Like Finland, the Kingdom of Poland was part of the Russian Empire until the end of its existence as an autonomous entity with its own constitution. In 1915, after the occupation of Polish territory by Austro-Hungarian troops, the unrecognized Kingdom of Poland was formed, and after the end of the First World War, the independence of Poland was guaranteed for

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania united into one state, called the Commonwealth (literal translation into Polish of the Latin respublica). It was an atypical state formation: the king was elected by the Sejm and gradually he lost the levers of government. The gentry, that is, the nobility, had considerable power. However, the work of the Sejm was also paralyzed, since any decision could only be taken unanimously. During the XVII-XVIII centuries. The Commonwealth gradually turned into an object of European politics, and significantly strengthened neighbors claimed its territory: Sweden and the Moscow kingdom. Despite the awareness of numerous problems and bleak prospects by the Polish society, no decisive steps were taken to correct the situation. The king became a nominal figure, and the gentry did not want to part with their privileges even in the face of the threat of the state losing its independence.

By the end of the 18th century, Prussia, Austria and Russia were most interested in the Polish territories. However, Empress Catherine II sought to preserve an independent Poland, since this allowed her to control this state alone through her proteges. The Austrians and Prussians did not agree with this position. They put pressure on the Russian government, and Catherine, realizing that a new war could break out because of the Polish lands, agreed to the division.

In 1772, an agreement was imposed on the Commonwealth, according to which it lost a third of its territory. Russia received the eastern regions of Belarus and the Polish part of Livonia. In 1793 the second partition took place. Russia became the owner of the central regions of Belarus and the Right-Bank Ukraine. Only a quarter of the Commonwealth retained its independence. After an unsuccessful one in 1795, Prussia, Austria and Russia divided the remnants of the country among themselves.

During the divisions, the process of returning the lands lost was completed. Russia did not claim historical Polish territory, which allowed Catherine to renounce the title of Queen of Poland.

Formation of the Kingdom of Poland

One of the reasons for the creation of the autonomous Kingdom of Poland within the Russian Empire was the need to achieve the loyalty of the local population and thereby secure the western borders. Another reason stemmed from the declarations of the Congress of Vienna, which took place after the defeat of Napoleonic France. The three states that participated in the partitions guaranteed autonomy to the Polish lands, but this was realized only by the Russian side.

The liberal-minded Russian emperor Alexander I played an important role in the process of creating autonomy. He sincerely believed that this would allow organizing cooperation and mutually beneficial existence between the two Slavic peoples.

Legal aspects

Inclusion in the Kingdom of Poland took place in accordance with the provisions of the Vienna Treaties, ratified on May 3, 1815. From them it followed that the Polish lands were assigned to Russia forever.

During the Napoleonic wars, the lands divided between the three states were redistributed. So, in addition to the former territories, it was annexed to Russia. Such a significant territorial increase, of course, met Alexander's desire to create a foothold for Russia in Europe, but at the same time it brought new problems. They were supposed to be resolved by granting a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland under Alexander I. The emperor's plan aroused sharp opposition from England and Austria. In particular, the representatives of these states, referring to the anarchy of the gentry in the last years of the existence of the Commonwealth, argued that the Poles had not reached the necessary level of development in order to receive a constitution. They offered to confine themselves to the introduction of local self-government, but Alexander resolutely rejected such a proposal.

Preparation of the Polish constitution

After the final accession to Russia of the Kingdom of the Polish special body involved in the development of the constitution, was not created. The first draft of the document was prepared by the emperor's closest advisers, including Prince Adam Czartoryski, a Pole by birth. But Alexander was not satisfied with the document. Firstly, he was excessively large, and secondly, he was imbued with an oligarchic spirit. Czartoryski agreed with the emperor's remarks and set about developing a new project.

Many prominent Polish public figures were involved in the work. Through their efforts, a new constitutional project consisting of 162 articles was drawn up. The emperor personally got acquainted with him and made amendments regarding the expansion of his powers. Only after that the text of the constitution in French was signed. On June 20, 1815, it was promulgated, and from the next year it entered into force. Thus, it took a little more than two weeks to develop the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, which became part of the Russian Empire.

The document consisted of seven sections devoted to the main problems of the state structure of the newly formed autonomy. Briefly, they can be summarized as follows:

• the basic principles of the state structure of the Kingdom of Poland as part of the Russian Empire;
• fixed rights and obligations of the Poles;
• organization and functioning of the executive branch of government;
• principles of formation of legislative bodies;
• administration of justice and organization of Polish judicial institutions;
• formation of local armed forces.

Such an organization of the articles, their share of the general body of the text of the constitution (the most detailed are the articles relating to the executive branch) is fully consistent with the Constitutional Charter adopted a year earlier in France.

Legislature

According to the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, the bicameral Sejm, which also included the Polish tsar (that is, the Russian emperor), became the highest legislative body. The Sejm was convened every two years, but if an extraordinary session was necessary, the tsar issued a special decree. The members of the Senate, the upper chamber, were appointed by the tsar for life from among the princes, bishops, governors and castellans. In order to become a senator, it was necessary to overcome the age and property qualifications.

