Arising in the second half of the 10th c. and became in the 11th century. In the second quarter of the 12th c. to its actual collapse. Conditional holders sought, on the one hand, to turn their conditional holdings into unconditional ones and achieve economic and political independence from the center, and on the other hand, by subordinating the local nobility, to establish full control over their possessions. In all regions (with the exception of the Novgorod land, where, in fact, the republican regime was established and the princely power acquired a military-service character), the princes from the house of Rurikovich managed to become sovereign sovereigns with the highest legislative, executive and judicial functions. They relied on the administrative apparatus, whose members constituted a special service class: for their service they received either part of the income from the exploitation of the subject territory (feeding), or land for holding. The main vassals of the prince (boyars), together with the tops of the local clergy, formed under him an advisory and advisory body - the boyar duma. The prince was considered the supreme owner of all lands in the principality: some of them belonged to him on the basis of personal ownership (domain), and he disposed of the rest as the ruler of the territory; they were divided into dominal possessions of the church and conditional holdings of the boyars and their vassals (boyar servants).

The socio-political structure of Russia in the era of fragmentation was based on a complex system of suzerainty and vassalage (the feudal ladder). The feudal hierarchy was headed by the Grand Duke (until the middle of the 12th century he was the ruler of the Kyiv table, later the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn princes acquired this status). Below were the rulers of large principalities (Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Turov-Pinsk, Polotsk, Rostov-Suzdal, Vladimir-Volyn, Galicia, Muromo-Ryazan, Smolensk), even lower - the owners of the destinies within each of these principalities. At the lowest level there was an untitled serving nobility (boyars and their vassals).

From the middle of the 11th century the process of disintegration of large principalities began, which first of all affected the most developed agricultural regions (Kyiv and Chernihiv regions). In the 12th - first half of the 13th century. this trend has become universal. Particularly intense fragmentation was in the Kiev, Chernigov, Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk and Muromo-Ryazan principalities. To a lesser extent, it affected the Smolensk land, and in the Galicia-Volyn and Rostov-Suzdal (Vladimir) principalities, periods of disintegration alternated with periods of temporary unification of appanages under the rule of the "senior" ruler. Only Novgorod land throughout its history continued to maintain political integrity.

In the conditions of feudal fragmentation, all-Russian and regional princely congresses acquired great importance, at which domestic and foreign policy issues were resolved (inter-princely feuds, the fight against external enemies). However, they did not become a permanent, regular political institution and could not slow down the process of dissipation.

By the time of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Russia was divided into many small principalities and was unable to combine forces to repel external aggression. Devastated by the hordes of Batu, she lost a significant part of her western and southwestern lands, which became in the second half of the 13th-14th centuries. easy prey for Lithuania (Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk, Vladimir-Volyn, Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Smolensk principalities) and Poland (Galician). Only North-Eastern Russia (Vladimir, Muromo-Ryazan and Novgorod lands) managed to maintain its independence. In the 14th - early 16th century. it was "gathered" by the princes of Moscow, who restored the unified Russian state.

Kievan principality.

It was located in the interfluve of the Dnieper, Sluch, Ros and Pripyat (modern Kyiv and Zhytomyr regions of Ukraine and the south of the Gomel region of Belarus). It bordered in the north with Turov-Pinsk, in the east - with Chernigov and Pereyaslav, in the west with the Vladimir-Volyn principality, and in the south it ran into the Polovtsian steppes. The population was made up of Slavic tribes of Polyans and Drevlyans.

Fertile soils and mild climate favored intensive farming; The inhabitants were also engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. Here the specialization of crafts took place early; “woodworking”, pottery and leatherworking acquired special importance. The presence of iron deposits in the Drevlyansk land (included in the Kyiv region at the turn of the 9th–10th centuries) favored the development of blacksmithing; many types of metals (copper, lead, tin, silver, gold) were brought from neighboring countries. The famous trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” passed through the Kiev region (from the Baltic Sea to Byzantium); through the Pripyat, it was connected with the basin of the Vistula and the Neman, through the Desna - with the upper reaches of the Oka, through the Seim - with the Don basin and the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. An influential trade and handicraft layer formed early in Kyiv and nearby cities.

From the end of the 9th to the end of the 10th c. Kyiv land was the central region of the Old Russian state. Under St. Vladimir, with the allocation of a number of semi-independent destinies, it became the core of the grand ducal domain; at the same time Kyiv turned into the church center of Russia (as the residence of the metropolitan); an episcopal see was also established in nearby Belgorod. After the death of Mstislav the Great in 1132, the actual disintegration of the Old Russian state took place, and the Kievan land was constituted as a separate principality.

Despite the fact that the Kyiv prince ceased to be the supreme owner of all Russian lands, he remained the head of the feudal hierarchy and continued to be considered "senior" among other princes. This made the Kiev principality the object of a fierce struggle between the various branches of the Rurik dynasty. The powerful Kievan boyars and the trade and craft population also took an active part in this struggle, although the role of the people's assembly (veche) by the beginning of the 12th century. decreased significantly.

Until 1139, the Kyiv table was in the hands of the Monomashichs - Mstislav the Great was succeeded by his brothers Yaropolk (1132–1139) and Vyacheslav (1139). In 1139 it was taken from them by the Chernigov prince Vsevolod Olgovich. However, the rule of the Chernigov Olgoviches was short-lived: after the death of Vsevolod in 1146, the local boyars, dissatisfied with the transfer of power to his brother Igor, called Izyaslav Mstislavich, a representative of the older branch of the Monomashichs (Mstislavichs), to the Kyiv throne. On August 13, 1146, having defeated the troops of Igor and Svyatoslav Olgovich near the Olga grave, Izyaslav captured the ancient capital; Igor, taken prisoner by him, was killed in 1147. In 1149, the Suzdal branch of the Monomashichs, represented by Yuri Dolgoruky, entered the struggle for Kyiv. After the death of Izyaslav (November 1154) and his co-ruler Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (December 1154), Yuri established himself on the Kiev table and held it until his death in 1157. The strife within the Monomashich house helped the Olgoviches take revenge: in May 1157, Izyaslav Davydovich Chernigovskii seized princely power (1157 –1159). But his unsuccessful attempt to seize Galich cost him the grand-ducal table, which returned to the Mstislavichs - the Smolensk prince Rostislav (1159-1167), and then to his nephew Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169).

From the middle of the 12th century the political significance of the Kyiv land is falling. Its disintegration into destinies begins: in the 1150s–1170s, the Belgorod, Vyshgorod, Trepol, Kanev, Torche, Kotelniche and Dorogobuzh principalities stand out. Kyiv ceases to play the role of the only center of the Russian lands; in the northeast and southwest, two new centers of political attraction and influence are emerging, claiming the status of great principalities - Vladimir on the Klyazma and Galich. The princes of Vladimir and Galicia-Volyn no longer seek to occupy the Kyiv table; periodically subjugating Kyiv, they put their proteges there.

In 1169–1174 Vladimir Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky dictated his will to Kyiv: in 1169 he expelled Mstislav Izyaslavich from there and gave the reign to his brother Gleb (1169–1171). When, after the death of Gleb (January 1171) and Vladimir Mstislavich (May 1171), who replaced him, the Kyiv table without his consent was taken by his other brother Mikhalko, Andrei forced him to give way to Roman Rostislavich, a representative of the Smolensk branch of the Mstislavichs (Rostislavichs); in 1172 Andrey expelled Roman as well and planted another of his brother Vsevolod the Big Nest in Kyiv; in 1173 he forced Rurik Rostislavich, who had seized the Kievan table, to flee to Belgorod.

After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1174, Kyiv fell under the control of the Smolensk Rostislavichs in the person of Roman Rostislavich (1174–1176). But in 1176, having failed in the campaign against the Polovtsy, Roman was forced to give up power, which was used by the Olgovichi. At the call of the townspeople, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich Chernigov (1176-1194, with a break in 1181) took the Kyiv table. However, he did not succeed in ousting the Rostislavichs from the Kievan land; in the early 1180s, he recognized their rights to Porosie and the Drevlyane land; Olgovichi strengthened in the Kyiv district. Having reached agreement with the Rostislavichs, Svyatoslav concentrated his efforts on the fight against the Polovtsy, having managed to seriously weaken their onslaught on Russian lands.

After his death in 1194, the Rostislavichi returned to the Kievan table in the person of Rurik Rostislavich, but already at the beginning of the 13th century. Kyiv fell into the sphere of influence of the powerful Galician-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich, who in 1202 expelled Rurik and installed his cousin Ingvar Yaroslavich of Dorogobuzh in his place. In 1203, Rurik, in alliance with the Polovtsy and Chernigov Olgovichi, captured Kyiv and, with the diplomatic support of the Vladimir prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, the ruler of North-Eastern Russia, held the Kievan reign for several months. However, in 1204, during a joint campaign of the South Russian rulers against the Polovtsy, he was arrested by Roman and tonsured a monk, and his son Rostislav was thrown into prison; Ingvar returned to the Kyiv table. But soon, at the request of Vsevolod, Roman released Rostislav and made him a prince of Kyiv.

