See in the notebook, not in the book, there is in the notebook)
2. Typology as a general scientific method. Linguistic typology is one of the types of systematization of languages and a section of general linguistics
On a general scientific scale, typology is a method of studying diverse and internally complex objects by identifying their common or similar features and grouping, combining objects, taking into account the measure of this proximity, into certain classes (groups, types). Typological studies in various sciences can differ significantly in principles and logical forms. Thus, biological typology (taxonomy of the plant and animal worlds) is based on the evolutionary principle; in geography, geology, ethnography, typological studies are built taking into account the hierarchical relationships between objects (the corresponding groups of objects of the same rank are called taxa, and their classifications are called taxonomic classifications, or taxonomies*). To understand some other areas of reality, it is important to identify both the hierarchy of objects (i.e., their "vertical" relationships) and horizontal connections, due to the different strength of the manifestation of some common feature. As a result, the corresponding subject area appears as a continuum of objects or their classes.
In linguistics, three main types of systematization of languages are used: 1) genealogical associations, which take into account the family relationships of languages; 2) typological classifications of languages, understood as associations (groupings), logically independent of the genealogical trees of languages; 3) territorial (areal) classifications of languages. In the systematization of languages, general scientific principles of typological research, methods of genetic and taxonomic classifications, continuum and areal research are used. However, it is only in typological studies of languages that the very idea of type is used as a kind of association of objects, taking into account their common features. Therefore, in linguistics it is customary to terminologically distinguish typology proper from all other types of systematization of languages (ie, from their genetic and areal associations).
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "type (class) of language" as an empirical reality (this is a group of specific languages that have a number of typologically significant common features) and "type of language" as an abstract mental construct (in a book or in the mind of a researcher): this is a logical construction, which displays a set of significant features corresponding to a given type of language.
3. From the history of typological research (the forerunners and founders of the typology of languages: A. Arno, Claude Lanslo "The General and Rational Grammar of Port-Royal (1660); F. von Schlegel; W. von Humboldt, etc.)
Although the first typological classifications and terms belong to the beginning of the 19th century, however, the prerequisites for typological linguistics and linguistics of universals were laid back in the Middle Ages - thanks to the centuries-old belief of people that all languages are internally similar and that therefore, according to the grammar of the Latin language, one can understand the structure and categories of any from vernacular languages. The ubiquitous cultural bilingualism in the Middle Ages prompted constantly comparing languages, noticing their similarities and differences, while Greek, Latin or Church Slavonic were a kind of “starting point”, “reference” languages.
The spontaneous universalism of medieval grammatical thought, the belief in the fundamental "commensurability" of any languages subsequently received theoretical development in the famous grammar of Antoine Arnault and Claude Lanslo "Grammar General and Rational Port-Royal" (1660). Under her influence in the early nineteenth century. in different countries of Europe, the grammars of different languages continued to be called universal, rational or philosophical
The Franciscan and Oxford professor Roger Bacon (c. 1214-1294), philosopher and naturalist, wrote: Grammar is essentially the same in all languages, although it may vary by chance. This conviction of Bacon is all the more characteristic of the era, in that he was by no means a pure theoretician: Bacon's grammars of the Hebrew and Greek languages \u200b\u200bare known.
Among the forerunners of typological linguistics, an outstanding role belongs to the famous English sociologist and economist Adam Smith (1723-1790). Long before Schlegel, in On the Primitive Formation of Languages and on the Differences in the Spiritual Formation of Native and Mixed Languages (London, 1781), Smith saw the movement of a number of Indo-European languages from synthetism to an analytic system and discussed the reasons for such a typological evolution. He expressed surprisingly insightful thoughts about the nature of the original language of man: it was by no means a nomenclature, but signs for an energetic, often motivating message about an event that occurs or is felt to be relevant at the moment of speech. Smith allowed the syncretic existence of words and sentences in the early stages of the development of human language. In the 19th century researchers of incorporating languages came to similar thoughts. Smith was the first to suggest that the mixing of languages leads to a simplification of morphology, in other words, it contributes to the growth of the analytical features of the contacting languages (for details, see Katznelson 1982). However, Smith's typological ideas were not noticed by his contemporaries. The beginning of typological research dates back to the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. and is associated with German culture.
The foundations of typology were laid almost simultaneously with the formation of comparative historical linguistics. "The first comparativists were also the first typologists. Among them is the author of the book-manifesto of Indo-European studies" On the Language and Wisdom of the Hindus "(1808) Friedrich von Schlegel (1772-1829), who gave the first typological classification of languages, the founder of the German philosophy of language, Wilhelm von Humboldt (1765-1835), the author of the first comparative historical grammar of the Indo-European languages, Franz Bopp (1791-1867). and fusion, analytic and synthetic languages, isolating languages, incorporation.
Humboldt's main typological oppositions are presented in the following diagram:
Morphological typology of languages according to Humboldt
Creating a morphological typology, the comparative typologists of the “first call” strove for its historical interpretation, i.e. to presenting the types of languages as stages of a single historical process of the formation of the languages of the world. This process is sometimes called glottogony, or glottogonic process. They considered the most ancient an amorphous structure of languages, where the phrase consisted of monosyllabic words-roots, devoid of any auxiliary morphemes, as if unformed. Then agglutination and subsequent fusion processes led to the appearance of flexion, sound alternations. Inflectional (fusional) morphology, therefore, was considered here as the highest stage of grammatical development, and the loss of inflection as the decline of the language.
Of course, this romantic pessimism of the first comparativist typologists belongs to the past. However, their research achievements remain the general categorical and terminological foundation of the typology. In the XX century. The development of typology to a large extent consisted in empirical-linguistic (including quantitative) and logical refinement of those classifications and concepts that were put forward in the first third of the 19th century. At the same time, modern typology has almost abandoned the historical and cultural, and even more so the evaluative interpretation of linguistic types. On the other hand, a new direction in typological research has emerged - the linguistics of universals.
By origin, languages are natural, artificial and mixed.
natural- these are sound (speech) and graphic (writing) information sign systems that have historically developed in society. They arose to consolidate and transfer the accumulated information in the process of communication between people.
Artificial - these are auxiliary sign systems created on the basis of natural languages for the accurate transmission of scientific and other information (shorthand).
mixed languages- their base is a natural national language, supplemented by symbols and conventions related to a specific subject area (legal language or the language of law - is based on natural language and includes many legal concepts).
The artificial language of logic, intended for the logical analysis of reasoning, structurally reflects and exactly follows the semantic characteristics of a natural language. The main semantic (semantic) category of the language of logic is the concept of a name.
Name- this is a linguistic expression that has a certain meaning in the form of a separate word or phrase, denoting some extralinguistic object.