The lower chamber was formed from representatives of the provinces of the Kingdom of Poland, and therefore it was called the Chamber of Ambassadors. 77 people belonged to the number of nobles, and in total 128 deputies sat in the chamber. The size of the Senate was not to exceed half of that number. Elections to the Chamber of Ambassadors were two-stage, and for voters there was a moderate property qualification.

Equality was established between the two chambers: the king could send a bill to either of them. An exception was made only for laws related to the financial sector. They were necessarily sent first to the Chamber of Ambassadors. The Sejm had no legislative initiative. The vote on the bill was open, no changes to the text were allowed, this was the prerogative of the State Council. The king had the right of absolute veto.

executive power

The head of this branch was the king. His powers were extremely wide. So, only the monarch had the right to declare war and conclude peace, as well as control the armed forces. Only he could appoint senators, bishops and judges. The monarch was also in charge of the budget. In addition, the king had the right to pardon and dissolve the Chamber of Ambassadors with the appointment of new elections.

Thus, the tsar was the central figure in the administration of the Kingdom of Poland. At the same time, he was still an unlimited monarch, since he was obliged to take an oath of allegiance to the constitution. Since he could not stay in Poland all the time, the position of governor was introduced, who was appointed by the tsar. His powers coincided with those of the king, with the exception of the right to appoint senior officials.

Under the king or governor, an advisory body was established - the State Council. He could draw up bills, approve ministerial reports, and also declare violations of the constitution.

To address current issues, a government was created, consisting of five ministries. Their area of ​​expertise was as follows:

• religion and education system;
• justice;
• distribution of finances;
• law enforcement organization;
• military affairs.

Background of the Polish Uprising of 1830

Under Alexander I, the Kingdom of Poland as part of the Russian Empire was one of the most dynamically developing regions. Economic growth was observed in all areas of the national economy, thanks to which the budget deficit was overcome. Population growth also testifies to the increase in the standard of living: by 1825, 4.5 million people lived on the territory of the autonomy.

However, crises also accumulated. First of all, the Polish national elite counted on the inclusion in the Kingdom of Poland of the lands acquired by Russia during the three partitions. The position of Emperor Alexander made it possible to count on this, but, faced with serious opposition, the emperor abandoned this idea.

Another source of dissatisfaction among the Poles was the figure of the governor - the emperor's brother, Konstantin. Although he tried in every possible way to please his wards, his frankly despotic methods of management met with dull resistance. Among the officers, cases of suicide became more frequent, and the intelligentsia united in underground circles, banned after the speech of the Decembrists.

The accession of Nicholas I did not cause joy either, unlike his older brother, who did not sympathize with liberal trends and was hostile to the constitution. Despite his personal attitude, he nevertheless took the oath and intended to maintain the methods of administration that had developed since the inclusion of the Kingdom of Poland into the Russian Empire. But the Poles decided to seek independence. In 1828, the "Military Union" took shape, within which plans for an armed uprising were developed.

The uprising and its aftermath

The revolution of July 1830 in France spurred the Poles to action. Having put forward the slogan of restoring the Commonwealth within the borders before the first partition, the Polish army opposed the Russian units. The governor was overthrown and narrowly escaped reprisal. It is significant that Konstantin Pavlovich was informed about the unrest in the army units, but he was in no hurry to take drastic measures, fearing the Polish nationalists less than the emperor. Nicholas himself, by decision of the rebels, was deposed as the Polish king.

Despite fierce resistance, the Polish army was utterly defeated on May 26, 1831. Soon, only Warsaw remained under the control of the rebels, holding out until September 7. By decisive actions, Emperor Nicholas managed to keep the Kingdom of Poland within the Russian Empire. But the consequences of the uprising for the Poles were tragic. Nicholas got the opportunity to cancel the constitution and bring the system of government in line with the general imperial. The Sejm and the State Council were abolished, the ministries were replaced by departmental commissions. The army of the Kingdom of Poland was disbanded, and the ability of the local government to manage finances was significantly curtailed.

After the uprising

The privileges of the Kingdom of Poland under Nicholas I were rapidly declining. The constitution was replaced by the Organic Statute of 1832, which laid down the idea of ​​a gradual merger of Poland with the Russian Empire. Leadership positions were replaced by Russian officials, and a number of Polish departments (for example, communications or the Warsaw educational district) entered into direct subordination to the central government.

The established authoritarian regime caused a mass emigration of the Polish intelligentsia. From abroad, they tried to raise the Polish people, especially the peasantry, to revolt by means of leaflets and appeals. However, the contradictions between the gentry and the peasantry, which had been preserved since the time of the Commonwealth, were so strong that none of these attempts was crowned with success. In addition, the Nikolaev administration, in opposition to nationalism, put forward conservatism and clericalism. The influence of the Catholic Church brought to naught all attempts by emigration to convince the people of the need to fight for independence.