After the death of Roman in October 1205, Rurik left the monastery and at the beginning of 1206 occupied Kyiv. In the same year, Prince Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny of Chernigov entered the fight against him. Their four-year rivalry ended in 1210 with a compromise agreement: Rurik recognized Kyiv for Vsevolod and received Chernigov as compensation.

After the death of Vsevolod, the Rostislavichs reasserted themselves on the Kievan table: Mstislav Romanovich the Old (1212/1214–1223 with a break in 1219) and his cousin Vladimir Rurikovich (1223–1235). In 1235, Vladimir, having suffered a defeat from the Polovtsy near Torchesky, was taken prisoner by them, and power in Kyiv was seized first by Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, and then Yaroslav, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest. However, in 1236, Vladimir, having redeemed himself from captivity, without much difficulty regained the grand prince's throne and remained on it until his death in 1239.

In 1239–1240, Mikhail Vsevolodovich Chernigov and Rostislav Mstislavich Smolensky were in Kyiv, and on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, he was under the control of the Galician-Volyn prince Daniil Romanovich, who appointed voivode Dmitr there. In the autumn of 1240, Batu moved to South Russia and in early December took and defeated Kyiv, despite the desperate nine-day resistance of the inhabitants and a small squad of Dmitry; he subjected the principality to terrible devastation, after which it could no longer recover. Returning to the capital in 1241, Mikhail Vsevolodich was summoned to the Horde in 1246 and killed there. From the 1240s, Kyiv became formally dependent on the great princes of Vladimir (Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich). In the second half of the 13th c. a significant part of the population emigrated to the northern Russian regions. In 1299, the metropolitan see was transferred from Kyiv to Vladimir. In the first half of the 14th century the weakened Kiev principality became the object of Lithuanian aggression and in 1362, under Olgerd, it became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Principality of Polotsk.

It was located in the middle reaches of the Dvina and Polota and in the upper reaches of the Svisloch and Berezina (the territory of the modern Vitebsk, Minsk and Mogilev regions of Belarus and southeastern Lithuania). In the south it bordered on Turov-Pinsk, in the east - on the Smolensk principality, in the north - on the Pskov-Novgorod land, in the west and north-west - on the Finno-Ugric tribes (Livs, Latgales). It was inhabited by the Polochans (the name comes from the Polota River) - a branch of the East Slavic tribe of the Krivichi, partially mixed with the Baltic tribes.

As an independent territorial entity, the Polotsk land existed even before the emergence of the Old Russian state. In the 870s, the Novgorod prince Rurik imposed tribute on the Polotsk people, and then they submitted to the Kyiv prince Oleg. Under the Kiev prince Yaropolk Svyatoslavich (972–980), the Polotsk land was a principality dependent on him, ruled by the Norman Rogvolod. In 980, Vladimir Svyatoslavich captured her, killed Rogvolod and his two sons, and took his daughter Rogneda as his wife; since that time, the Polotsk land finally became part of the Old Russian state. Having become the prince of Kyiv, Vladimir transferred part of it to the joint holding of Rogneda and their eldest son Izyaslav. In 988/989 he made Izyaslav the prince of Polotsk; Izyaslav became the ancestor of the local princely dynasty (Polotsk Izyaslavichi). In 992 the diocese of Polotsk was established.

Although the principality was poor in fertile lands, it had rich hunting and fishing lands and was located at the crossroads of important trade routes along the Dvina, Neman and Berezina; impenetrable forests and water barriers protected it from outside attacks. This attracted numerous settlers here; cities grew rapidly, turning into trade and craft centers (Polotsk, Izyaslavl, Minsk, Drutsk, etc.). Economic prosperity contributed to the concentration of significant resources in the hands of the Izyaslavichs, on which they relied in their struggle to achieve independence from the authorities of Kyiv.

Izyaslav's heir Bryachislav (1001–1044), taking advantage of the princely civil strife in Russia, pursued an independent policy and tried to expand his possessions. In 1021, with his retinue and a detachment of Scandinavian mercenaries, he captured and plundered Veliky Novgorod, but then was defeated by the ruler of the Novgorod land, Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise on the Sudoma River; nevertheless, in order to ensure the loyalty of Bryachislav, Yaroslav ceded to him Usvyatskaya and Vitebsk volosts.

The Principality of Polotsk achieved special power under the son of Bryachislav Vseslav (1044–1101), who launched expansion to the north and northwest. Livs and Latgalians became his tributaries. In the 1060s he made several campaigns against Pskov and Novgorod the Great. In 1067 Vseslav ravaged Novgorod, but was unable to keep the Novgorod land. In the same year, Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich struck back at his strengthened vassal: he invaded the Principality of Polotsk, captured Minsk, defeated Vseslav's squad on the river. Nemiga, by cunning, took him prisoner along with his two sons and sent him to prison in Kyiv; the principality became part of the vast possessions of Izyaslav. After the overthrow of Izyaslav by the rebellious Kievans on September 14, 1068, Vseslav regained Polotsk and even occupied the Kyiv grand prince's table for a short time; in the course of a fierce struggle with Izyaslav and his sons Mstislav, Svyatopolk and Yaropolk in 1069–1072, he managed to retain the Polotsk principality. In 1078, he resumed aggression against neighboring regions: he captured the Smolensk principality and devastated the northern part of Chernigov land. However, already in the winter of 1078–1079, Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavich carried out a punitive expedition to the Principality of Polotsk and burned Lukoml, Logozhsk, Drutsk and the suburbs of Polotsk; In 1084 Prince Vladimir Monomakh of Chernigov took Minsk and severely destroyed the Polotsk land. Vseslav's resources were exhausted, and he no longer tried to expand the limits of his possessions.

With the death of Vseslav in 1101, the decline of the Principality of Polotsk begins. It breaks up into divisions; Minsk, Izyaslav and Vitebsk principalities stand out from it. The sons of Vseslav waste their strength in civil strife. After the predatory campaign of Gleb Vseslavich in the Turov-Pinsk land in 1116 and his unsuccessful attempt to capture Novgorod and the Smolensk principality in 1119, the aggression of the Izyaslavichs against neighboring regions practically ceased. The weakening of the principality opens the way for the intervention of Kyiv: in 1119 Vladimir Monomakh easily defeats Gleb Vseslavich, seizes his inheritance, and imprisons himself in prison; in 1127 Mstislav the Great devastated the southwestern regions of the Polotsk land; in 1129, taking advantage of the refusal of the Izyaslavichs to take part in the joint campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsy, he occupies the principality and at the Kiev Congress seeks the condemnation of five Polotsk rulers (Svyatoslav, Davyd and Rostislav Vseslavich, Rogvolod and Ivan Borisovich) and their expulsion to Byzantium. Mstislav transfers the land of Polotsk to his son Izyaslav, and appoints his governors in the cities.

Although in 1132 the Izyaslavichs, in the person of Vasilko Svyatoslavich (1132–1144), managed to return the ancestral principality, they were no longer able to revive its former power. In the middle of the 12th c. a fierce struggle for the Polotsk princely table breaks out between Rogvolod Borisovich (1144–1151, 1159–1162) and Rostislav Glebovich (1151–1159). At the turn of the 1150s-1160s, Rogvolod Borisovich made the last attempt to unite the principality, which, however, collapsed due to the opposition of other Izyaslavichs and the intervention of neighboring princes (Yuri Dolgorukov and others). In the second half of the 7th c. the crushing process deepens; the Drutsk, Gorodensky, Logozhsky and Strizhevsky principalities arise; the most important regions (Polotsk, Vitebsk, Izyaslavl) end up in the hands of the Vasilkoviches (descendants of Vasilko Svyatoslavich); the influence of the Minsk branch of the Izyaslavichs (Glebovichi), on the contrary, is falling. Polotsk land becomes the object of expansion of the Smolensk princes; in 1164 Davyd Rostislavich Smolensky for some time even takes possession of the Vitebsk volost; in the second half of the 1210s, his sons Mstislav and Boris established themselves in Vitebsk and Polotsk.

At the beginning of the 13th c. the aggression of the German knights begins in the lower reaches of the Western Dvina; by 1212 the Sword-bearers conquered the lands of the Livs and southwestern Latgale, tributaries of Polotsk. Since the 1230s, the Polotsk rulers also had to repel the onslaught of the newly formed Lithuanian state; mutual strife prevented them from joining forces, and by 1252 the Lithuanian princes had captured Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Drutsk. In the second half of the 13th c. for the Polotsk lands, a fierce struggle unfolds between Lithuania, the Teutonic Order and the Smolensk princes, the winner of which is the Lithuanians. The Lithuanian prince Viten (1293–1316) takes Polotsk from the German knights in 1307, and his successor Gedemin (1316–1341) subdues the Minsk and Vitebsk principalities. Finally, the Polotsk land became part of the Lithuanian state in 1385.