The name has two mandatory characteristics:
Subject value;
semantic meaning.
subject meaning (denotation) name is one or a set of any objects that are denoted by this name. For example, the denotation of the name "tree" will be the whole variety of trees.
semantic meaning ( concept) name is information about objects, i.e. their inherent properties, with the help of which a variety of objects are distinguished. The concept of the name "tree" is a large plant with a solid trunk, branches, leaves, root system.
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All topics in this section:
Logic as a science
Logic is the science of thinking. It arose in the 4th century. BC. Its founder is Aristotle. This is formal logic. The main goal of logic is the study of how, from one
Features of the process of cognition
Cognition is the process of reflecting the objective world by human consciousness. Cognition is a unity of sensory and rational cognition. Knowledge can be sensual and
Form of Thought
The logical form of thought is its structure, a way of connecting the elements of thought, thanks to which the content exists and reflects reality. The logical form reflects the general structural connections
The concept of language
Language acts as a material shell of thoughts. Revealing logical structures is possible only in the analysis of linguistic expressions. Language is a sign information system that performs functions
Aspects of language learning
A comprehensive study of the language is carried out by the general theory of sign systems - semiotics, which analyzes the language in three aspects: - syntactic; -semantic; -P
Kinds of names
There are several classifications of types of names. Names are divided into: 1. simple - the names of individual items. In a simple name there are no parts that have an independent meaning. For example, "bird,
The concept of a logical law
In thinking, as in the objective world, there are laws of their own. In traditional logic, an understanding of the law has developed as a certain principle that must be followed in order for thinking to be considered rules.
Law of Identity
The law of identity is the simplest. It says that every thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself. Any thought in
Law of non-contradiction
The law of non-contradiction (contradiction) is the most important principle not only of human thinking, but also of being itself. This law was discovered one of the first. Boolean
Law of Sufficient Reason
Our thoughts about any fact or phenomenon can be either true or false. Every thought (true) must be justified. The law of sufficient reason expresses the requirement of proof, justification
Concept as a form of thinking
A concept is a form of abstract thinking that reflects objects and their combinations in essential and most general features. The attribute of an object is that which
Logical methods of concept formation
In order to compose a concept of an object, it is necessary to highlight the essential features of the object, using a number of logical techniques for this purpose: comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, limit
Types of concepts
Concepts can be divided by scope and content. By volume (quantitative characteristic), concepts are divided into single, general, empty. Single concepts are those
Relationships between concepts
The relationship between concepts can be divided according to the main characteristics of the concept: by content and volume. According to the content, concepts are divided into comparable and incomparable. With
Rules for defining concepts
1. The definition must be proportionate, i.e. the scope of the concept being defined must be equal to the scope of the defining concept. They must be in relation to identity. For example, "Tre
Judgment as a form of thinking
Connections and relationships between objects are reflected in thinking in the form of judgments, which are a connection of concepts. For example, when expressing the judgment "Ivanov is a good student" we express
Types of judgments. Simple Judgments
There are many types of judgments due to the large number of division bases. All judgments are divided into simple and complex. A simple judgment is a judgment
Complex judgments
Complex propositions, like simple propositions, are either true or false. The truth or falsity of complex propositions is determined by the truth or falsity of the simple propositions included in it. In accordance
Relations between simple propositions
There are certain logical relations between simple propositions. At the same time, relations can only be established between comparable judgments. Comparable judgments have a common subject or
Essence and structure of the question
From the point of view of logic, a question is considered a sentence that requests some information or that contains a call for a response. The grammatical form of a question is an interrogative sentence.
Question types
There are several types of questions depending on: - semantics; - functions; - structures. 2.1. Types of questions, according to semantics, are divided depending on
Rules for posing simple and complex questions
When posing a question, certain rules must be observed: 1) The question must be correct. It must be correct in form and content. Cannot be used for
deductive reasoning
1. The concept of inference. 2. Deductive reasoning. 3. Direct inferences. 4. Indirect inferences. Simple categorical syllogism
The concept of inference
Inference, like a concept, is a form of abstract thinking. With the help of various types of inferences indirectly (i.e. without referring to the senses), we can receive
Immediate inferences
Direct inferences are called deductive inferences made from one premise, which is a categorical proposition. In traditional logic, these include the following
Simple categorical syllogism
The word "syllogism" comes from the Greek syllogismos (counting, deducing a consequence). A simple categorical syllogism is an indirect inference. Simple category
General rules for categorical syllogism
True premises can always lead to true conclusions. Its truth is determined by the rules of the syllogism. Three of them relate to terms, four to premises. Terms rules.
Compound syllogism and its types
Compound syllogism (polysyllogism) - consists of two, three or more simple syllogisms. Moreover, the conclusion of the previous (prosyllogism) is the premise of the next (episyllogism).
Difficult abbreviated syllogism
Polysyllogisms are rather cumbersome constructions, so they are rarely used in practice. Some obvious premises are usually omitted. In this case, this type of complex reduced force is obtained
Questions for self-control
1. What are the features of inference? 2. What kind of reasoning is called deductive? 3. Name the types of direct inferences. What are their features? 4. Name the species
The concept of induction
In inductive reasoning, the connection between premises and conclusion is not based on a logical law, and the conclusion follows from the accepted premises not with logical necessity, but only with some probability.
Types of induction
There are two types of inductive reasoning - complete and incomplete induction. 2.1. A complete induction is such a conclusion in which the general conclusion about all elements of the class
Inductive Methods for Establishing Causal Relationships
In modern logic, five methods for establishing causal relationships are known: - the method of similarity; - method of difference; - combined method of similarity and difference; - method with
The concept of probability
There are two types of the concept of "probability": objective and subjective. Objective probability is a concept that characterizes a quantitative measure of the possibility of the occurrence of some event
The concept of analogy
The term "analogy" means similarity. Inference by analogy is a reasoning in which, from the similarity of two objects in some features, a conclusion is drawn about their similarity in other features. fore
Types of analogy according to the degree of reliability of conclusions
According to the degree of reliability of the conclusion, analogy can be divided into 3 types: 1. Strict analogy, in which the conclusion will be necessarily correct. For example: if 3 angles of one triangle
The concept of a hypothesis
The decisive link in cognition, which ensures the formation of new knowledge, is a hypothesis. A hypothesis is not just one of the possible, random logical figures, but a necessary component of any cognition.
