition, American intelligence found that the warships being built in Britain and Japan were superior in power to the American ones. The United States had great material resources to eventually win the naval rivalry, but this took time.

Japan was becoming a serious rival to the US and Great Britain in the Far East. Anglo-Japanese alliance, concluded in 1902. mainly against Russia, Japan intended to use against the US. Relations between the UK and the US also remained tense. By the beginning of the 1920s, the amount of various forms of debt of European countries to the United States was already over 18 billion US dollars. opportunities" in trade and entrepreneurship in all parts of China.

Opening of the Washington Conference. Treatise of the Four Powers

Nine powers were invited to the conference, which began on November 12, 1921: the USA, Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and China. The People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR expressed a strong protest against the exclusion of Soviet Russia from the conference participants. He announced the non-recognition of decisions taken without the consent of the Soviet state. The Far Eastern Republic (FER) was not invited either. The special position of the Far East, which was not then part of the RSFSR, aggravated the Japanese-American rivalry in the struggle for dominance in Eastern Siberia. In the negotiations in Dairen with representatives of the Far East, Japan tried to impose on her complete economic and political enslavement. These reasons were categorically rejected.

Officially, the organizers of the Washington Conference declared "arms limitation" as their goal, appealing to the pacifist sentiments of the peoples. Statesmen and diplomats renounced "secret diplomacy", plenary sessions of the conference were held in public. The core of the speech by the chairman of the Washington Conference, US Secretary of State Hughes, was a proposal to stop the construction of super-powerful warships in all countries and disable some of them. However, in the course of specific negotiations, which, by the way, were not public, sharp discussions unfolded. The representative of Great Britain conditioned the limitation of the power of the fleet by the reduction of the huge French land army. The French Prime Minister rejected such demands, citing the "danger of Bolshevism." The United States supported the position of France on this issue in order to isolate Great Britain, to deprive it of the halo of the "guarantor" of the Versailles Peace. Other powers also opposed the reduction of the army. It was not possible to achieve an acceptable result for all agreements on this issue.

December 13, 1921 Representatives of the United States, Great Britain, Japan and France signed the Treaty of the Four Powers. It guaranteed the island possessions of its members in the Pacific Ocean. Anglo-Japanese alliance 1902 was terminated. The treaty was military in nature. This seemingly ordinary agreement caused a sharp controversy in the US at the time of its ratification. And not by accident. It was about guaranteeing possessions that were "in a state of mandate." It could happen that the United States, which did not receive mandates, would have to protect other people's possessions. Therefore, during the ratification of the treaty, an amendment was adopted that "without the consent of Congress" the US government should not assume obligations to protect the possessions of other nations in the Pacific Ocean. This circumstance could not but weaken the effectiveness of the treatise. But at the same time, the declaration of December 13, 1921, attached to the treaty of the four powers, clearly showed the fact that the signing of the treaty does not mean the consent of the United States to existing mandates and "does not exclude the possibility of concluding agreements" between the United States and the Mandatory Powers on the islands located "in a state of mandate". Thus, the possibility of acquiring the islands by the United States remained.

On the whole, this agreement had a stabilizing effect on the positions of the powers in the Pacific. To some extent, it was the embodiment of the American idea of ​​the "Association of Nations", that is, the creation of a bloc of the most powerful powers in the Far East, which could be used in the fight against Soviet Russia and the national liberation movement in China.

The agreement reached on a number of contentious issues made it possible to take another step towards strengthening the position of the United States.

Five Power Treaty

February 6, 1922 signed a five-power treaty - the United States, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy - on the "limitation of naval armaments". Between them, the following proportions of the linear fleet were established, respectively: 5:5:3:1.75:1.75. the powers undertook not to build battleships with a displacement of more than 35 thousand tons. tons. However, the treaty did not limit the tonnage of the cruising and submarine fleet. He forbade the creation of new naval bases and the strengthening of the coast guard. An exception was made only in favor of the USA and Great Britain: the USA received the right to fortify the islands protecting the direct approaches to their territorial waters; similar exemptions were made for the British dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. If the US refusal to fortify the Philippines and Guam took into account the interests of Japan, then the transformation of the British possession of Singapore into a military fortress was directed against her.