Chernihiv principality.

It was located east of the Dnieper between the Desna valley and the middle reaches of the Oka (the territory of the modern Kursk, Orel, Tula, Kaluga, Bryansk, the western part of the Lipetsk and southern parts of the Moscow regions of Russia, the northern part of the Chernihiv and Sumy regions of Ukraine and the eastern part of the Gomel region of Belarus ). In the south it bordered on Pereyaslavsky, in the east - on Muromo-Ryazansky, in the north - on Smolensk, in the west - on Kyiv and Turov-Pinsk principalities. It was inhabited by East Slavic tribes of Polyans, Severyans, Radimichi and Vyatichi. It is believed that it received its name either from a certain Prince Cherny, or from the Black Guy (forest).

With a mild climate, fertile soils, numerous rivers rich in fish, and in the north with forests full of game, Chernihiv land was one of the most attractive areas for settlement in Ancient Russia. Through it (along the rivers Desna and Sozh) passed the main trade route from Kyiv to northeastern Russia. Towns with a significant artisan population arose early here. In the 11th-12th centuries. The Chernihiv principality was one of the richest and politically significant regions of Russia.

By the 9th c. the northerners, who formerly lived on the left bank of the Dnieper, having subjugated the Radimichi, Vyatichi and part of the glades, extended their power to the upper reaches of the Don. As a result, a semi-state entity emerged that paid tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. At the beginning of the 10th c. it recognized dependence on the Kyiv prince Oleg. In the second half of the 10th c. Chernihiv land became part of the grand ducal domain. Under St. Vladimir, the diocese of Chernihiv was established. In 1024, it fell under the rule of Mstislav the Brave, brother of Yaroslav the Wise, and became a principality virtually independent of Kyiv. After his death in 1036, it was again included in the grand ducal domain. According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the Chernigov principality, together with the Muromo-Ryazan land, passed to his son Svyatoslav (1054-1073), who became the ancestor of the local princely dynasty of Svyatoslavichs; they, however, managed to establish themselves in Chernigov only towards the end of the 11th century. In 1073, the Svyatoslavichs lost the principality, which ended up in the hands of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, and from 1078 - his son Vladimir Monomakh (until 1094). The attempts of the most active of the Svyatoslavichs, Oleg "Gorislavich", to regain control over the principality in 1078 (with the help of his cousin Boris Vyacheslavich) and in 1094-1096 (with the help of the Polovtsy) ended in failure. Nevertheless, by decision of the Lyubech princely congress of 1097, Chernigov and Muromo-Ryazan lands were recognized as the patrimony of the Svyatoslavichs; the son of Svyatoslav Davyd (1097-1123) became the prince of Chernigov. After Davyd's death, the throne was occupied by his brother Yaroslav of Ryazan, who in 1127 was expelled by his nephew Vsevolod, the son of Oleg "Gorislavich". Yaroslav retained the Muromo-Ryazan land, which from that time turned into an independent principality. The Chernihiv land was divided among themselves by the sons of Davyd and Oleg Svyatoslavich (Davydovichi and Olgovichi), who entered into a fierce struggle for allotments and the Chernigov table. In 1127-1139 it was occupied by the Olgovichi, in 1139 they were replaced by the Davydovichi - Vladimir (1139-1151) and his brother Izyaslav (1151-1157), but in 1157 he finally passed to the Olgovichi: Svyatoslav Olgovich (1157-1164) and his nephews Svyatoslav (1164-1177) and Yaroslav (1177-1198) Vsevolodichi. At the same time, the Chernihiv princes tried to subjugate Kyiv: Vsevolod Olgovich (1139-1146), Igor Olgovich (1146) and Izyaslav Davydovich (1154 and 1157-1159) owned the Kyiv grand prince's table. They also fought with varying success for Veliky Novgorod, the Turov-Pinsk principality, and even for distant Galich. In internal strife and in wars with neighbors, the Svyatoslavichs often resorted to the help of the Polovtsy.

In the second half of the 12th century, despite the extinction of the Davydovich family, the process of fragmentation of the Chernigov land intensified. It includes Novgorod-Seversk, Putivl, Kursk, Starodub and Vshchizh principalities; the principality of Chernigov proper was limited to the lower reaches of the Desna, from time to time also including the Vshchizh and Starobud volosts. The dependence of the vassal princes on the Chernigov ruler becomes nominal; some of them (for example, Svyatoslav Vladimirovich Vshchizhsky in the early 1160s) show a desire for complete independence. The fierce feuds of the Olgoviches do not prevent them from actively fighting for Kyiv with the Smolensk Rostislavichs: in 1176–1194 Svyatoslav Vsevolodich rules there, in 1206–1212/1214, intermittently, his son Vsevolod Chermny. They are trying to gain a foothold in Novgorod the Great (1180–1181, 1197); in 1205 they manage to take possession of the Galician land, where, however, in 1211 a catastrophe befell them - the three princes of the Olgovichi (Roman, Svyatoslav and Rostislav Igorevich) were captured and hanged by the verdict of the Galician boyars. In 1210, they even lose the Chernigov table, which for two years passes to the Smolensk Rostislavichs (Rurik Rostislavich).

In the first third of the 13th c. The Chernigov Principality breaks up into many small destinies, only formally subordinate to Chernigov; Kozelskoe, Lopasninskoe, Rylskoe, Snovskoe, then Trubchevskoe, Glukhovo-Novosilskoe, Karachevo and Tarusa principalities stand out. Despite this, Prince Mikhail Vsevolodich of Chernigov (1223-1241) does not stop his active policy towards neighboring regions, trying to establish control over Novgorod the Great (1225, 1228-1230) and Kyiv (1235, 1238); in 1235 he took possession of the Galician principality, and later the Przemysl volost.

The waste of significant human and material resources in civil strife and in wars with neighbors, the fragmentation of forces and the lack of unity among the princes contributed to the success of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In the autumn of 1239, Batu took Chernigov and subjected the principality to such a terrible defeat that it actually ceased to exist. In 1241, the son and heir of Mikhail Vsevolodich, Rostislav, left his fiefdom and went to fight in the Galician land, and then fled to Hungary. Obviously, the last Chernigov prince was his uncle Andrei (mid-1240s - early 1260s). After 1261, the Principality of Chernigov became part of the Principality of Bryansk, founded in 1246 by Roman, another son of Mikhail Vsevolodich; the Bishop of Chernigov also moved to Bryansk. In the middle of the 14th century The Principality of Bryansk and Chernihiv lands were conquered by the Lithuanian prince Olgerd.

Muromo-Ryazan principality.

It occupied the southeastern outskirts of Russia - the basin of the Oka and its tributaries Proni, Osetra and Tsna, the upper reaches of the Don and Voronezh (modern Ryazan, Lipetsk, northeast of Tambov and south of Vladimir regions). It bordered on the west with Chernigov, on the north with the Rostov-Suzdal principality; in the east, its neighbors were the Mordovian tribes, and in the south, the Cumans. The population of the principality was mixed: both Slavs (Krivichi, Vyatichi) and Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordva, Muroma, Meshchera) lived here.

Fertile (chernozem and podzolized) soils prevailed in the south and in the central regions of the principality, which contributed to the development of agriculture. Its northern part was densely covered with forests rich in game and swamps; The locals were mainly engaged in hunting. In the 11th-12th centuries. a number of urban centers arose on the territory of the principality: Murom, Ryazan (from the word "cassock" - a marshy swampy place overgrown with shrubs), Pereyaslavl, Kolomna, Rostislavl, Pronsk, Zaraysk. However, in terms of economic development, it lagged behind most other regions of Russia.

Murom land was annexed to the Old Russian state in the third quarter of the 10th century. under the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Igorevich. In 988-989 St. Vladimir included it in the Rostov inheritance of his son Yaroslav the Wise. In 1010, Vladimir allocated it as an independent principality to his other son Gleb. After the tragic death of Gleb in 1015, it returned to the Grand Duke's domain, and in 1023-1036 it was part of the Chernigov inheritance of Mstislav the Brave.

According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the Murom land, as part of the Chernigov principality, passed in 1054 to his son Svyatoslav, and in 1073 he transferred it to his brother Vsevolod. In 1078, having become the great prince of Kyiv, Vsevolod gave Murom to Svyatoslav's sons Roman and Davyd. In 1095 Davyd ceded it to Izyaslav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, receiving Smolensk in return. In 1096, David's brother Oleg "Gorislavich" expelled Izyaslav, but then he himself was expelled by Izyaslav's elder brother Mstislav the Great. However, by decision of the Lyubech Congress, Murom land, as a vassal possession of Chernigov, was recognized as the patrimony of the Svyatoslavichs: it was given to Oleg "Gorislavich", and a special Ryazan volost was allocated from it for his brother Yaroslav.