Types of hypotheses
Depending on the degree of generality, scientific hypotheses can be divided into general, particular and singular. A general hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption about the laws and patterns
Construction and refutation of hypotheses
The way of building hypotheses goes through several stages: - identification of a group of facts that do not fit into the previous theories or hypotheses and must be explained by a new hypothesis; - forms
The concept of argumentation
Cognition of individual objects, their properties begins with sensory forms (sensations and perceptions). What is perceived does not need proof. However, in many cases (in scientific work, in
The composition of the argument
Mandatory participants or subjects of the argumentation process are: the proponent, the opponent and the audience. A proponent is a participant who puts forward and defends a certain position
Argumentation structure
Argumentation includes three interrelated elements: thesis, arguments, demonstration. T - thesis, a1, a2 ... - arguments, arrow (implication) - demonstration, then the proof operation can be represented
Rules in proof and refutation
In relation to the thesis, the following rules can be outlined: - the thesis must be clearly, precisely and unambiguously formulated. - the thesis must remain the same throughout
Logical error in proofs and rebuttals
In relation to the thesis, the following errors can be distinguished: - advancement of an unclear, inaccurate, ambiguous thesis. - Substitution of the thesis. The essence of this error lies in the fact that the thesis minds
Strategy and tactics of argumentation
In logic, there are two main strategies for conducting argumentation: - simple; - complex. The simple strategy looks obvious. However, following it requires certain
The concept of sophistry and logical paradoxes
An unintentional mistake made by a person in thinking is called paralogism. A deliberate mistake to confuse one's opponent and pass off a false judgment as a true one is called
1
LANGUAGE - social processed, a historically changeable system of signs that serves as the main means of communication and representation of different forms of existence, each of which has at least one of the forms of implementation - oral or written.
SPEECH - this is one of the types of human communicative activity i.e. using language to communicate with others
Types of speech activity:
speaking
listening
The main functions of the language are:
communicative (function of communication);
thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thought);
expressive (function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);
aesthetic (the function of creating beauty by means of language).
Communicative function lies in the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. The language has the units necessary for constructing messages, the rules for their organization, and ensures the emergence of similar images in the minds of the participants in communication. Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between the participants in communication.
From the point of view of the culture of speech, the communicative function involves the installation of participants in speech communication on the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of speech understanding.
Thought-forming function lies in the fact that language serves as a means of designing and expressing thoughts. The structure of the language is organically connected with the categories of thinking. "The word, which alone is able to make a concept an independent unit in the world of thoughts, adds to it a lot of itself," wrote the founder of linguistics Wilhelm von Humboldt (Humboldt V. Selected Works on Linguistics. - M., 1984. P. 318).
This means that the word singles out and shapes the concept, and at the same time, a relationship is established between the units of thinking and the sign units of the language. That is why W. Humboldt believed that “language should accompany thought. Thought, not lagging behind language, should follow from one of its elements to another and find in language a designation for everything that makes it coherent” (Ibid., p. 345) . According to Humboldt, “in order to correspond to thinking, language, as far as possible, must correspond with its structure to the internal organization of thinking” (ibid.).
The speech of an educated person is distinguished by the clarity of the presentation of his own thoughts, the accuracy of retelling other people's thoughts, consistency and informativeness.
Expressive the function allows the language to serve as a means of expressing the internal state of the speaker, not only to communicate some information, but also to express the speaker's attitude to the content of the message, to the interlocutor, to the situation of communication. Language expresses not only thoughts, but also emotions of a person. The expressive function involves the emotional brightness of speech within the framework of etiquette accepted in society.
Artificial languages do not have an expressive function.
aesthetic the function is to ensure that the message in its form, in unity with the content, satisfies the aesthetic sense of the addressee. The aesthetic function is characteristic primarily for poetic speech (works of folklore, fiction), but not only for it - journalistic, scientific speech, and everyday colloquial speech can be aesthetically perfect.
The aesthetic function presupposes the richness and expressiveness of speech, its correspondence to the aesthetic tastes of the educated part of society.
Russian language among other languages of the world.
Representatives of different peoples of the world speak Russian, communicating not only with Russians, but also among themselves.
Just like English and some other languages, Russian is widely spoken outside of Russia. It is used in various areas of international communication: at the negotiations of the CIS member states, at the forums of international organizations, including the UN, in world communication systems (on television, on the Internet), in international aviation and space communications. The Russian language is the language of international scientific communication and is used at many international scientific conferences in the humanities and natural sciences.
Russian language in terms of the absolute number of those who speak it, it ranks fifth in the world (after Chinese, Hindi and Urdu combined, English and Spanish), but this feature is not the main one in determining the world language. For a "world language" it is not the number of those who speak it, especially as a native language, that is essential, but the global distribution of native speakers, the coverage of different, maximum number of countries, as well as the most influential social strata of the population in different countries. Of great importance is the universal significance of fiction, of the entire culture created in this language (Kostomarov V.G. Russian language in international communication // Russian language. Encyclopedia. - M., 1997. P. 445).
Russian is studied as a foreign language in many countries of the world. Russian language and literature are studied at leading universities in the USA, Germany, France, China and other countries.
The Russian language, like other "world languages", is highly informative, i. wide possibilities of expression and transmission of thought. The informational value of a language depends on the quality and quantity of information presented in that language in original and translated publications.
Oral speech- this is a sounding speech used for direct communication, and in a broader sense - this is any sounding speech. Historically, this is the very first form of speech, it arose much earlier than writing. The material form of oral speech is the pronounced sounds resulting from the complex activity of the human pronunciation organs.
The most important distinguishing feature of oral speech is its unpreparedness: oral speech, as a rule, is created in the course of a conversation. However, the degree of unpreparedness can be different. This may be a speech on a topic unknown in advance, carried out as an improvisation. On the other hand, it can be a speech on a previously known topic, thought over in certain parts. Oral speech of this kind is typical for official public communication. From oral speech, i.e. speech generated in the process of speaking, one should distinguish speech read or learned by heart; the term "sounding speech" is sometimes used for this type of speech.
Letter- this is an auxiliary sign system created by people, which is used to fix sound language (sound speech). At the same time, writing is an independent communication system, which, while performing the function of fixing oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions. Written speech makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by mankind, expands the scope of human communication, breaks the boundaries of the immediate environment.
The use of the written form allows you to think about your speech longer, build it gradually, correcting and supplementing, which ultimately contributes to the development and application of more complex syntactic structures than is typical of oral speech. Such features of oral speech as repetitions, unfinished constructions in a written text would be stylistic errors.
The concept of communication
Communication is a specific form of human interaction. Joint activities in obtaining food, the need for self-defense, the desire to win their place in the world led to the emergence of the phenomenon of communication. The need for it is inherent not only to man - all living things communicate in one way or another.
Communication is not a human invention, the need for it is of a biological nature. In people, she began to play such an important role that she practically received the status of one of the most important, and psychologists tend to equate it with the need for self-preservation. Indeed, there are periods in a person's life when the lack of communication is tantamount to death, physical or spiritual. In young children, lack of communication leads to delays in mental growth.