In 1863, the Poles nevertheless undertook a new uprising, which the Russian army again managed to suppress. Another attempt to get rid of Russian rule showed that the integration course of Nicholas I was not crowned with success. Mutual distrust and hostility were established between the two peoples. Forced Russification did not alleviate the situation either: the history of Russia was taught in educational institutions, and the training itself was conducted in Russian.

It should be noted that in the educated circles of almost all Western states, the divisions of the Commonwealth were considered a historical injustice. This was especially evident when the Poles were divided between two opposing camps during the First World War and were forced to fight each other. Many Russian public figures were also aware of this, but it was dangerous to express such thoughts aloud. However, the stubborn desire of the Poles for independence did its job. At the final stage of the First World War, the American President, in his 14 points on a peaceful settlement, separately brought up the Polish question. In his opinion, the restoration of Poland within the historical borders was a matter of principle. However, the vagueness of the term "historical borders" caused a fierce debate: should we consider those that had developed by 1772 or the borders of the medieval Polish kingdom? Dissatisfaction with the decisions of the conferences in Versailles and Washington led to a war between the RSFSR and Poland, which ended in victory for the latter. But international contradictions did not end there. Czechoslovakia and Germany claimed a number of Polish regions. This, and other controversial decisions of the peace conferences after the First World War, led to a new great war in Europe, the first victim of which was an independent Poland.

It was annexed to Russia forever, with the exception of the Poznan region, Galicia and the city of Krakow. According to the exact meaning of the act of the Congress of Vienna, Poland was an indivisible part of the Russian Empire, and the Russian sovereign was given an unlimited right to establish in the Polish regions such an order of things that he recognizes as the most useful and most consistent with the benefits of his state. It was in the will of the Russian sovereign Alexander I to subordinate the kingdom of Poland to the general laws of the empire, and no one would have dared to contradict him; the only condition imposed on him by the Congress of Vienna, a definite and positive condition, was the inseparable union of the kingdom with the empire; the Poles, betrayed into the power of Russia by the fate of the war, did not even dare to think about any limitation of their winner.

The borders of Poland according to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in 1815: the Kingdom of Poland as part of Russia is indicated in green, the part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, ceded to Prussia, in blue, Krakow in red (at first a free city, then ceded to Austria)

Alexander I, on his own initiative, without any outside influence, in the hope of tying new Polish subjects to the Russian throne with the bonds of eternal gratitude, gave them a special form of government, determined Constituent Charter December 12, 1815. We list its main provisions of this Polish constitution.

Having confirmed by the Charter of 1815 the main principle adopted by the Congress of Vienna, on the inseparable connection of the kingdom with the empire and concentrating in the person of the Emperor and the Tsar all the rights of sovereign power, Alexander I, by the articles of the Charter, created in Poland and called for participation in legislation a representative assembly of two chambers - the Senate and the Sejm . The Russian emperor entrusted the administration of the affairs of the Polish regions to the government council. The Upper House of the Polish Assembly The Senate, composed of bishops, governors and castellans, appointed by the sovereign for life, formed the upper house; the lower one was represented by the diet, which is supposed to be convened, in the name of the king, every two years, for one month, from deputies from the nobility and communities. Each new law only then received force when it was approved by a majority of votes in both Polish chambers and was approved by the sovereign; chambers, moreover, are given the right to consider budgets on income and expenditure. The Government Council of Poland was composed, under the chairmanship of the royal governor, from five ministers appointed by the sovereign; they were the executors of his will, set the course of affairs in motion, introduced drafts of new laws for consideration by the chambers and answered in case of deviation from the charter. Having become part of Russia, Poland retained its separate army. The revenues of the Kingdom of Poland were provided exclusively for his benefit; The Russian government allowed the Polish nobility to elect marshals to intercede for their affairs before the royal throne. Municipal government was introduced in the cities of Poland; printing was declared free.

As proof of the purity of his intentions, Alexander I entrusted the management of the affairs of the Kingdom of Poland to such people who could not be suspected of being indifferent to the benefits of Poland. He appointed General Zaionchek as his viceroy, an old enemy of Russia, who turned gray in battles for his homeland, a participant in the Kosciuszka uprising, who also served in Napoleon's army, but noble in soul and appreciating the generosity of the sovereign. The ministers were also chosen from among the most zealous Poles. The benefits of Russia were guarded only by two persons, the brother of Alexander I, Tsarevich Konstantin Pavlovich, and the real secret adviser Novosiltsev: the Tsarevich commanded the Polish army; Novosiltsev had a voice in the government council, with the title of imperial commissar.

Upon the promulgation of the Constituent Charter, the Poles who became part of Russia were beside themselves with delight and could not find words to express their boundless gratitude to the Russian sovereign, confessing in their hearts that only his unparalleled generosity saved their people's charters. Soon, however, they proved that a constant feeling of gratitude was not their virtue. Three years had not passed before the same Poles dreamed that Alexander I was obliged to give them an even broader constitution and that, consequently, the power of the Constituent Charter was higher than his power. That is why already at the first Sejm, which opened on March 5, 1818, bold claims arose: having permission to report to the sovereign about the needs and desires of Poland, which was part of the Russian Empire, the Sejm embarked on inappropriate discussions about the rights of the monarch and the people, without any reason accused the tsarist ministers and demanded different inappropriate laws.