In 1123, Yaroslav, who occupied the Chernigov throne, handed over Murom and Ryazan to his nephew Vsevolod Davydovich. But after being expelled from Chernigov in 1127, Yaroslav returned to the Murom table; from that time, the Muromo-Ryazan land became an independent principality, in which the descendants of Yaroslav (the younger Murom branch of the Svyatoslavichs) established themselves. They had to constantly repel the raids of the Polovtsy and other nomads, which diverted their forces from participating in the all-Russian princely strife, but by no means from internal strife associated with the process of crushing that had begun (already in the 1140s, the Yelets principality stood out on its southwestern outskirts). From the mid-1140s, the Muromo-Ryazan land became an object of expansion from the Rostov-Suzdal rulers - Yuri Dolgoruky and his son Andrei Bogolyubsky. In 1146, Andrei Bogolyubsky intervened in the conflict between Prince Rostislav Yaroslavich and his nephews Davyd and Igor Svyatoslavich and helped them capture Ryazan. Rostislav kept Moore behind him; only a few years later he was able to regain the Ryazan table. In the early 1160s, his great-nephew Yuri Vladimirovich established himself in Murom, who became the founder of a special branch of the Murom princes, and from that time the Murom principality separated from Ryazan. Soon (by 1164) it fell into vassal dependence on the Vadimir-Suzdal prince Andrei Bogolyubsky; under the subsequent rulers - Vladimir Yuryevich (1176-1205), Davyd Yuryevich (1205-1228) and Yury Davydovich (1228-1237), the Principality of Murom gradually lost its significance.

The Ryazan princes (Rostislav and his son Gleb), however, actively resisted the Vladimir-Suzdal aggression. Moreover, after the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1174, Gleb tried to establish control over the entire North-Eastern Russia. In alliance with the sons of Pereyaslav prince Rostislav Yuryevich Mstislav and Yaropolk, he began a struggle with the sons of Yuri Dolgoruky Mikhalko and Vsevolod the Big Nest for the Vladimir-Suzdal principality; in 1176 he captured and burned Moscow, but in 1177 he was defeated on the Koloksha River, was captured by Vsevolod and died in 1178 in prison.

Gleb's son and heir Roman (1178-1207) took the vassal oath to Vsevolod the Big Nest. In the 1180s, he made two attempts to dispossess his younger brothers and unite the principality, but the intervention of Vsevolod prevented the implementation of his plans. The progressive fragmentation of the Ryazan land (in 1185–1186 the Principalities of Pronsk and Kolomna separated) led to increased rivalry within the princely house. In 1207, Roman's nephews Gleb and Oleg Vladimirovich accused him of plotting against Vsevolod the Big Nest; Roman was summoned to Vladimir and thrown into prison. Vsevolod tried to take advantage of these strife: in 1209 he captured Ryazan, put his son Yaroslav on the Ryazan table, and appointed Vladimir-Suzdal posadniks to the rest of the cities; however, in the same year, the Ryazanians expelled Yaroslav and his proteges.

In the 1210s, the struggle for allotments intensified even more. In 1217, Gleb and Konstantin Vladimirovich organized in the village of Isady (6 km from Ryazan) the murder of six of their brothers - one brother and five cousins. But Roman's nephew Ingvar Igorevich defeated Gleb and Konstantin, forced them to flee to the Polovtsian steppes and occupied the Ryazan table. During his twenty-year reign (1217-1237), the process of fragmentation became irreversible.

In 1237 the Ryazan and Murom principalities were defeated by the hordes of Batu. Prince Yuri Ingvarevich of Ryazan, Prince Yuri Davydovich of Murom and most of the local princes perished. In the second half of the 13th c. Murom land fell into complete desolation; Murom bishopric at the beginning of the 14th century. was moved to Ryazan; only in the middle of the 14th century. Murom ruler Yuri Yaroslavich revived his principality for a while. The forces of the Ryazan principality, which was subjected to constant Tatar-Mongol raids, were undermined by the internecine struggle between the Ryazan and Pronsk branches of the ruling house. From the beginning of the 14th century it began to experience pressure from the Moscow principality that had arisen on its northwestern borders. In 1301 Moscow Prince Daniil Alexandrovich captured Kolomna and captured Ryazan Prince Konstantin Romanovich. In the second half of the 14th century Oleg Ivanovich (1350–1402) was able to temporarily consolidate the forces of the principality, expand its borders and strengthen the central government; in 1353 he took Lopasnya from Ivan II of Moscow. However, in the 1370s–1380s, during the struggle of Dmitry Donskoy with the Tatars, he failed to play the role of a “third force” and create his own center for the unification of the northeastern Russian lands. .

Turov-Pinsk principality.

It was located in the basin of the Pripyat River (the south of the modern Minsk, the east of the Brest and the west of the Gomel regions of Belarus). It bordered in the north with Polotsk, in the south with Kyiv, and in the east with the Chernigov principality, reaching almost to the Dnieper; the border with its western neighbor - the Vladimir-Volyn principality - was not stable: the upper reaches of the Pripyat and the Goryn valley passed either to the Turov or Volyn princes. The Turov land was inhabited by the Slavic tribe of the Dregovichi.

Most of the territory was covered with impenetrable forests and swamps; Hunting and fishing were the main occupations of the inhabitants. Only certain areas were suitable for agriculture; there, first of all, urban centers arose - Turov, Pinsk, Mozyr, Sluchesk, Klechesk, which, however, in terms of economic importance and population could not compete with the leading cities of other regions of Russia. The limited resources of the principality did not allow its owners to participate on an equal footing in the all-Russian civil strife.

In the 970s, the land of the Dregovichi was a semi-independent principality, which was in vassal dependence on Kyiv; its ruler was a certain Tur, from which the name of the region came. In 988-989 St. Vladimir singled out the “drevlyansk land and Pinsk” as an inheritance for his nephew Svyatopolk the Accursed. At the beginning of the 11th century, after the revelation of Svyatopolk's conspiracy against Vladimir, the Principality of Turov was included in the Grand Duchy domain. In the middle of the 11th c. Yaroslav the Wise passed it on to his third son Izyaslav, the ancestor of the local princely dynasty (Turov's Izyaslavichi). When Yaroslav died in 1054 and Izyaslav occupied the grand prince's table, Turovshchina became part of his vast possessions (1054–1068, 1069–1073, 1077–1078). After his death in 1078, the new Kyiv prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich gave the Turov land to his nephew Davyd Igorevich, who held it until 1081. In 1088 it ended up in the hands of Svyatopolk, the son of Izyaslav, who in 1093 sat on the grand prince's table. By decision of the Lyubech Congress of 1097, Turovshchina was assigned to him and his offspring, but soon after his death in 1113, it passed to the new Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh. Under the division that followed the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, the Principality of Turov passed to his son Vyacheslav. From 1132 it became the object of rivalry between Vyacheslav and his nephew Izyaslav, son of Mstislav the Great. In 1142-1143 it was owned for a short time by the Chernihiv Olgovichi (Great Prince of Kyiv Vsevolod Olgovich and his son Svyatoslav). In 1146-1147 Izyaslav Mstislavich finally expelled Vyacheslav from Turov and gave him to his son Yaroslav.

In the middle of the 12th c. the Suzdal branch of the Vsevolodichi intervened in the struggle for the Turov Principality: in 1155, Yuri Dolgoruky, becoming the great Kyiv prince, put his son Andrei Bogolyubsky on the Turov table, in 1155 - his other son Boris; however, they failed to hold on to it. In the second half of the 1150s, the principality returned to the Turov Izyaslavichs: by 1158, Yuri Yaroslavich, the grandson of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, managed to unite the entire Turov land under his rule. Under his sons Svyatopolk (until 1190) and Gleb (until 1195), it broke up into several destinies. By the beginning of the 13th century. the principalities of Turov, Pinsk, Slutsk and Dubrovitsky took shape. During the 13th century the crushing process progressed inexorably; Turov lost its role as the center of the principality; Pinsk began to acquire more and more importance. Weak petty rulers could not organize any serious resistance to external aggression. In the second quarter of the 14th c. The Turov-Pinsk land turned out to be an easy prey for the Lithuanian prince Gedemin (1316–1347).

Smolensk principality.

It was located in the Upper Dnieper basin (modern Smolensk, southeast of the Tver regions of Russia and the east of the Mogilev region of Belarus). It bordered Polotsk in the west, Chernigov in the south, Rostov-Suzdal principality in the east, and Pskov-Novgorod in the north earth. It was inhabited by the Slavic tribe of Krivichi.