Basic functions and units of communication
Communication is multifaceted and can perform very diverse functions. The main ones are the following:
1) communicative, it consists in the exchange of necessary information;
2) interactive, the function of organizing interaction, i.e. determination of the type of activity, distribution of duties and control over their implementation, influence on the mood, behavior, beliefs of a communication partner;
3) perceptive, establishing mutual understanding in the process of activity.
Communication becomes possible if all its units (components, terms) are present, and each clearly fulfills the role assigned to it. The components of communication are: 1) its participants - they are called "communicators", 2) the subject of communication and 3) its means (verbal and non-verbal).
Types of communication
In linguistics, there are different classifications of types of communication, they do not contradict, but rather complement each other.
Linguists base their classification on:
1) type of human activity (business and household communication)
2) the position of the communicants in space (contact and distant)
3) the presence or absence of a mediating apparatus (direct and indirect)
4) the form of language used (oral and written)
5) constancy or variability of the positions “I am the speaker” - “you are the listener” (dialogical and monologue)
6) the number of communicants (interpersonal and mass).
Non-verbal communication- this is understood as “a system of non-verbal symbols, signs, codes used to convey a message with a high degree of accuracy, which has a fairly clear range of meanings and can be described as a linguistic sign system”, i.e. - these are mainly arbitrary gestures, body movements, postures that are accepted in a particular society, and which may vary depending on the cultural environment or place of residence (as an example, greeting gestures, etc. can be given).
Communicative portrait of a specialist
For success in professional activity, it is important for a modern specialist to perfectly master the skills of speech culture, to have linguistic, communicative and behavioral competence in professional communication.
This requires the following qualities, abilities, skills:
knowledge of the norms of the literary language and stable skills of their application in speech;
the ability to monitor the accuracy, consistency and expressiveness of speech;
possession of professional terminology, knowledge of correspondences between terms and concepts;
possession of the style of professional speech;
the ability to determine the goal and understand the situation of communication;
the ability to take into account the social and individual personality traits of the interlocutor;
skills of predicting the development of the dialogue, the reactions of the interlocutor;
the ability to create and maintain a benevolent atmosphere of communication;
a high degree of control of the emotional state and expression of emotions;
the ability to direct the dialogue in accordance with the goals of professional activity;
knowledge of etiquette and the clarity of its implementation.
Speech etiquette - regulatory rules of speech behavior, a system of nationally specific stereotyped, stable communication formulas adopted and prescribed by society to establish contacts between interlocutors, maintain and interrupt contact in the chosen key.
functions of speech etiquette:
assistance in establishing contact between interlocutors;
attracting the attention of the listener (reader), distinguishing him from other potential interlocutors;
providing an opportunity to show respect;
assistance in determining the status of ongoing communication (friendly, business, official, etc.);
formation of a favorable emotional environment for communication and positive impact on the listener (reader), etc.
Speech etiquette includes words and expressions used by people to say goodbye, requests, apologies, forms of address adopted in various situations, intonational features that characterize polite speech, etc.
speech etiquette formulas are divided into three main groups:
speech formulas, related to the beginning of communication .
speech formulas, characteristic of the main part of communication .
speech formulas, used at the end of a conversation . When the conversation ends, the interlocutors use the formulas for parting, ending communication.
appeal and attract attention;
acquaintance, greeting;
parting;
apology, gratitude;
congratulations, wishes;
approval, compliment;
sympathy, condolences;
invitation, offer;
advice, request;
consent, refusal.
Speech etiquette is built taking into account features of partners those entering into communication: the social status of the subject and addressee, their place in the social hierarchy, their profession, nationality, religion, age, gender, character.
Speech etiquette is determined situation where verbal communication takes place. Speech etiquette is somehow tied to the situation of speech communication and its parameters: the personalities of the interlocutors, the topic, place, time, motive and purpose of communication.
Speech etiquette has national specifics . Each nation has created its own system of rules of speech behavior.
functional style. Function - in a different way, purpose, purpose. People use language for different purposes. In some situations, language is used to simply exchange thoughts, impressions, observations. Let us recall, for example, our conversations with friends, relatives, family members, our correspondence with them. In these and similar situations, the function of language is communication. In other situations, language performs other functions: communication and impact. Styles that are distinguished in accordance with the main functions of the language associated with a particular area of human activity. called functional.
Functional styles are primarily colloquial and bookish, and book styles include scientific, official business, journalistic and, and the style of fiction is especially worth it.
Each functional style is characterized by certain; language means: words, their forms, phraseological units, phrases, types and types of sentences. Moreover, the belonging of these means to one or another style is realized when comparing them with neutral means (from Latin neutralis - not belonging to either one or the other genus, middle), i.e. commonly used. It is these means, which are interstyle, that create the unity of the literary language.
Functional language style - this is its variety, which serves any side of public life: everyday communication; official business relations; agitation and mass activity; science, verbal and artistic creativity. Each of these spheres of public life uses its own kind of literary language. Let us present in the form of a table the spheres of communication and the styles of the literary language serving them.
scientific style
The scientific style belongs to the book styles of the literary language, which are characterized by a number of general conditions for functioning and linguistic features: preliminary reflection on the statement, its monologue character, strict selection of language means, inclination towards normal speech. The scientific style serves the scientific and scientific-pedagogical sphere, technology.
The main function of the scientific style- the transfer of logical information and evidence of its truth, and often also novelty and value. Secondary function of scientific style arising from its main function, consider the activation of the logical thinking of the reader (listener).
There are three types (substyles) of scientific speech:
1) Self-scientific substyle (monograph, dissertation, report, etc.) The substyle is generally distinguished by a strict, academic manner of presentation. It brings together non-fiction written by experts and intended for professionals.
2) Scientific and educational substyle combines the features of the Self-scientific substyle and popular science presentation. With the actual scientific substyle, it is related by terminology, consistency in the description of scientific information, consistency, evidence; with popular science - accessibility, saturation with illustrative material. The genres of the scientific and educational sub-style include: a textbook, a lecture, a seminar report, an answer to an exam, etc.
3) Popular science substyle A feature of the popular science sub-style is the combination of features in it: logic and emotionality, objectivity and subjectivity, abstractness and concreteness. Much less special terms and other strictly scientific means.
Peculiarities:
A wide variety of speech genres: a scientific article, a scientific monograph, dissertations, scientific and educational prose, annotations, abstracts, scientific reports, lectures, popular science literature. It is realized mainly in writing. Accuracy, abstractness, consistency and objectivity of presentation. Specially scientific and terminological vocabulary. Lexical composition - homogeneity, isolation - less use of synonyms. There is no colloquial vocabulary. It is not emotionally expressive. The use of Formulas, symbols, tables, graphs is typical. Information saturation of the proposal.
Written and oral forms of scientific style:
1) Oral: abstract message, lecture, report.
2) Written: article, monograph, textbook, abstract, abstract, documentation, reference book, etc.