The Russian sovereign expressed his displeasure and at the opening of the second Sejm (1820) made it known that he firmly intended to protect the charter granted to him, but that the Poles, for their part, must strictly fulfill their duties, without going into useless reasoning, and assist the government in well-intentioned his efforts to ensure order, peace and general prosperity. Contrary to these warnings, the Polish Sejm, headed by the surname of the Nemoevskys, clearly entered into a quarrel with the Russian government, rejected without any reason the various draft laws proposed by the ministers, including the criminal charter, and repeated the same demands that the first Sejm dared to make. The spirit of Poland's opposition to the Russian government was also revealed in the shortfall in taxes, which caused a significant deficit in revenues.

Portrait of Alexander I. Artist F. Gerard, 1817

The enraged sovereign announced that if the Kingdom of Poland was not able to satisfy its own needs, then it was necessary to arrange it differently, and that, previously ready to increase the benefits granted, he saw the need to cancel certain articles of the Constituent Charter in order to ensure public silence. The most important repeal was the prohibition of public debates at the Polish Sejm, where vain orators inflamed the minds of the people with harmful idle talk. Moreover, measures have been taken against the abuse of the freedom of the press. At the opening of the third Sejm in 1825, Alexander I said positively that he had not changed his intention to support the charter, but that the fate of the Polish kingdom would depend on the Poles themselves, on their devotion to the Russian throne and their readiness to assist the government. The formidable meaning of these memorable words brought the Poles to their senses. The Seimas adopted all the laws proposed by the ministers. Alexander expressed satisfaction with his work.

Meanwhile, under the beneficent scepter of Alexander I, over the course of ten years, Poland achieved such a degree of national well-being that, without undoubted historical facts, it would be difficult to believe to what extent a guardian government can bring its subjects. We will not compare this time with the times of electoral government, when the Commonwealth, with its golden liberty, was only a victim of the unbridled autocracy of the magnates, religious disputes, irreconcilable hostility of parties, bloody internecine strife, self-interest of railways, unsettled inside, weak outside. Poland eked out a miserable existence even before joining Russia, under the imaginary restorer of his Napoleon. The Duchy of Warsaw served Napoleon as a military depot, from where he took soldiers to replenish his legions, who were dying in Austria, Spain and Russia. During the years of Bonaparte's wars, the Polish people groaned under the weight of taxes, forced extortions, and conscriptions; military executions ravaged cities and villages; no one cared about the needs and calamities of the public, especially about the improvement of cities, about the arrangement of means of communication. No industry flourished; trade, there was no credit. Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 completely ruined Poland: the flower of its population perished within the borders of our fatherland.

But after joining Russia under Alexander I, Poland resurrected. In 1815, the Russian sovereign took under his power a country covered with sands and swamps, occasionally cultivated by the labors of a farmer, with hardly passable roads, with poor scattered huts, with cities similar to villages, where railways nested or ragged gentry wandered, while rich magnates squandered millions in Paris and London, without any thought of their own country. Poor Poland, under the Russian scepter, turned into a well-organized, strong and prosperous state. The generous patronage of Alexander I revived all branches of Polish industry: fields drained by canals were covered with luxurious fields; villages lined up; the cities were decorated; excellent roads crossed Poland in all directions. Factories sprang up; Polish cloth and other products appeared in huge quantities in Russia. Favorable for Poland, the tariff favored the sale of her works within the Russian Empire. Warsaw, hitherto an insignificant place in the commercial world, attracted the attention of Europe. Polish finances, exhausted by Napoleon, were brought to a flourishing state by the care and generosity of Alexander I, who renounced all crown estates, turning them into state ones, and provided all the income of the Kingdom of Poland for his exclusive benefit. The Polish debt was secured; credit recovered. A national Polish bank was established, which, having received huge capital from the generous Russian sovereign, contributed to the rapid development of all branches of industry. Under the care of Tsarevich Konstantin Pavlovich, an excellent army was organized; the Polish arsenals were filled with such a huge amount of weapons that they later turned out to be sufficient to arm 100,000 people.

Under Russian rule, education spread very quickly in Poland. A university was established in Warsaw; departments of higher sciences were opened, hitherto unprecedented in Poland; experienced mentors from abroad were called. The best Polish students were sent to Berlin, Paris and London at the expense of the Russian government; gymnasiums and training schools were opened in Polish regional cities; boarding houses for the education of girls and military schools arose. The laws bestowed on Poland by Alexander I and carefully guarded by him established order, justice, personal security, and the inviolability of property. Abundance and contentment reigned everywhere. During the first ten years of Poland being part of Russia, the population almost doubled, reaching four and a half million. The old saying Polska nierzadem stoi (Poland lives in disorder) was forgotten.