The Smolensk principality had an extremely advantageous geographical position. The upper reaches of the Volga, the Dnieper and the Western Dvina converged on its territory, and it lay at the intersection of two major trade routes - from Kyiv to Polotsk and the Baltic states (along the Dnieper, then dragged to the Kasplya River, a tributary of the Western Dvina) and to Novgorod and the Upper Volga region ( through Rzhev and Lake Seliger). Here, cities arose early, which became important trade and craft centers (Vyazma, Orsha).

In 882, Prince Oleg of Kyiv subjugated the Smolensk Krivichi and planted his governors in their land, which became his possession. At the end of the 10th c. St. Vladimir singled her out as an inheritance to his son Stanislav, but after some time she returned to the grand ducal domain. In 1054, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the Smolensk region passed to his son Vyacheslav. In 1057, the great Kyiv prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich handed it over to his brother Igor, and after his death in 1060 he shared it with his other two brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. In 1078, by agreement between Izyaslav and Vsevolod, the Smolensk land was given to Vsevolod's son Vladimir Monomakh; soon Vladimir moved to reign in Chernigov, and the Smolensk region was in the hands of Vsevolod. After his death in 1093, Vladimir Monomakh planted his eldest son Mstislav in Smolensk, and in 1095 his other son Izyaslav. Although in 1095 the Smolensk land was for a short time in the hands of the Olgoviches (Davyd Olgovich), the Lyubech congress of 1097 recognized it as the patrimony of the Monomashichs, and the sons of Vladimir Monomakh, Yaropolk, Svyatoslav, Gleb and Vyacheslav, ruled in it.

After the death of Vladimir in 1125, the new Kyiv prince Mstislav the Great allocated the Smolensk land as an inheritance to his son Rostislav (1125–1159), the ancestor of the local princely dynasty of the Rostislavichs; henceforth it became an independent principality. In 1136, Rostislav achieved the creation of an episcopal see in Smolensk, in 1140 he repelled an attempt by the Chernigov Olgoviches (the great Kyiv prince Vsevolod) to seize the principality, and in the 1150s he entered the struggle for Kyiv. In 1154 he had to cede the Kyiv table to the Olgoviches (Izyaslav Davydovich of Chernigov), but in 1159 he established himself on it (he owned it until his death in 1167). He gave the Smolensk table to his son Roman (1159-1180 with interruptions), who was succeeded by his brother Davyd (1180-1197), son Mstislav Stary (1197-1206, 1207-1212/1214), nephews Vladimir Rurikovich (1215-1223 with a break in 1219) and Mstislav Davydovich (1223–1230).

In the second half of the 12th - early 13th century. Rostislavichi actively tried to bring under their control the most prestigious and richest regions of Russia. The sons of Rostislav (Roman, Davyd, Rurik and Mstislav the Brave) waged a fierce struggle for the Kyiv land with the older branch of the Monomashichs (Izyaslavichs), with the Olgoviches and with the Suzdal Yuryevichs (especially with Andrei Bogolyubsky in the late 1160s - early 1170s); they were able to gain a foothold in the most important regions of the Kiev region - in Posemye, Ovruch, Vyshgorod, Torcheskaya, Trepolsky and Belgorod volosts. In the period from 1171 to 1210, Roman and Rurik sat down at the Grand Duke's table eight times. In the north, Novgorod land became the object of expansion of the Rostislavichs: Davyd (1154–1155), Svyatoslav (1158–1167) and Mstislav Rostislavich (1179–1180), Mstislav Davydovich (1184–1187) and Mstislav Mstislavich Udatny (1210–1215 and 1216–1218); in the late 1170s and in the 1210s, the Rostislavichs held Pskov; sometimes they even managed to create appanages independent of Novgorod (in the late 1160s and early 1170s in Torzhok and Velikiye Luki). In 1164-1166 the Rostislavichs owned Vitebsk (Davyd Rostislavich), in 1206 - Pereyaslavl Russian (Rurik Rostislavich and his son Vladimir), and in 1210-1212 - even Chernigov (Rurik Rostislavich). Their success was facilitated by both the strategically advantageous position of the Smolensk region and the relatively slow (compared to neighboring principalities) process of its fragmentation, although some destinies (Toropetsky, Vasilevsky-Krasnensky) were periodically separated from it.

In the 1210s–1220s, the political and economic importance of the Smolensk Principality increased even more. The merchants of Smolensk became important partners of the Hansa, as their trade agreement of 1229 (Smolenskaya Torgovaya Pravda) shows. Continuing the struggle for Novgorod (in 1218–1221 the sons of Mstislav the Old Svyatoslav and Vsevolod reigned in Novgorod) and Kyiv lands (in 1213–1223, with a break in 1219, Mstislav the Old sat in Kyiv, and in 1119, 1123–1235 and 1236–1238 – Vladimir Rurikovich), Rostislavichi also intensified their onslaught to the west and southwest. In 1219 Mstislav the Old captured Galich, which then passed to his cousin Mstislav Udatny (until 1227). In the second half of the 1210s, the sons of Davyd Rostislavich, Boris and Davyd, subjugated Polotsk and Vitebsk; the sons of Boris Vasilko and Vyachko vigorously fought the Teutonic Order and the Lithuanians for the Dvina.

However, from the end of the 1220s, the weakening of the Smolensk principality began. The process of its fragmentation into destinies intensified, the rivalry of the Rostislavichs for the Smolensk table intensified; in 1232, the son of Mstislav the Old, Svyatoslav, took Smolensk by storm and subjected it to a terrible defeat. The influence of the local boyars increased, which began to interfere in princely strife; in 1239 the boyars put Vsevolod, the brother of Svyatoslav, who pleased them, on the Smolensk table. The decline of the principality predetermined failures in foreign policy. Already by the mid-1220s, the Rostislavichs had lost the Podvinye; in 1227 Mstislav Udatnoy ceded the Galician land to the Hungarian prince Andrew. Although in 1238 and 1242 the Rostislavichs managed to repulse the attack of the Tatar-Mongol detachments on Smolensk, they could not repulse the Lithuanians, who in the late 1240s captured Vitebsk, Polotsk and even Smolensk itself. Alexander Nevsky drove them out of the Smolensk region, but the Polotsk and Vitebsk lands were completely lost.

In the second half of the 13th c. the line of Davyd Rostislavich was established on the Smolensk table: it was successively occupied by the sons of his grandson Rostislav Gleb, Mikhail and Theodore. Under them, the collapse of the Smolensk land became irreversible; Vyazemskoye and a number of other destinies emerged from it. The princes of Smolensk had to recognize vassal dependence on the great prince of Vladimir and the Tatar khan (1274). In the 14th century under Alexander Glebovich (1297–1313), his son Ivan (1313–1358) and grandson Svyatoslav (1358–1386), the principality completely lost its former political and economic power; Smolensk rulers unsuccessfully tried to stop the Lithuanian expansion in the west. After the defeat and death of Svyatoslav Ivanovich in 1386 in a battle with the Lithuanians on the Vekhra River near Mstislavl, the Smolensk land became dependent on the Lithuanian prince Vitovt, who began to appoint and dismiss the Smolensk princes at his own discretion, and in 1395 established his direct rule. In 1401, the Smolensk people rebelled and, with the help of the Ryazan prince Oleg, expelled the Lithuanians; Smolensk table was occupied by the son of Svyatoslav Yuri. However, in 1404 Vitovt took the city, liquidated the principality of Smolensk and included its lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Pereyaslav principality.

It was located in the forest-steppe part of the Dnieper left bank and occupied the interfluve of the Desna, Seim, Vorskla and the Northern Donets (modern Poltava, east of Kyiv, south of Chernihiv and Sumy, west of Kharkov regions of Ukraine). It bordered on the west with Kyiv, in the north with the Chernigov principality; in the east and south, its neighbors were nomadic tribes (Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsy). The southeastern border was not stable - it either moved forward into the steppe, or retreated back; the constant threat of attacks made it necessary to create a line of border fortifications and settle along the borders of those nomads who were moving to a settled life and recognized the power of the Pereyaslav rulers. The population of the principality was mixed: both the Slavs (Polyans, northerners) and the descendants of the Alans and Sarmatians lived here.

The mild temperate continental climate and podzolized chernozem soils created favorable conditions for intensive agriculture and cattle breeding. However, the neighborhood with warlike nomadic tribes, which periodically devastated the principality, had a negative impact on its economic development.