Scientific style genres:
abstract - an adequate presentation of the content of the primary text. The abstract answers the question: "What information is contained in the original source, what is presented in it?" Distinguish abstracts reproductive and productive. Reproductive abstracts reproduce the content of the primary text. Productive abstracts involve critical or creative reflection on literature. There are three main components in the structure of the abstract: a bibliographic description, the abstract text itself, and a reference apparatus. Abstracting is an intellectual creative process, including text comprehension, analytical and synthetic transformation of information and creation of a new text.
Research Article - a short essay in which the author presents the results of his own research. A monograph is a scientific work devoted to the study of one topic, one issue. This group of genres - original essays of a research nature - can include term papers and diploma papers. These scientific works are characterized by a strict composition. In each text, structural and semantic components (parts) are distinguished: heading, introduction, main part, conclusion. The title (title) of a scientific work is an information unit; it usually reflects the theme of the given text and should correspond to the content of this text. The introduction (introductory part) should be short and precise. It substantiates the choice of the research topic, describes the methods used in the research process, formulates the purpose of the work (for example, to reveal the specifics ..., to explain the phenomenon, to summarize the facts). The main part of the text of the monograph (term paper, thesis) is divided into chapters in accordance with the objectives of the work. In a small article, parts are not distinguished, but each new thought is framed in a new paragraph. The conclusion has the form of conclusions corresponding to the stages of the study, or the form of a brief summary.
Abstract - a concise, brief description of the book (article, collection), its content and purpose. The abstract lists the main issues, problems of the primary text, sometimes its structure is characterized. Answers the question: "What does the text say?"
Course work - it is a message about the formulation of the problem, about the course of the study, about its results. This scientific report contains objectively new information. In an educational report on humanitarian topics, in particular, this novelty is more subjective. It is determined by the presence of new facts or their original interpretation, the presence of one's own point of view, one's position.
The journalistic style is inherent in the periodical press, socio-political literature, political and judicial speeches, etc. It is used to highlight and discuss current problems and phenomena of the current life of society, to develop public opinion that is formed in order to solve them.
One of the central functions of the journalistic style of speech is the information function. Realizing it, this style performs another function - the impact on the reader and listener.
The journalistic style, in contrast to the scientific one, for example, is associated with simplicity and accessibility of presentation. His verbal expressiveness is manifested in the desire for novelty of presentation, in attempts to use unusual, unhackneyed phrases, to avoid repetition of the same words, constructions, to address the reader or listener directly, etc.
Among the features of the journalistic style, its peculiar collection is especially distinguished. Collectiveness manifests itself most prominently as a linguistic feature of the newspaper version of journalism. In particular, it is embodied in the increased frequency of the use of the pronouns "we", "our".
Another important manifestation of journalistic style is the use of so-called intellectual speech. It is characterized by strict documentaryism, focusing on the accuracy, verification, objectivity of the facts presented.
The most important role in the journalistic style of speech is played by emotional means of expression. Among them are the use of words with bright emotional coloring, the use of the figurative meaning of words, the use of various figurative means. Epithets, lexical repetitions, comparisons, metaphors, appeals, rhetorical words are widely used. Proverbs, sayings, colloquial turns of speech, phraseological units, the use of literary images, the possibilities of humor and satire also act as means of emotional expressiveness.
Scope of application: press, political and judicial speeches, literature, information programs.
In a journalistic style, the function of transmitting information is closely related to the function of impact.
Peculiarities:
Simplicity and accessibility in presentation
Collectivity (expressed in the fact that the pronouns we, our are often used) claims to express an opinion that has received public support.
Using intellectual speech to create documentary and factual accuracy
Elements of invocation and declarativeness
The concept of the norm and types of norms of the modern Russian literary language
Literally correct speech is built in accordance with linguistic norms. A norm is a uniform exemplary generally recognized use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development. It is historical and over time, one way or another, it can change. The establishment of the norm and its assimilation by native speakers helps to preserve the integrity and intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from the unjustified penetration of dialect, colloquial and jargon elements.
A norm can be either imperative (not allowing choice) or dispositive (allowing choice).
There are orthoepic, stylistic, grammatical and lexical norms. Orthoepic norms - norms of pronunciation and stress. Lexical norms are responsible for the use of words. Stylistic norms are responsible for the correct choice of linguistic signs in accordance with the situation, with the scope of use. Grammatical norms are responsible for the correct choice of the form of the word, the correct construction of the syntactic construction.
The assimilation of the norms of the language by native speakers occurs naturally, if in early childhood a person hears the correct, normalized speech. Mastering the norms continues at school and other educational institutions. But in speech practice, despite this, one or another violation of the norm is very often encountered. This shortcoming can be overcome if you systematically work with various kinds of dictionaries and reference books.
Varieties of language are more often manifested at the phonetic, lexical, grammatical levels.
What do we mean when we talk about varieties of language?
The fact is that in a certain territory or within some social groups (for example, students, professional, etc.) there are separate varieties that exist within one language. For example, slang. It functions in a certain social environment. Consider some varieties of the functioning of the language in a particular environment.
Varieties of the language of the social environment
Slang
Slang- English word (slang). It means a set of special words or new meanings of already existing words used in different groups of people. The essence of slang is very accurately characterized: “Slang is a vagabond language that wanders around literary speech and constantly tries to make its way into the most sophisticated society.” And by the way, many slang words and phrases are now firmly established in the literary language.
Youth slang- the most changing kind of language, which is explained by the change of generations. Linguists even singled out three slang "waves" in Russia: the 20s, 50s and 70-80s of the XX century.
Examples of youth slang:
Lecturer (teacher)
Infidel (a person who is indifferent to what is happening)
Funny (joke), etc.
Currently, youth slang is mostly Internet slang.
Inet (Internet)
Comp (computer)
Windows (Windows operating system), etc.
Jargon
Jargon is a sociolect, i.e. lexical and stylistic varieties of the language, characteristic of any social group: professional, age, subculture. In the modern language, jargon has become widespread, especially in the language of the youth. In fact, slang and jargon are hardly distinguishable.
There are more than 10 types of jargon. For example, Fenya(thieves' jargon). This language was formed in Russia long ago, back in the Middle Ages. It was originally used by itinerant traders called ofen. Ofeni created a new language, inventing new roots, but leaving the traditional Russian morphology, and used the language to communicate "not for other people's ears." Subsequently, the language was adopted by the criminal environment, and at present the Fenya is called the thieves' jargon (to speak such a language is to chat on a hair dryer).
There are journalistic jargon (newspaper duck, night butterflies), military jargon (demobilization, banderlog), etc.