The successor of Alexander I, Nicholas I, took care of the well-being of the Kingdom of Poland just as carefully, just as generously. At the very accession to the throne, having confirmed the Constituent Charter, the new Russian sovereign sacredly observed the benefits bestowed by it, did not demand from Poland either the treasury or the army, he demanded only silence, exact execution of laws and zeal for the throne. It remained for her to bless her share, and to convey the feeling of the liveliest gratitude to the monarchs of Russia to the most distant offspring. The Poles acted differently: they upset their benefactor, Emperor Alexander I, with ingratitude, while already secretly preparing a rebellion against Russia. In 1830, they dared to raise arms against his successor.

The mass of the Polish people, all industrious and industrial people, farmers, manufacturers, prudent landlords, were satisfied with their lot and did not want to secede from Russia. But there were also many dreamy people, so often encountered in Poland, with unfulfilled hopes, cowardly in trouble, arrogant in happiness and ungrateful. These personalities served as a breeding ground for the Polish uprising of 1830-1831.

Based on the book of the outstanding pre-revolutionary scientist N. G. Ustryalov "Russian History until 1855" (with some additions)

The disappearance of Poland as a state

The drafted constitution of 1791 was called upon to implement the following transformations on the territory of the Commonwealth:

• establishment of centralized authority;
• curbing gentry anarchy;
• elimination of the pernicious principle of "liberum veto";
• mitigation of the social inequality of serfs.

However, the Polish magnates could not come to terms with the abolition of liberties in accordance with constitutional norms. The only way out of this situation for them was intervention by Russia. The formation of a confederation under the leadership of Marshal Pototsky, the search for help in St. Petersburg served as a pretext for the introduction of troops into Polish territory by Empress Catherine II. There was a second division of the Commonwealth between Russia and Prussia (whose troops were on Polish territory).

The main prerequisites for the disappearance of Poland as an independent state from the map of Europe:

• the abolition of the reforms of the Four-Year Diet, including the constitution of 1791;
• turning the rest of Poland into a puppet state;
• the defeat of the mass popular uprising of 1794 under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko;
• the third partition of Poland in 1795 with the participation of Austria.

1807 was marked by the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon, which included the Prussian and Austrian lands of Poland. In 1809, the Poles Krakow, Lublin, Radom and Sandomierz, who fought on the side of Napoleon, joined it. The fact that Poland was part of Russia until 1917 brought the Polish people both great disappointments and new opportunities.

The period of "Alexander's freedoms"

After the defeat in the war with Russia, the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw, created by Napoleon, became Russian property. Since 1815, the reign of Alexander I began, who got a poor country, devastated by military operations, without a single industry, with neglected trade, with devastated cities and villages, where the people suffered from unbearable taxes and extortions. Taking this country under guardianship, Alexander made it prosperous.

1. All branches of industry have resumed.
2. Cities were rebuilt, new villages appeared.
3. The drainage of swamps contributed to the emergence of fertile lands.
4. The construction of new roads made it possible to cross the country in various directions.
5. The emergence of new factories brought Polish cloth and other goods to Russia.
6. The Polish debt was secured, the credit was restored.
7. The establishment of a national Polish bank with capital received from the Russian sovereign contributed to the development of all branches of industry.
8. An excellent army was created with a sufficient arsenal of weapons
9. Education was picking up a fairly rapid pace of development, as evidenced by: the establishment of Warsaw University, the opening of departments of higher sciences, sending the best Polish students to study in Paris, London, Berlin at the expense of the Russian government, the opening of gymnasiums, military schools, boarding houses for educating girls in regional Polish cities.
10. The introduction of laws in Poland ensured order, inviolability of property and personal security.
11. The population doubled during the first ten years of being part of Russia.
12. The adoption of the Constituent Charter provided the Poles with a special form of government. In Poland, the Senate and the Sejm were created, which were the chambers of the representative assembly. The adoption of each new law was carried out after approval by a majority of votes in both chambers.
13. Municipal government was introduced in Polish cities.
14. A certain freedom was given to printing.

The time of the "Nikolaev reaction"

The main essence of the policy of Nicholas I in the Kingdom of Poland was increased Russification and forced conversion to Orthodoxy. The Polish people did not accept these directions, responding with mass protests, creating secret societies to organize uprisings against the government.

The emperor's response was the following actions: the abolition of the constitution that Alexander bestowed on Poland, the abolition of the Polish Sejm and the approval of his proxies for leadership positions.

Polish uprisings

The Polish people dreamed of an independent state. The main organizer of the protests was the students, which were later joined by soldiers, workers, part of the nobility and landowners. The main demands of the protesters were: the implementation of agrarian reforms, the implementation of the democratization of society and the independence of Poland.

Uprisings broke out in different cities (Warsaw - 1830, Poznan - 1846).

The Russian government takes certain decisions, primarily on imposing restrictions on the use of the Polish language, on the movement of males.

To eliminate unrest in the country in 1861, martial law was introduced. A recruiting recruitment is announced, where unreliable youth are sent.

However, the ascension to the Russian throne of a new ruler - Nicholas II revived in the souls of the Polish people a certain hope for liberalism in Russia's policy towards the Kingdom of Poland.