The treaty of the five powers was not "disarmament". There was only a shift of forces in favor of the United States. Britain had to make significant concessions. She was forced to abandon the traditional principle of the "two-power standard", according to which the British fleet should not be inferior to the fleet of the two largest maritime powers. At the same time, Great Britain retained its positions: having got rid of the cost of battleships, it had the opportunity to build high-speed cruisers and merchant ships that could easily be turned into military ones.

The Japanese delegation sharply objected to the proportion of the battle fleet fixed in the five-power treaty. However, her claims to the "equality" of the fleets were rejected. In the press, Japan was inspired by a noisy campaign against the "Washington shame". In reality, the balance of power established in Washington was quite favorable for Japan. In addition, Japan had well-fortified naval bases in the area.

Nine Power Treaty

Particular attention at the Washington Conference was given to the problem of China. China did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, demanding the return of the German colonies transferred to Japan on its territory. In response to the Versailles robbery in 1919. The May 4th National Liberation Movement began in China. The United States tried to flirt with the leaders of this movement, but there was no question of restoring China to the rights of a truly sovereign, independent state. Acting under the slogans of "open doors" and "equal opportunities", under the guise of "friends of China", the United States hoped to strengthen the position of American capital in this country and eliminate the "spheres of influence" of other powers.

British diplomacy sought to maintain its traditional positions in China, counting on an agreement with Japan on the principles of the Treaty of Versailles. In the face of Japan, she saw not only a rival, but also an ally, moreover, she was destined for the role of a gendarme in the Far East. However, all attempts to defend the colonial status of China in the traditional form were not successful.

February 6, 1922 signed a treaty of nine powers - all participants in the conference. He hypocritically proclaimed the principle of China's sovereignty and territorial integrity. The Powers, the document said, pursue the goal of "protecting the rights and interests of China", "providing China with the fullest and unhindered opportunity to develop and maintain a viable and stable government." In essence, this document meant the formation of a united front of the imperialist powers against the national liberation movement in China. Recognition of the principles of "open doors" and "equal opportunities" created the threat of China's enslavement by the most powerful imperialist state, which the United States, not without reason, considered itself to be. Japan gave up its monopoly position in China and undertook to return to it the former German concessions in Shandong and withdraw its troops from there. However, the unequal treaties with China were not cancelled, and foreign control over Chinese customs remained. Japan rejected Chinese demands to withdraw troops from South Manchuria, which allowed it to later use Manchuria as a springboard to expand its expansionist policies in the Far East.

The contradictions between the imperialist powers during the Washington Conference hastened the liberation of the Soviet Far East from foreign interventionists. The Dairen talks convinced the Soviet government that Japan, by delaying the evacuation of its troops, was making plans to turn Eastern Siberia into its "sphere of influence." In this situation, the FER delegation came to Washington. Declaring a desire to cooperate with the United States, she began negotiations with Hughes. It soon became clear, however, that the United States was not averse to replacing the Japanese in the Soviet Far East. After that, the FER delegation publicized the results of negotiations with representatives of Japan and the United States. The publication of documents about the true intentions of the imperialist forces in relation to Soviet Russia caused a real stir in diplomatic circles and in the capitals of the major powers. Inter-imperialist contradictions, and most importantly, the successful actions of the Red Army, resulted in an accelerated withdrawal of Japanese troops from the territory of Eastern Siberia and complete liberation in 1922. Soviet Republic from the interventionists.

The contradictions of the Versailles-Washington system

During the post-war peace settlement, a whole complex of treaties was created, known in history as the Versailles-Washington system. If the Versailles system regulated the post-war problems of Western Europe, as well as the interests of its leading powers in Africa and the Middle East, then the Washington system tried to resolve contradictions in the Far East and the Pacific Ocean in the interests of the United States. In this sense, Washington was a continuation of Versailles, its geographical complement; and not the first, and at the second conference there was an imperialist redistribution of the world.