Jargon of bastards ("Albanian" yezyg or yazyk padonkaff)
A new type of jargon that arose in Runet in the early 2000s was the style of using the Russian language with phonetically almost correct (with some exceptions like medved, hare, etc.), but spelling deliberately incorrect spelling of words, frequent use of profanity and certain stamps characteristic of slang. Slang has given rise to many stereotypical expressions and Internet memes (for example, “preved”, “rzhunimagu”, “zhzhosh”, “afftar”, “vypeyyadu”, etc. It is believed that the “padonkaff” language did not arise spontaneously, but as a result of a purposeful activities of enthusiasts - first in writing on the Internet, and from there got into oral speech.
Literary language
Literary language is, first of all, normative. It is multifunctional, stylistically differentiated. It functions in both written and spoken forms.
Literary language - the common language of writing of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples; the language of official business documents, school education, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture. This is a historically established language system, which is characterized by strict codification, but remains mobile, covers all spheres of human activity.
Literary language is not only the language of fiction. "Literary language" and "language of fiction" are different, although correlative concepts. The language of fiction is based on the literary language, but includes a lot of individual, not generally accepted, to reflect the life of the characters, the setting and the era in which the events described take place. In different historical epochs and among different peoples, the degree of similarity between the literary language and the language of fiction often did not differ.
vernacular
Vernacular is the speech of people who do not own literary norms. The vernacular is not limited to any geographic boundaries. The sphere of functioning of vernacular is rather narrow and is limited only to domestic and family situations. It is realized mainly in the oral form of speech. But if necessary, vernacular can be used in fiction to characterize characters.
Examples of colloquial speech: “hop” (instead of “how much”), “right now” (instead of “now”), “kada” (instead of “when”), as well as the appeals “bro”, “kid”, “dad”, names “ Lenok "(instead of Lena), Lyokha, Tolyan, Sanyok, etc.
Social varieties of language
We will consider this question in a hierarchical sequence, starting with a larger variety of language.
Adverb
Major subdivision of language. An adverb combines subdialects and dialects of a particular language. The dialect could have appeared as a result of combining part of the dialects of the language or by merging closely related independent languages into one language as a result of the union of peoples speaking these languages. In this case, the previously independent languages continue to retain the former differences between them, distinguishing each of them into a special dialect.
This happened on the basis of the dialects of Veliky Novgorod, the Northern Great Russian dialect. And the South Great Russian dialect of the Russian language is based on the dialects of Kursk and Ryazan.
Dialect
This is a variety of the language of one territory. A dialect is a complete system of speech (not necessarily written) with its own vocabulary and grammar.
Usually, dialects are primarily understood as rural territorial dialects. But now there are also urban dialects: for example, the speech of the Negro urban population of the United States. Their English is different from other varieties of American English.
dialect
A variety of a language that is used in the communication of a small area of native speakers of a given language. The speech can be hooting, oinking, clattering, etc. A group of similar dialects is combined into a dialect.
Idiolect
This is a variant of the language used by one person, characteristic only for this person. Each person has their own idiolect.
Idiolects are used by forensic linguists to determine whether a text (written or spoken transcript) was created by the person to whom it is attributed.
Language types
Types of language differ depending on the conditions of functioning, on the presence or absence of writing, on status, on the scope of use, on the degree of proficiency in it, etc.
Consider some types of language.
Types of language depending on generally recognized status and prestige
The language may be public(Russian in RF); but there may be several official languages in one country (Belarusian and Russian in Belarus; Russian and Tatar in Tatarstan).
The language may be official language or languages (for example, the Russian language in the official and business spheres of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan with the state status of the Kyrgyz language).
The language may be regional(for example, Russian language in Latvia).
Language minorities(e.g. Turkish in Greece).
Types of language depending on the degree of human proficiency
The language may be relatives acquired in childhood, but then lost.
The language may be everyday used in family communication. It does not always correspond to the native language of each of the family members, for example, in interethnic marriages.
Colloquial language is the language of everyday communication within the family and beyond.
Worker language dominates the workplace
A person can perfectly master second(third, etc.) language.
Foreign language is the language of a foreign country.
one of the greatest mysteries of human existence. Why are only people, unlike all other species of living beings living on Earth, able to communicate through language? How did the language come about? Scientists have been trying to answer these questions for many years, but so far have not found acceptable answers, although they have put forward countless theories; some of these theories will be discussed in this article.
Human language: arose whether it evolved from simple sounds made by animals, or was given to humans
God? Everyone agrees that language is the main feature that distinguishes humans from other biological species. Our children master the skills of oral speech, barely reaching the age of four; if a child at the age of four cannot speak, then this is a consequence of a congenital or acquired pathology. In general, the gift of speech is inherent in all people - and none of the other living beings that inhabit the Earth. Why is it that only humanity has the ability to communicate verbally, and how did we acquire this ability?
First experiments and scientific hypotheses.
Even in ancient Egypt, people thought about which language is the most ancient, that is, they posed the problem language origin.
The foundations of modern theories of the origin of the language were laid by ancient Greek philosophers.
By looking at they were divided into two scientific schools - supporters of the "fuses" and adherents of the "theses".
Theory "fusei"(fusei - Greek. " by nature") defended the natural, "natural" nature of the language and, consequently, the natural, biological conditionality of its occurrence and structure. Supporters of the natural origin of the names of objects, in particular, Heraclitus of Ephesus(535-475 BC), believed that the names were given by nature, since the first sounds reflected the things that the names correspond to. Names are shadows or reflections of things. The one who names things must discover the correct name created by nature, but if this fails, then he only makes noise.
Supporters t theories of "Tesey"(thesei - Greek. " by establishment") among which were Democritus of Abder(470/460 - the first half of the 4th century BC) and Aristotle from Stagira (384-322 BC), argued the conditional nature of the language, not related to the essence of things, and, therefore, artificiality, in extreme terms - the conscious nature of its occurrence in society. Names come from the establishment, according to custom, of an agreement between people. They pointed to many inconsistencies between a thing and its name: words have several meanings, the same concepts are denoted by several words. If the names were given by nature, it would be impossible to rename people, but, for example, Aristocles with the nickname Plato (“broad-shouldered”) went down in history.
Scientists have put forward dozens of hypotheses about how people overcame obstacles to appearance of language; most of these hypotheses are very speculative and differ significantly from each other.
The theory of the emergence of language from sounds.
Many biologists and linguists who support the idea of evolution from protozoa to humans believe that language gradually developed from the sounds and noises made by animals. With the development of human intelligence, people managed to make more and more sounds; Gradually, these sounds turned into words, which were assigned meanings.
One way or another, sounds designed to express emotions are very different from those used to convey concepts. Therefore, the probability origin of human language from the sounds made by animals is extremely small.