In 1897, the National Democratic Party of Poland was created - the main fighter for the independence of the country. Over time, it will take a place in the Russian State Duma as the Polish Kolo faction, thereby designating itself as the leading political force in the struggle for a free, autonomous Poland.

Benefits of Belonging to an Empire

As part of the Russian Empire, Poland had certain advantages:

• Opportunity for advancement in public service.
• Supervision of the banking sector by Polish aristocrats.
• Get more government subsidies.
• Increasing the literacy rate among the Polish population thanks to government financial support.
• Receiving dividends from participation in rail transportation between Russia and Germany.
• The growth of banks in the major cities of the Kingdom of Poland.

The year 1917, significant for Russia, was the end of the history of "Russian Poland". He gave the Poles the opportunity to establish their own statehood, and the country to get freedom. However, the expectations of the Russian emperor about the reality of the union with Russia did not come true.

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place between Austria, Prussia and Russia. May 3, 1791, the so-called. The four-year Sejm (1788-1792) adopted the Constitution of the Commonwealth.

In 1793 - the second section, ratified by the Grodno Seim, the last Seim of the Commonwealth; Byelorussia and Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia, to Prussia - Gdansk and Torun. The election of Polish kings was abolished.

In 1795, after the third partition, the Polish state ceased to exist. Western Ukraine (without Lvov) and Western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland went to Russia, Warsaw - to Prussia, Krakow, Lublin - to Austria.

After the Congress of Vienna, Poland was again divided. Russia received the Kingdom of Poland with Warsaw, Prussia received the Grand Duchy of Poznan, and Krakow became a separate republic. The Republic of Krakow ("free, independent and strictly neutral city of Krakow with its district") was annexed by Austria in 1846.

In 1815, Poland received the Constitutional Charter. On February 26, 1832, the Organic Statute was approved. The Russian Emperor was crowned Tsar of Poland.

At the end of 1815, with the adoption of the Constitutional Charter of the Kingdom of Poland, Polish flags were also approved:

• Naval standard of the Tsar of Poland (that is, the Russian emperor);

Yellow cloth depicting a black double-headed eagle under three crowns, holding four nautical charts in its paws and beaks. On the chest of the eagle is a crowned ermine mantle with a small coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

• Palace Standard of the Tsar of Poland;

White cloth depicting a black double-headed eagle under three crowns, holding a scepter and orb in its paws. On the chest of the eagle is a crowned ermine mantle with a small coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

• Flag of the military courts of the Kingdom of Poland.

A white flag with a blue St. Andrew's cross and a red canton, which depicts the coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

In the Polish flag studies literature, the last flag is referred to as "the flag of the Polish Black Sea trading companies of the 18th century." However, this statement raises very big doubts. Most likely in this case we are dealing with falsification. The fact is that the Andreevsky flag with an eagle was used by Polish emigrants as a national one. Due to the very complicated relations between Russia and Poland, it was extremely unpleasant for Polish nationalists to realize that the national flag of the Poles was, in fact, the occupying Russian flag. As a result, the myth of "Polish trading companies" was born.

Other official flags of Poland from the time of her stay in the Russian Empire are not known.