By the end of the 9th c. on this territory a semi-state formation arose with a center in the city of Pereyaslavl. At the beginning of the 10th c. it fell into vassal dependence on the Kyiv prince Oleg. According to a number of scientists, the old city of Pereyaslavl was burned by nomads, and in 992 Vladimir the Holy, during a campaign against the Pechenegs, founded a new Pereyaslavl (Pereyaslavl Russian) at the place where the Russian daring Jan Usmoshvets defeated the Pecheneg hero in a duel. Under him and in the first years of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Pereyaslavshchina was part of the grand ducal domain, and in 1024-1036 it became part of the vast possessions of Yaroslav's brother Mstislav the Brave on the left bank of the Dnieper. After the death of Mstislav in 1036, the Kyiv prince again took possession of it. In 1054, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, Pereyaslav land passed to his son Vsevolod; from that time on, it separated from the Kyiv principality and became an independent principality. In 1073, Vsevolod handed it over to his brother, the great Kievan prince Svyatoslav, who, possibly, planted his son Gleb in Pereyaslavl. In 1077, after the death of Svyatoslav, Pereyaslavshchina again fell into the hands of Vsevolod; an attempt by Roman, the son of Svyatoslav, to capture it in 1079 with the help of the Polovtsians ended in failure: Vsevolod entered into a secret agreement with the Polovtsian Khan, and he ordered Roman to be killed. After some time, Vsevolod transferred the principality to his son Rostislav, after whose death in 1093 his brother Vladimir Monomakh began to reign there (with the consent of the new Grand Duke Svyatopolk Izyaslavich). By decision of the Lyubech congress of 1097, the Pereyaslav land was assigned to the Monomashichi. Since that time, she remained their fiefdom; as a rule, the great princes of Kyiv from the Monomashich family allocated it to their sons or younger brothers; for some of them, the Pereyaslav reign became a stepping stone to the Kyiv table (Vladimir Monomakh himself in 1113, Yaropolk Vladimirovich in 1132, Izyaslav Mstislavich in 1146, Gleb Yurievich in 1169). True, the Chernigov Olgovichi tried several times to put it under their control; but they managed to capture only the Bryansk Estate in the northern part of the principality.

Vladimir Monomakh, having made a number of successful campaigns against the Polovtsy, secured the southeastern border of Pereyaslavshchina for a while. In 1113 he transferred the principality to his son Svyatoslav, after his death in 1114 - to another son Yaropolk, and in 1118 - to another son Gleb. According to the will of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, Pereyaslav land again went to Yaropolk. When Yaropolk left to reign in Kyiv in 1132, the Pereyaslav table became a bone of contention within the Monomashichs' house - between the Rostov prince Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky and his nephews Vsevolod and Izyaslav Mstislavich. Yuri Dolgoruky captured Pereyaslavl, but ruled there only eight days: he was expelled by the Grand Duke Yaropolk, who gave the Pereyaslav table to Izyaslav Mstislavich, and in the next, 1133, to his brother Vyacheslav Vladimirovich. In 1135, after Vyacheslav left to reign in Turov, Pereyaslavl was again captured by Yuri Dolgoruky, who installed his brother Andrei the Good there. In the same year, the Olgovichi, in alliance with the Polovtsians, invaded the principality, but the Monomashichs joined forces and helped Andrei repel the attack. After the death of Andrei in 1142, Vyacheslav Vladimirovich returned to Pereyaslavl, who, however, soon had to transfer the reign to Izyaslav Mstislavich. When in 1146 Izyaslav occupied the Kyiv throne, he planted his son Mstislav in Pereyaslavl.

In 1149, Yuri Dolgoruky resumed the struggle with Izyaslav and his sons for dominion in the southern Russian lands. For five years, the Principality of Pereyaslav turned out to be either in the hands of Mstislav Izyaslavich (1150–1151, 1151–1154), or in the hands of the sons of Yuri Rostislav (1149–1150, 1151) and Gleb (1151). In 1154, the Yuryevichs established themselves in the principality for a long time: Gleb Yuryevich (1155–1169), his son Vladimir (1169–1174), brother of Gleb Mikhalko (1174–1175), again Vladimir (1175–1187), grandson of Yuri Dolgorukov Yaroslav Krasny (until 1199 ) and the sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest Konstantin (1199–1201) and Yaroslav (1201–1206). In 1206, the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vsevolod Chermny from the Chernigov Olgovichi planted his son Mikhail in Pereyaslavl, who, however, was expelled in the same year by the new Grand Duke Rurik Rostislavich. From that time on, the principality was held either by the Smolensk Rostislavichs or the Yuryevichs. In the spring of 1239, the Tatar-Mongol hordes invaded Pereyaslav land; they burned Pereyaslavl and subjected the principality to a terrible defeat, after which it could no longer be revived; the Tatars included him in the "Wild Field". In the third quarter of the 14th c. Pereyaslavshchina became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Vladimir-Volyn principality.

It was located in the west of Russia and occupied a vast territory from the upper reaches of the Southern Bug in the south to the upper reaches of the Nareva (a tributary of the Vistula) in the north, from the valley of the Western Bug in the west to the Sluch River (a tributary of the Pripyat) in the east (modern Volynskaya, Khmelnitskaya, Vinnitskaya, north of Ternopil, northeast of Lvov, most of the Rivne region of Ukraine, west of Brest and southwest of Grodno region of Belarus, east of Lublin and southeast of Bialystok voivodeship of Poland). It bordered in the east with Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk and Kyiv, in the west with the Principality of Galicia, in the northwest with Poland, in the southeast with the Polovtsian steppes. It was inhabited by the Slavic tribe Dulebs, who were later called Buzhans or Volynians.

Southern Volyn was a mountainous area formed by the eastern spurs of the Carpathians, the northern one was lowland and wooded woodland. A variety of natural and climatic conditions contributed to economic diversity; The inhabitants were engaged in agriculture, and cattle breeding, and hunting, and fishing. The economic development of the principality was favored by its unusually advantageous geographical position: the main trade routes from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from Russia to Central Europe passed through it; at their intersection, the main urban centers arose - Vladimir-Volynsky, Dorogichin, Lutsk, Berestye, Shumsk.

At the beginning of the 10th c. Volyn, together with the territory adjacent to it from the south-west (the future Galician land), became dependent on the Kyiv prince Oleg. In 981, St. Vladimir annexed to it the Peremyshl and Cherven volosts, which he had taken from the Poles, pushing the Russian border from the Western Bug to the San River; in Vladimir-Volynsky, he established an episcopal see, and made the Volyn land itself a semi-independent principality, transferring it to his sons - Pozvizd, Vsevolod, Boris. During the internecine war in Russia in 1015-1019, the Polish king Boleslav I the Brave returned Przemysl and Cherven, but in the early 1030s they were recaptured by Yaroslav the Wise, who also annexed Belz to Volhynia.

In the early 1050s, Yaroslav placed his son Svyatoslav on the Vladimir-Volyn table. According to Yaroslav's will in 1054, he passed to his other son Igor, who held him until 1057. According to some sources, in 1060 Vladimir-Volynsky was transferred to Igor's nephew Rostislav Vladimirovich; he, however, did not last long. In 1073, Volhynia returned to Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, who had taken the Grand Duke's throne, and gave it as an inheritance to his son Oleg "Gorislavich", but after the death of Svyatoslav at the end of 1076, the new Kyiv prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich took this region from him.

When Izyaslav died in 1078 and the great reign passed to his brother Vsevolod, he planted Yaropolk, the son of Izyaslav, in Vladimir-Volynsky. However, after some time, Vsevolod separated the Przemysl and Terebovl volosts from Volyn, transferring them to the sons of Rostislav Vladimirovich (the future Galician principality). The attempt of the Rostislavichs in 1084-1086 to take away the Vladimir-Volyn table from Yaropolk was unsuccessful; after the murder of Yaropolk in 1086, Grand Duke Vsevolod made his nephew Davyd Igorevich Volhynia ruler. The Lyubech congress of 1097 secured Volyn for him, but as a result of the war with the Rostislavichs, and then with the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1097–1098), Davyd lost it. By decision of the Uvetichi Congress of 1100, Vladimir-Volynsky went to Svyatopolk's son Yaroslav; Davyd got Buzhsk, Ostrog, Czartorysk and Duben (later Dorogobuzh).

In 1117, Yaroslav rebelled against the new Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh, for which he was expelled from Volhynia. Vladimir passed it on to his son Roman (1117–1119), and after his death to his other son Andrei the Good (1119–1135); in 1123, Yaroslav tried to regain his inheritance with the help of the Poles and Hungarians, but died during the siege of Vladimir-Volynsky. In 1135, Prince Yaropolk of Kyiv installed his nephew Izyaslav, son of Mstislav the Great, in place of Andrei.

When in 1139 the Olgoviches of Chernigov took possession of the Kyiv table, they decided to oust the Monomashichs from Volhynia. In 1142, Grand Duke Vsevolod Olgovich managed to plant his son Svyatoslav in Vladimir-Volynsky instead of Izyaslav. However, in 1146, after the death of Vsevolod, Izyaslav seized the great reign in Kyiv and removed Svyatoslav from Vladimir, allocating Buzhsk and six more Volyn cities as his lot. From that time on, Volhynia finally passed into the hands of the Mstislavichs, the eldest branch of the Monomashichs, who ruled it until 1337. Izyaslav Mstislav (1156–1170). Under them, the process of fragmentation of the Volyn land began: in the 1140s–1160s, the Buzh, Lutsk and Peresopnytsia principalities stood out.