The theory of creating language by the power of the human mind
Some scholars have suggested that humans somehow created language through their minds. According to their theory, as man evolved, the intellectual abilities of people grew continuously and eventually allowed people to begin to communicate with each other. This assumption also seems very logical, but most scientists and linguists deny this possibility. In particular, Dwight Bolinger, a scientist and linguist who has studied the language abilities of chimpanzees, says:
“It's worth asking why all the life forms that inhabit the Earth had to wait millions of years before Homo did it [created language]. Is it really because a certain level of intelligence had to appear first? But how could this happen if intelligence is entirely dependent on language? Language could not possibly be a precondition for emergence of language».
The level of intelligence cannot be measured without the help of language. So the hypothesis about the appearance of language as a result of the development of the human mind is unfounded and unprovable.
Among other things, scientists cannot prove that a developed intellect is necessary for a language. Thus, we can conclude that we owe our ability to communicate in language not to our highly developed intellect.
The theory of the sudden emergence of language
Some scientists believe that the language appeared in people suddenly, without visible prerequisites for its origin. They believe that the language was originally laid down in a person, and people at a certain stage of evolution simply discovered this feature in themselves and began to use words and gestures to communicate and transmit information, gradually expanding their vocabulary. Adherents of the theory of the sudden appearance of language argue that people acquired the gift of speech as a result of a random rearrangement of DNA sections in the process of evolution.
According to this theory, language and everything necessary for communication existed before man discovered them. But this means that the language as such arose quite by accident and was not conceived as an integral system. Meanwhile, the language is a complex logical system, the highest level of organization of which simply does not allow one to believe in its random occurrence. And even if this theory can be considered as a model for the emergence of language, it cannot by any means be considered an acceptable explanation for the origin of such, since such a complex structure as language could not have arisen by itself, without a creator.
Sign language theory
This theory was put forward Etienne Condillac, Jean Jacques Rousseau and German psychologist and philosopher Wilhelm Wundt(1832-1920), who believed that language is formed arbitrarily and unconsciously.
According to this theory, as humans have evolved, they have gradually developed sign systems because they have discovered that the use of signs can be beneficial. At first, they did not seek to convey any ideas to others; the person simply performed some action, the other saw it and then repeated this action. For example, one person tries to move some object, but he himself is unable to do it; the other sees these efforts and comes to his aid. As a result, the person realized to himself: in order for him to be helped to move something, a gesture depicting a push is enough.
The most serious shortcoming of this theory is that, despite countless attempts, none of its adherents has ever been able to offer an acceptable scenario for adding sounds to gestures.
Gestures as an auxiliary means of communication continue to be used by modern man. Non-verbal (non-verbal) means of communication, including gestures, studies paralinguistics as a separate discipline of linguistics.
Theory of onomatopoeia
This hypothesis was put forward in 1880 Max Miiller(Miiller), but even he himself considered it not very plausible. According to one hypothesis, initially the words had a sound similarity with the concepts they expressed (onomatopoeia). For example, the concept of "dog" was initially expressed by the interjection "bow-wow" or "yaw-yaw", and sounds resembling bird chirping or croaking were associated with the birds that made them. Actions were indicated by the sounds that people made when performing these actions; for example, eating was conveyed by champing, and lifting a heavy stone by strained hooting.
Miiller's theory would seem quite logical, but in all the languages of our time, the sound of words has nothing to do with the "sound image" of the concepts they express; and in the ancient languages studied by modern linguists, there was nothing of the kind.
Obstacles to the emergence of language in an evolutionary way
It seems reasonable to many to think that people could have invented signs and words for simple things and actions, but how did people invent syntax? There is no way a man can say, "Give me food," if all the words he has are "food" and "I." Syntax is such a complex system that people wouldn't be able to "discover" it by accident. For the emergence of syntax, an intelligent creator was required, but a person could not be this creator, since he would not be able to convey his discovery to others. We do not think of our speech without a metalanguage - a set of auxiliary words that do not have a lexical meaning, but determine the meanings of other words. There is no way people could, by sheer chance, begin to use and understand these words.
A person cannot communicate his thoughts to another without resorting to syntactic constructions; speech without syntax is reduced to exclamations and orders.
In addition, evolutionists fail to explain the patterns of changes that have occurred in languages since the advent of writing, which has preserved these changes for modern linguists. The most ancient languages - Latin, Ancient Greek, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Phoenician, Ancient Syriac - are much more difficult than any of the modern languages. Everyone who comes across these languages these days will admit without hesitation that they are definitely more complicated and harder to learn than the current ones. Languages never got more complicated than they were; on the contrary, over time they only became simpler. However, this is in no way consistent with the theory of biological evolution, according to which everything that exists has become more complicated over time.
Language Creation Theory
Traditions similar to the story of the Tower of Babel have been noted among the most isolated peoples of all continents. They can be divided into three types: the first speaks of a large construction, without mentioning the division of languages (the peoples of Africa, India, Mexico, Spain, Burma); Oral chronicles of the second type set out their versions of the origin of languages without mentioning construction (the peoples of Ancient Greece, Africa, India, Australia, the USA, Central America), and stories of the third type, like the Bible, combine these two events.
It is clear from the biblical account of Creation that language existed even before God began to create this world. Language was one of the ways of communication of the Most Holy Trinity - the hypostases of the Triune God.
Human history allows Christians to claim that language exists as long as God exists, and according to the Bible, God exists forever.
"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. The earth was formless and empty, and the Spirit of God hovered over the waters. And God said: let there be light. And there was light” (Genesis 1:1-3).
But why, of all the living creatures He created, did God endow only humans with language? We find the answer to this question in the very first chapter of Holy Scripture:
“And God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them” (Genesis 1:27).
God created people in his own image, and since God is inherent in language and communication, people also got this gift. Thus, language is one of the facets of the Personality of Godhead that He has given to people. This is a perfectly sound conclusion, since language gives us a partial idea of the nature of God. Like God, language is unthinkably complex. It can take a lifetime to study it; but at the same time, children, having barely learned to walk, begin to understand and use the language.
Religious theories
According to the Bible, God punished the descendants of Adam for their attempt to build a tower to heaven with a variety of languages:
The whole earth had one language and one dialect... And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower that the sons of men were building. And the Lord said, Behold, there is one people, and all have one language; and this is what they began to do, and they will not lag behind what they have planned to do. Let us go down and confuse their language there, so that one does not understand the speech of the other. And the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth; and they stopped building the city. Therefore a name was given to her: Babylon; for there the Lord confounded the language of all the earth, and from there the Lord scattered them over all the earth (Genesis 11:5-9).
The Gospel of John begins with the following words, where the Logos (word, thought, mind) is equated with the Divine:
“In the beginning was the Word [Logos], and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. It was in the beginning with God."