• The subject and method of the history of the national state and law
  • The subject of the history of the national state and law
  • Method of the history of the national state and law
  • Periodization of the history of the domestic state and law
• Old Russian state and law (IX - beginning of XII century)
  • Formation of the Old Russian state
    • Historical factors in the formation of the Old Russian state
  • The social system of the Old Russian state
    • Feudal-dependent population: sources of education and classification
  • State system of the Old Russian state
  • The system of law in the Old Russian state
    • Ownership in the Old Russian state
    • Obligation Law in the Old Russian State
    • Marriage, family and inheritance law in the Old Russian state
    • Criminal Law and Litigation in the Old Russian State
• The state and law of Russia in the period of feudal fragmentation (beginning of the XII-XIV centuries)
  • Feudal fragmentation in Russia
  • Features of the socio-political system of the Galicia-Volyn principality
  • Socio-political structure of the Vladimir-Suzdal land
  • Socio-political system and law of Novgorod and Pskov
  • State and Law of the Golden Horde
• Formation of the Russian centralized state
  • Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state
  • Social system in the Russian centralized state
  • State system in the Russian centralized state
  • Development of law in the Russian centralized state
• Estate-representative monarchy in Russia (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries)
  • Social system in the period of estate-representative monarchy
  • State system in the period of estate-representative monarchy
    • Police and Prisons in Ser. XVI - ser. 17th century
  • The development of law in the period of a class-representative monarchy
    • Civil Law in Ser. XVI - ser. 17th century
    • Criminal law in the Code of 1649
    • Legal proceedings in the Code of 1649
• Formation and development of absolute monarchy in Russia (second half of the 17th-18th centuries)
  • Historical prerequisites for the emergence of absolute monarchy in Russia
  • The social system of the period of absolute monarchy in Russia
  • State system of the period of absolute monarchy in Russia
    • Police in absolutist Russia
    • Prison institutions, exile and hard labor in the 17th-18th centuries.
    • Reforms of the era of palace coups
    • Reforms during the reign of Catherine II
  • Development of law under Peter I
    • Criminal law under Peter I
    • Civil law under Peter I
    • Family and inheritance law in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
    • Emergence of environmental legislation
• The state and law of Russia during the period of the disintegration of the feudal system and the growth of capitalist relations (the first half of the 19th century)
  • The social system in the period of the decomposition of the feudal system
  • State system of Russia in the nineteenth century
    • State government reform
    • His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery
    • The system of police bodies in the first half of the XIX century.
    • Russian prison system in the nineteenth century
  • Development of a form of state unity
    • Status of Finland within the Russian Empire
    • Incorporation of Poland into the Russian Empire
  • Systematization of the legislation of the Russian Empire
• The state and law of Russia during the period of the establishment of capitalism (the second half of the 19th century)
  • Abolition of serfdom
  • Zemstvo and city reforms
  • Local government in the second half of the XIX century.
  • Judicial reform in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Military reform in the second half of the XIX century.
  • Reform of the police and prison system in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Financial reform in Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
  • Reforms of the education system and censorship
  • Church in the system of state administration of tsarist Russia
  • Counter-reforms of the 1880s-1890s
  • The development of Russian law in the second half of the XIX century.
    • Civil law of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
    • Family and inheritance law in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
• The state and law of Russia during the period of the first Russian revolution and before the start of the First World War (1900-1914)
  • Background and course of the first Russian revolution
  • Changes in the social structure of Russia
    • Agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin
    • Formation of political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
  • Changes in the state system of Russia
    • Reforming state bodies
    • Establishment of the State Duma
    • Punitive measures P.A. Stolypin
    • The fight against crime at the beginning of the 20th century.
  • Changes in law in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
• The state and law of Russia during the First World War
  • Changes in the state apparatus
  • Changes in the field of law during the First World War
• The state and law of Russia during the period of the February bourgeois-democratic republic (February - October 1917)
  • February Revolution of 1917
  • Dual power in Russia
    • Solving the issue of the state unity of the country
    • Reforming the prison system in February - October 1917
    • Changes in the state apparatus
  • Activities of the Soviets
  • Legal activities of the Provisional Government
• Creation of the Soviet state and law (October 1917 - 1918)
  • All-Russian Congress of Soviets and its decrees
  • Fundamental changes in the social order
  • The demolition of the bourgeois and the creation of a new Soviet state apparatus
    • Powers and activities of the Councils
    • Military Revolutionary Committees
    • Soviet armed forces
    • Working militia
    • Changes in the judicial and penitentiary systems after the October Revolution
  • Nation-state building
  • Constitution of the RSFSR 1918
  • Creation of the foundations of Soviet law
• Soviet State and Law during the Civil War and Intervention (1918-1920)
  • Civil war and intervention
  • Soviet state apparatus
  • Armed Forces and Law Enforcement
    • Reorganization of the militia in 1918-1920.
    • The activities of the Cheka during the civil war
    • Judiciary during the Civil War
  • Military Union of Soviet Republics
  • The development of law in the context of the Civil War
• Soviet State and Law during the New Economic Policy (1921-1929)
  • Nation-state building. Formation of the USSR
    • Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the USSR
  • The development of the state apparatus of the RSFSR
    • Restoration of the national economy after the civil war
    • Judiciary during the NEP period
    • Creation of the Soviet prosecutor's office
    • Police of the USSR during the NEP
    • Correctional labor institutions of the USSR during the NEP period
    • Codification of law during the NEP period
• The Soviet state and law in the period of a radical break in social relations (1930-1941)
  • State management of the economy
    • Kolkhoz construction
    • Planning of the national economy and reorganization of the governing bodies
  • State management of socio-cultural processes
  • Law enforcement reforms in the 1930s
  • Reorganization of the armed forces in the 1930s
  • Constitution of the USSR 1936
  • The development of the USSR as a union state
  • Development of law in 1930-1941
• Soviet state and law during the Great Patriotic War
  • The Great Patriotic War and the restructuring of the work of the Soviet state apparatus
  • Changes in the organization of state unity
  • The development of Soviet law during the Great Patriotic War
• The Soviet state and law in the post-war years of the restoration of the national economy (1945-1953)
  • Internal political situation and foreign policy of the USSR in the first post-war years
  • The development of the state apparatus in the postwar years
    • The system of correctional labor institutions in the post-war years
  • The development of Soviet law in the postwar years
• Soviet state and law in the period of liberalization of public relations (mid-1950s - mid-1960s)
  • Development of the external functions of the Soviet state
  • The development of a form of state unity in the mid-1950s.
  • Restructuring of the state apparatus of the USSR in the mid-1950s.
  • The development of Soviet law in the mid-1950s - mid-1960s.
• The Soviet state and law in the period of slowing down the pace of social development (mid-1960s - mid-1980s)
  • Development of external functions of the state
  • USSR Constitution 1977
  • Form of state unity according to the 1977 Constitution of the USSR
    • Development of the state apparatus
    • Law enforcement agencies in the mid-1960s - mid-1980s.
    • Authorities of justice of the USSR in the 1980s.
  • The development of law in the middle. 1960s - ser. 1900s
  • Correctional labor institutions in the middle. 1960s - ser. 1900s
• Formation of the state and law of the Russian Federation. The collapse of the USSR (mid-1980s - 1990s)
  • The policy of "perestroika" and its main content
  • The main directions of development of the political regime and state system
  • The collapse of the USSR
  • External consequences of the collapse of the USSR for Russia. Commonwealth of Independent States
  • The formation of the state apparatus of the new Russia
  • Development of the form of state unity of the Russian Federation
  • Development of law during the collapse of the USSR and the formation of the Russian Federation