In 1170, the Vladimir-Volyn table was taken by the son of Mstislav Izyaslavich Roman (1170-1205 with a break in 1188). His reign was marked by the economic and political strengthening of the principality. Unlike the Galician princes, the Volyn rulers had an extensive princely domain and were able to concentrate significant material resources in their hands. Having strengthened his power within the principality, Roman in the second half of the 1180s began to pursue an active foreign policy. In 1188 he intervened in civil strife in the neighboring principality of Galicia and tried to seize the Galician table, but failed. In 1195 he came into conflict with the Smolensk Rostislavichs and ruined their possessions. In 1199 he managed to subjugate the Galician land and create a single Galicia-Volyn principality. At the beginning of the XIII century. Roman extended his influence to Kyiv: in 1202 he expelled Rurik Rostislavich from the Kyiv table and placed his cousin Ingvar Yaroslavich on him; in 1204 he arrested and tonsured a monk, Rurik, who was newly established in Kyiv, and restored Ingvar there. Several times he invaded Lithuania and Poland. By the end of his reign, Roman had become the de facto hegemon of Western and Southern Russia and styled himself "King of Russia"; nevertheless, he failed to put an end to feudal fragmentation - under him, old and even new appanages continued to exist in Volhynia (Drogichinsky, Belzsky, Chervensko-Kholmsky).

After the death of Roman in 1205 in a campaign against the Poles, there was a temporary weakening of princely power. His successor Daniel already in 1206 lost the Galician land, and then was forced to flee from Volhynia. The Vladimir-Volyn table turned out to be the object of rivalry between his cousin Ingvar Yaroslavich and cousin Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who constantly turned to the Poles and the Hungarians for support. Only in 1212 Daniil Romanovich was able to establish himself in the Vladimir-Volyn principality; he managed to achieve the liquidation of a number of destinies. After a long struggle with the Hungarians, Poles and Chernigov Olgoviches, in 1238 he subjugated the Galician land and restored the united Galicia-Volyn principality. In the same year, while remaining its supreme ruler, Daniel handed over Volhynia to his younger brother Vasilko (1238–1269). In 1240 Volhynia was ravaged by the Tatar-Mongol hordes; Vladimir-Volynsky taken and plundered. In 1259 the Tatar commander Burundai invaded Volyn and forced Vasilko to demolish the fortifications of Vladimir-Volynsky, Danilov, Kremenets and Lutsk; however, after an unsuccessful siege of the Hill, he had to retreat. In the same year, Vasilko repulsed the attack of the Lithuanians.

Vasilko was succeeded by his son Vladimir (1269–1288). During his reign, Volyn was subjected to periodic Tatar raids (especially devastating in 1285). Vladimir restored many devastated cities (Berestye, etc.), built a number of new ones (Kamenets on Losnya), erected temples, patronized trade, and attracted foreign artisans. At the same time, he waged constant wars with the Lithuanians and Yotvingians and intervened in the feuds of the Polish princes. This active foreign policy was continued by Mstislav (1289–1301), the youngest son of Daniil Romanovich, who succeeded him.

After death ca. 1301 childless Mstislav Galician Prince Yuri Lvovich again united the Volyn and Galician lands. In 1315 he failed in the war with the Lithuanian prince Gedemin, who took Berestye, Drogichin and laid siege to Vladimir-Volynsky. In 1316, Yuri died (perhaps he died under the walls of besieged Vladimir), and the principality was divided again: most of Volyn was received by his eldest son, the Galician prince Andrei (1316–1324), and the Lutsk inheritance was given to his youngest son Lev. The last independent Galician-Volyn ruler was Andrey's son Yuri (1324-1337), after whose death the struggle for the Volyn lands between Lithuania and Poland began. By the end of the 14th century Volyn became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Galician principality.

It was located on the southwestern outskirts of Russia to the east of the Carpathians in the upper reaches of the Dniester and Prut (modern Ivano-Frankivsk, Ternopil and Lvov regions of Ukraine and the Rzeszow province of Poland). It bordered in the east with the Volyn principality, in the north with Poland, in the west with Hungary, and in the south it ran into the Polovtsian steppes. The population was mixed - Slavic tribes occupied the Dniester valley (Tivertsy and streets) and the upper reaches of the Bug (Dulebs, or Buzhans); Croats (herbs, carps, hrovats) lived in the Przemysl region.

Fertile soils, mild climate, numerous rivers and vast forests created favorable conditions for intensive agriculture and cattle breeding. The most important trade routes passed through the territory of the principality - the river from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea (through the Vistula, the Western Bug and the Dniester) and the land route from Russia to Central and South-Eastern Europe; periodically extending its power to the Dniester-Danube lowland, the principality also controlled the Danube communications between Europe and the East. Here, large shopping centers arose early: Galich, Przemysl, Terebovl, Zvenigorod.

In the 10th-11th centuries. this region was part of the Vladimir-Volyn land. In the late 1070s - early 1080s, the great Kyiv prince Vsevolod, the son of Yaroslav the Wise, separated the Przemysl and Terebovl volosts from it and gave it to his great-nephews: the first Rurik and Volodar Rostislavich, and the second - to their brother Vasilko. In 1084–1086, the Rostislavichs unsuccessfully tried to establish control over Volhynia. After the death of Rurik in 1092, Volodar became the sole owner of Przemysl. The Lubech congress of 1097 assigned him the Przemysl, and Vasilko the Terebovl volost. In the same year, the Rostislavichi, with the support of Vladimir Monomakh and the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs, repelled an attempt by the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and the Volyn prince Davyd Igorevich to seize their possessions. In 1124 Volodar and Vasilko died, and their inheritances were divided among themselves by their sons: Przemysl went to Rostislav Volodarevich, Zvenigorod to Vladimirko Volodarevich; Rostislav Vasilkovich received the Terebovl region, allocating a special Galician volost from it for his brother Ivan. After the death of Rostislav, Ivan annexed Terebovl to his possessions, leaving a small Berladsky inheritance to his son Ivan Rostislavich (Berladnik).

In 1141, Ivan Vasilkovich died, and the Terebovl-Galician volost was captured by his cousin Vladimirko Volodarevich Zvenigorodsky, who made Galich the capital of his possessions (now the Galician principality). In 1144, Ivan Berladnik tried to take Galich from him, but failed and lost his Berladsky inheritance. In 1143, after the death of Rostislav Volodarevich, Vladimirko included Przemysl in his principality; thus, he united under his rule all the Carpathian lands. In 1149-1154 Vladimirko supported Yuri Dolgoruky in his struggle with Izyaslav Mstislavich for the Kyiv table; he repulsed the attack of Izyaslav's ally the Hungarian king Geyza and in 1152 captured Izyaslav's Upper Pogorynya (the cities of Buzhsk, Shumsk, Tihoml, Vyshegoshev and Gnojnitsa). As a result, he became the ruler of a vast territory from the upper reaches of the San and Goryn to the middle reaches of the Dniester and the lower reaches of the Danube. Under him, the Galician principality became the leading political force in Southwestern Russia and entered a period of economic prosperity; his ties with Poland and Hungary were strengthened; it began to experience a strong cultural influence of Catholic Europe.

In 1153 Vladimirko was succeeded by his son Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153–1187), under whom the Principality of Galicia reached the peak of its political and economic power. He patronized trade, invited foreign artisans, built new cities; under him, the population of the principality increased significantly. Yaroslav's foreign policy was also successful. In 1157, he repelled an attack on Galich by Ivan Berladnik, who settled in the Danube and robbed Galician merchants. When in 1159 the Kyiv prince Izyaslav Davydovich tried to put Berladnik on the Galician table by force of arms, Yaroslav, in alliance with Mstislav Izyaslavich Volynsky, defeated him, expelled him from Kyiv and transferred the Kievan reign to Rostislav Mstislavich Smolensky (1159–1167); in 1174 he made his vassal Yaroslav Izyaslavich Lutsky prince of Kyiv. Galich's international prestige increased enormously. Author Words about Igor's regiment described Yaroslav as one of the most powerful Russian princes: “Galician Osmomysl Yaroslav! / You sit high on your gold-forged throne, / propped up the Hungarian mountains with your iron regiments, / blocking the way for the king, closing the gates of the Danube, / the sword of gravity through the clouds, / rowing courts to the Danube. / Your thunderstorms flow across the lands, / you open the gates of Kyiv, / you shoot from the father’s golden throne of the saltans behind the lands.