The Acts of the Apostles (part of the New Testament) describes an event that happened to the apostles, from which the connection of language with the Divine follows:
“When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together with one accord. And suddenly there was a noise from heaven, as if from a rushing strong wind, and filled the whole house where they were. And divided tongues appeared to them, as if of fire, and rested one on each of them. And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance. In Jerusalem there were Jews, devout people, from every nation under heaven. When this noise was made, the people gathered and were confused, for everyone heard them speaking in his own language. And they were all amazed and wondering, saying among themselves, Are not these who speak all Galileans? How do we hear each of his own dialect in which he was born. Parthians, and Medes, and Elamites, and inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and parts of Libya adjacent to Cyrene, and those who came from Rome, Jews and proselytes, Cretans and Arabians, we hear them in our languages talking about the great things of God? And they were all amazed and, perplexed, said to each other: what does this mean? And others, mocking, said: they drank sweet wine. But Peter, standing up with the eleven, lifted up his voice and cried out to them: Men of the Jews, and all who dwell in Jerusalem! let this be known to you, and give heed to my words…” (Acts of the Apostles, 2:1-14).
The Day of Pentecost, or Trinity Day, deserves to be, in addition to its religious significance, the Day of the Linguist or Translator.
The existence of a proto-language
Researchers most often judge the origin of peoples by their languages. Linguists subdivide many Asian and African languages into Semitic, named Shema or Shema, and Hamitic, named Ham, the sons of Noah. To the Semitic group of languages; reference to language families; include Hebrew, Old Babylonian, Assyrian, Aramaic, various Arabic dialects, the Amharic language in Ethiopia, and some others. Hamitic are ancient Egyptian, Coptic, Berber, and many other African languages and dialects.
At present, however, there is a tendency in science to combine the Hamitic and Semitic languages into one Semitic-Hamitic group. The peoples descended from Japhet speak, as a rule, Indo-European languages. This group includes the vast majority of European languages, as well as many of the languages of the peoples of Asia: Iranian, Indian, Turkic.
What was it "single language" which was spoken by all the people of the world?
Many linguists understood the Hebrew language as the universal language, in view of the fact that many proper names of the primitive world, preserved in the languages of all the peoples of the exile, are built from the roots of the Hebrew language.
According to the tradition of Judaism, the "Single language", which people spoke before the division into nations, was the "Sacred Language". sacred language– “loshn koidesh” is the language in which the Creator spoke with Adam, and people spoke it right up to the Babylonian pandemonium. Later, the prophets spoke this language, and the Holy Scriptures were written in it.
The fact of the use, according to the Torah, of the Hebrew language by the first people is also indicated by Scripture, where a play on words is found that cannot be translated into other languages. So, the wife is called in Hebrew isha from ish (husband), which indicates the unity and holiness of the marriage union. The name Adam (man) is from Adam (earth), Chava (in Russian Eve) is from Hai (living), “for she was the mother of all living things”, Cain is from Kaniti (I acquired) and so on. This language was called Hebrew by the name of Ever, a descendant of Shem, for Ever preserved this language by passing it on to Abraham. Abraham used the sacred language only for holy purposes.
The everyday language of Abraham was Aramaic, very close to the sacred language, but - as a result of general use - it lost the purity, rigor and grammatical harmony of Hebrew.
Approximately the same can be said about another Semitic language - Arabic. Arabic as a living language surpasses the Hebrew of written monuments by the abundance of synonyms and the presence of precise designations of objects and expressions. These virtues, of course, had Hebrew in the era of the prophets. Therefore, when reading poetic passages of Scripture, we encounter completely different vocabulary, often with words that occur only once in Scripture. As a result of the long stay of the Jews in exile, the original wealth of the Holy Language was lost, and the language of the Bible that has come down to us is only a surviving remnant of ancient Hebrew. This is the tradition and point of view of Judaism, set forth in the book of Kuzari by Rabbi Yehuda a-Levi.
Scientists have long known intuitively origin of languages the world from a single source. Thus, the German philosopher of the 17th century Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who spoke numerous languages of various families, dealt quite a lot with questions of family relations of languages and the general theory of language. Leibniz, although he rejected the "Jewish theory" of the origin of languages, that is, the biblical theory of the origin of all of them from the Holy language - Hebrew, was inclined to recognize a single original language. He preferred to call him "Adamic", that is, descending from Adam.
Linguists have come to the conclusion that if not all languages of the world, then at least the vast majority have a related - common - origin.
We speak Russian is; in Latin est; in English is, in German ist. These are all Indo-European languages. Let us, however, turn to the Semitic languages: in Hebrew esh, in Aramaic it or is. Six in Hebrew is shesh, in Aramaic is shit or shis, in Ukrainian is shist, in English is six, in German is sechs. The word seven in English is seven, in German sieben, in Hebrew sheva. Numeral " three» in a number of Indo-European languages: Persian: tree, Greek: treis, Latin: tres, Gothic: threis.
Or take a more complex example. The word idea, borrowed from ancient Greek, has a parallel root in Hebrew. De'a in Hebrew means "vision", "opinion". In Hebrew, as well as in other Semitic languages, the root of this word, consisting of the three letters yod, dalet and 'ayin, has a fairly wide use: Yode'a - "he knows", yada - "knew", yivada' - will known. Let us note that in the Russian language there is a verb to know, that is, “to know”, and in ancient Indian Vedas also means “knowledge”. In German, wissen is “to know”, and in English this root appears in the words wise – “wise”, wisdom – “wisdom”.
The method of comparative analysis of languages also makes it possible to penetrate deeply into the essence of the processes under study, to reveal a system of certain correspondences where superficial observation does not notice anything similar.
Nostratic language
The intuitive desire of scientists to at least partially reproduce the "single language" of mankind, which, according to the Torah, existed on earth before the division of mankind into nations, is, in our opinion, quite remarkable. Followers of the so-called "Nostratic school".
even compiled a small dictionary of the "Nostratic" language. "Nostratic" these scientists call a certain primitive proto-language, from which the Semitic-Hamitic, Indo-European, Ural-Altaic and other languages \u200b\u200bare descended.
Of course, science has the right to deal with working theories and hypotheses, which sooner or later can be proved or refuted.
5. Conclusion
Evolutionists have put forward a great many theories of the origin and development of human language. However, all these concepts are broken by their own shortcomings. Proponents of the theory of evolution have not yet found an acceptable answer to the question of the emergence of language communication. But none of these theories provides an acceptable explanation for the extraordinary diversity and complexity of languages. So there is nothing left but faith in God the Creator, who not only created man, but also endowed him with the gift of speech. The Bible tells about the Creation of all things by God; its text is devoid of contradictions and contains answers to all questions. Unlike the theory of evolution, which lacks credibility in explaining the origin of language, the creation theory set out in the Bible (the theory of the divine creation of language) is able to withstand any objections. This theory retains its position to this day, despite the fact that all this time its opponents have been desperately searching for counterarguments against it.