Incorporation of Poland into the Russian Empire

The Polish state ceased to exist in 1795, when it was divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia. Lithuania, Western Belarus, Western Volhynia and the Duchy of Courland, which was a vassalage of Poland, went to Russia.

In 1807, after the victory of France over Prussia on the part of Polish territory that belonged to her, Napoleon formed a new state - the Principality of Warsaw, to which in 1809 part of the Polish lands that were part of Austria was annexed. The Principality of Warsaw was a constitutional monarchy. The Prince of Warsaw, on the basis of a union with the Kingdom of Saxony, was the Saxon king, dependent on France. The Principality of Warsaw participated in the war of 1812-1814. on the side of Napoleonic France.

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Alexander I, who believed that Russia, as a victorious country, should receive new lands and secure its western borders, achieved the inclusion of most of the territory of the Principality of Warsaw into the Russian Empire. Austria. Prussia and Russia came to an agreement that the Principality of Warsaw would be transformed into the Kingdom of Poland, would receive a new constitution, according to which the Russian Emperor would become the Tsar of Poland, the head of the executive branch of the Polish state. Thus, the new Polish state was part of the Russian Empire on the basis of the union.

According to the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, the Russian emperor appointed his governor to it. The post of Secretary of State for the Affairs of the Kingdom of Poland was established. The legislature was the Sejm, elected by direct elections by all estates on the basis of a property qualification.

All participants in the war with Russia on the side of Napoleon received an amnesty and had the right to enter the service in the state apparatus and in the army of the Kingdom of Poland. The commander of the Polish army was appointed by the Russian emperor as the Tsar of Poland. Many subjects of the Russian emperor were dissatisfied with the fact that the Poles who participated in the war on the side of Napoleon and the defeated Poles received more rights than the winners.

Having become part of the Russian Empire, retaining the effect of its laws, administration, having a legislative body, Poland simultaneously received access to the Russian, and through Russia to the Asian market for its goods. In order to reduce anti-Russian sentiment among the Polish nobility and bourgeoisie, customs privileges were established for Polish goods. Many products of the Polish industry were subject to a customs duty of 3%, while Russian ones were 15%, despite the fact that "Russian manufacturers yelled against such an order" 1 Kornilov A.A. Course of Russian history of the XIX century. M., 1993. S. 171..

The economic development of Poland, the growth of the influence of the national bourgeoisie, intensified the desire for complete political independence and the restoration of the Polish sovereign state within the borders that existed before its first partition in 1772. In 1830, an uprising began in Poland, the main force of which was the army of the Kingdom of Poland. The Polish Sejm announced the deprivation of the Russian emperor of the Polish crown, thus breaking the union between Poland and the Russian Empire.

After the suppression of the uprising by Russian troops, Emperor Nicholas I in 1832 issued the "Organic Status", which canceled the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815 and liquidated the Sejm, the Polish army. The Kingdom of Poland - this "internal abroad", as it was called in the Russian Empire, was liquidated. Instead, the Warsaw General Government is formed. Field Marshal I.F. Paskevich, who received the title of Prince of Warsaw.

Of the state institutions provided for by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, only the Polish State Council continued to operate, which became a kind of information and advisory institution under the State Council of the Russian Empire. But in 1841, during the preparation of the new "Regulations on the State Council of the Russian Empire", it was abolished. Since 1857, the Warsaw governorship began to be divided administratively not into voivodeships, as before, but into provinces. Certain privileges for the local nobility and tax breaks for industry were preserved, which contributed to the further socio-economic development of the former Kingdom of Poland, incorporated into the Russian Empire.

So, in the first half of the XIX century. the territory of the Russian Empire increased by almost 20%. This was due not so much to economic goals as. for example, in the case of the British Empire, but military-political tasks, the desire to ensure the security of their borders. The policy of the Russian administration in the annexed territories proceeded from their military-strategic significance and was aimed at their socio-economic development, and not at using the resources of the new territories, for the development of the central provinces of Russia 2 See: Ananin B., Pravilova E. Imperial factor in the Russian economy // Russian Empire in a comparative perspective. M., 2004. S. 236-237..

In the conditions of the destruction of the Ottoman and Persian empires, some of the peoples they conquered voluntarily became part of the Russian Empire.

The management of the annexed, conquered peoples, their legal status in the empire was built taking into account their socio-economic, legal, religious and other characteristics and was diverse, although it tended to unify, apply the principles of administrative management and laws of the Russian Empire to them.