At the same time, the Washington Conference was also the beginning of the revision of Versailles. Its initiator - the United States - after the collapse of the first round of struggle in Paris began to search for a new foreign policy course to solve the same goal - American leadership in the capitalist world. This new leadership claim was made at the Washington Conference. However, rivalry with Great Britain and Japan somewhat changed its original design. The results of the conference testified that the United States managed to achieve recognition of the principle of "freedom of the seas", weaken Great Britain as a great maritime power, push Japan out of China, achieve the establishment of the principle of "equal opportunities", but the strategy of complete domination of the United States in the Far East and the Pacific Ocean was only partially implemented. Japan retained strong enough positions to create the first hotbed of World War II in 10 years, and in 20 years to be able to attack the United States.

Contradictions between the European powers were also acute. In 1921-1922. under the auspices of France, the so-called Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia) was formed. Based on this military-political alliance, France sought to assert its influence in post-war Europe. It was also directed against the revisionist claims of the defeated states, against Soviet Russia and the revolutionary movement.

The Versailles system of treaties created a "powder magazine" in Europe, and in the Middle East - a hotbed of almost uninterrupted cataclysms and explosions of the national liberation movement. A fierce struggle between the victorious powers began immediately after the armistice. The United States, having failed to achieve an "American peace" in Paris, rejected the Versailles system, waiting for the right moment for revenge.

Arising under the sign of deep contradictions. The system of predatory contracts began to fall apart. One of the first to fall was the Treaty of Sevres with Turkey. In an attempt to weaken the effect of centrifugal forces, the victorious powers set up numerous commissions, which were ordered to implement various articles of the Treaty of Versailles, which entered into force on January 10, 1920. The general supervision of its execution was entrusted to periodically convened conferences of the ambassadors of Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy, chaired by the representative of France. The United States had its observer on them. During these conferences sharp Anglo-French contradictions emerged. Only by concessions to Great Britain in the Middle East did France receive its often inconsistent support in solving European problems, especially concerning Germany. Germany tried to split the allies, to achieve concessions. Moreover, in Berlin they never hid their dreams of revenge, but officially preferred not to demand revenge with “loud screams”.

Particularly heated discussions unfolded on the question of reparations. The Reparation Commission first determined the total amount of German reparations in the amount of 269 billion. gold marks. But a month later, in the city of Spa, at the request of Germany, the issue was again brought up for discussion. However, it was only possible to establish the principles for the distribution of reparations among the powers. France was to receive 52% of the total, Great Britain - 22%, Italy - 10%, the rest was transferred to other countries, including the United States. It was envisaged that Russia would also receive a certain amount of reparations. The subsequent conference reduced the total amount of reparations to 226 billion. gold marks. However, Germany refused to accept this demand. Finally, on May 5, 1921. the London ultimatum was sent to her, setting the final amount of reparations at 132 billion. gold marks. In the context of the political crisis and after the change of government, this ultimatum was finally accepted. However, Germany carried it out only for one year. In January 1923 Anglo-French disagreements on the reparations question reached unprecedented sharpness. London's proposal to reduce the total amount of German reparations to 50 billion. gold marks Paris indignantly rejected. French President Poincaré wrote in this regard that if the British version was adopted, "Germany's hegemony over Europe" would be established in 15 years.

Failing to win the support of Great Britain, France decided to take over the so-called productive deposits: the coal mines of the Ruhr and the steel industry of the Rhine Province. January 11, 1923 The Franco-Belgian army occupied the Ruhr. The Ruhr conflict began. In the autumn of 1923 the United Kingdom and the United States intervened. The Ruhr conflict resulted in the collapse of France's claims to hegemony in Europe.

Equally sharp were disagreements about the size of the German army and the nature of its weapons. Some provisions of the Treaty of Versailles were categorically rejected by Germany, and the victorious powers were unable to force them to comply. The articles on the prosecution of persons "accused of committing acts contrary to the laws and customs of war" were not generally implemented. Escaped court and Wilhelm II. From the very beginning, many of the military provisions of the Treaty of Versailles were not implemented. But German revanchism was not the only source of international tension and the threat of a new world war. It was paved the way for the totality of the antagonisms of the imperialist system of international relations created at Versailles.

On the whole, the Versailles-Washington system completed the process of post-war peace settlement, the transition from war to peace, and prepared the conditions for the temporary relative stabilization of capitalism in the sphere of international relations as well.

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