During the reign of Yaroslav, however, the local boyars intensified. Like his father, he, in an effort to avoid fragmentation, handed over cities and volosts to the holding not of his relatives, but of the boyars. The most influential of them ("great boyars") became the owners of huge estates, fortified castles and numerous vassals. The boyar landownership surpassed the princely in size. The strength of the Galician boyars increased so much that in 1170 they even intervened in the internal conflict in the princely family: they burned Yaroslav's concubine Nastasya at the stake and forced him to take an oath to return his legitimate wife Olga, the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky, who had been rejected by him.

Yaroslav bequeathed the principality to Oleg, his son by Nastasya; he allocated the Przemysl volost to his legitimate son Vladimir. But after his death in 1187, the boyars overthrew Oleg and elevated Vladimir to the Galician table. Vladimir's attempt to get rid of the boyar guardianship and rule autocratically already in the next 1188 ended with his flight to Hungary. Oleg returned to the Galician table, but soon he was poisoned by the boyars, and Volyn Prince Roman Mstislavich occupied Galich. In the same year, Vladimir expelled Roman with the help of the Hungarian king Bela, but he gave the reign not to him, but to his son Andrei. In 1189 Vladimir fled from Hungary to the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, promising him to become his vassal and tributary. By order of Frederick, the Polish king Casimir II the Just sent his army to the Galician land, at the approach of which the boyars of Galich overthrew Andrei and opened the gates to Vladimir. With the support of the ruler of North-Eastern Russia, Vsevolod the Big Nest, Vladimir was able to subjugate the boyars and hold on to power until his death in 1199.

With the death of Vladimir, the family of the Galician Rostislavichs ceased, and the Galician land became part of the vast possessions of Roman Mstislavich Volynsky, a representative of the older branch of the Monomashichs. The new prince pursued a policy of terror in relation to the local boyars and achieved its significant weakening. However, shortly after the death of Roman in 1205, his power collapsed. Already in 1206, his heir Daniel was forced to leave the Galician land and go to Volhynia. A long period of unrest began (1206-1238). The Galician table passed either to Daniel (1211, 1230–1232, 1233), then to the Chernigov Olgoviches (1206–1207, 1209–1211, 1235–1238), then to the Smolensk Rostislavichs (1206, 1219–1227), then to the Hungarian princes (1207-1209, 1214-1219, 1227-1230); in 1212-1213 the power in Galich was even usurped by the boyar - Volodislav Kormilichich (a unique case in ancient Russian history). Only in 1238 Daniel managed to establish himself in Galicia and restore a single Galicia-Volyn state. In the same year, while remaining its supreme ruler, he allocated Volhynia to his brother Vasilko.

In the 1240s, the foreign policy situation of the principality became more complicated. In 1242 it was devastated by the hordes of Batu. In 1245, Daniil and Vasilko had to recognize themselves as tributaries of the Tatar Khan. In the same year, the Chernigov Olgoviches (Rostislav Mikhailovich), having entered into an alliance with the Hungarians, invaded the Galician land; only with great effort, the brothers managed to repel the invasion, having won a victory on the river. San.

In the 1250s, Daniel launched an active diplomatic activity to create an anti-Tatar coalition. He concluded a military-political alliance with the Hungarian king Bela IV and began negotiations with Pope Innocent IV on a church union, a crusade of European powers against the Tatars and recognition of his royal title. In 1254 the papal legate crowned Daniel with a royal crown. However, the inability of the Vatican to organize a crusade removed the issue of union from the agenda. In 1257, Daniel agreed on joint actions against the Tatars with the Lithuanian prince Mindovg, but the Tatars managed to provoke a conflict between the allies.

After Daniel's death in 1264, the Galician land was divided between his sons Leo, who received Galich, Przemysl and Drogichin, and Shvarn, to whom Kholm, Cherven and Belz passed. In 1269, Shvarn died, and the entire Galician principality passed into the hands of Leo, who in 1272 transferred his residence to the newly built Lvov. Leo intervened in internal political strife in Lithuania and fought (though unsuccessfully) with the Polish prince Leshko Cherny for the Lublin volost.

After the death of Leo in 1301, his son Yuri reunited the Galician and Volhynian lands and took the title "King of Russia, Prince of Lodimeria (i.e. Volhynia)". He entered into an alliance with the Teutonic Order against the Lithuanians and tried to achieve the establishment of an independent church metropolis in Galicia. After the death of Yuri in 1316, Galicia and most of Volhynia were given to his eldest son Andrei, who was succeeded in 1324 by his son Yuri. With the death of Yuri in 1337, the senior branch of the descendants of Daniil Romanovich died out, and a fierce struggle began between Lithuanian, Hungarian and Polish pretenders to the Galician-Volyn table. In 1349-1352, the Polish king Casimir III captured the Galician land. In 1387, under Vladislav II (Jagiello), it finally became part of the Commonwealth.

Rostov-Suzdal (Vladimir-Suzdal) Principality.

It was located on the northeastern outskirts of Russia in the basin of the Upper Volga and its tributaries Klyazma, Unzha, Sheksna (modern Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, most of Moscow, Vladimir and Vologda, southeast of Tver, west of Nizhny Novgorod and Kostroma regions); in the 12th–14th centuries the principality was constantly expanding in the eastern and northeastern directions. In the west, it bordered on Smolensk, in the south - on Chernigov and Muromo-Ryazan principalities, in the northwest - on Novgorod, and in the east - on Vyatka land and Finno-Ugric tribes (Merya, Mari, etc.). The population of the principality was mixed: it consisted of both Finno-Ugric autochthons (mainly Merya) and Slavic colonists (mainly Krivichi).

Most of the territory was occupied by forests and swamps; fur trade played an important role in the economy. Numerous rivers abounded with valuable species of fish. Despite the rather harsh climate, the presence of podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils created favorable conditions for agriculture (rye, barley, oats, garden crops). Natural barriers (forests, swamps, rivers) reliably protected the principality from external enemies.

In 1 thousand AD. the upper Volga basin was inhabited by the Finno-Ugric tribe Merya. In the 8th–9th centuries an influx of Slavic colonists began here, who moved both from the west (from the Novgorod land) and from the south (from the Dnieper region); in the 9th century Rostov was founded by them, and in the 10th century. - Suzdal. At the beginning of the 10th c. Rostov land became dependent on the Kyiv prince Oleg, and under his closest successors it became part of the grand ducal domain. In 988/989 St. Vladimir singled it out as an inheritance for his son Yaroslav the Wise, and in 1010 he transferred it to his other son Boris. After the assassination of Boris in 1015 by Svyatopolk the Accursed, direct control of the Kyiv princes was restored here.

According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, Rostov land passed to Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who in 1068 sent his son Vladimir Monomakh to reign there; under him, Vladimir was founded on the Klyazma River. Thanks to the activities of the Rostov Bishop St. Leonty, Christianity began to actively penetrate into this area; St. Abraham organized the first monastery here (Bogoyavlensky). In 1093 and 1095 Vladimir's son Mstislav the Great sat in Rostov. In 1095, Vladimir allocated the Rostov land as an independent principality to his other son Yuri Dolgoruky (1095–1157). The Lyubech congress of 1097 assigned it to the Monomashichs. Yuri moved the princely residence from Rostov to Suzdal. He contributed to the final approval of Christianity, widely attracted settlers from other Russian principalities, founded new cities (Moscow, Dmitrov, Yuryev-Polsky, Uglich, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Kostroma). During his reign, the Rostov-Suzdal land experienced an economic and political flourishing; the boyars and the trade and craft layer intensified. Significant resources allowed Yuri to intervene in the princely civil strife and spread his influence to neighboring territories. In 1132 and 1135, he tried (albeit unsuccessfully) to bring Pereyaslavl Russian under control, in 1147 he made a trip to Novgorod the Great and took Torzhok, in 1149 he began the fight for Kyiv with Izyaslav Mstislavovich. In 1155, he managed to establish himself on the Kievan grand-ducal table and secure the Pereyaslav region for his sons.

After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky in 1157, the Rostov-Suzdal land broke up into several destinies. However, already in 1161 Yuri's son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) restored its unity, depriving his three brothers (Mstislav, Vasilko and Vsevolod) and two nephews (Mstislav and Yaropolk Rostislavichs) of their possessions. In an effort to get rid of the guardianship of the influential Rostov and Suzdal boyars, he moved the capital to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, where there was a numerous trade and craft settlement, and, relying on the support of the townspeople and the squad, began to pursue an absolutist policy. Andrei renounced his claims to the Kyiv table and accepted the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir. In 1169-1170 he subjugated Kyiv and Novgorod the Great, passing them respectively to his brother Gleb and his ally Rurik Rostislavich. By the beginning of the 1170s, the Polotsk, Turov, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Murom and Smolensk principalities recognized dependence on the Vladimir table. However, his campaign in 1173 against Kyiv, which fell into the hands of the Smolensk Rostislavichs, failed. In 1174 he was killed by boyars-conspirators in the village. Bogolyubovo near Vladimir.

After Andrei's death, the local boyars invited his nephew Mstislav Rostislavich to the Rostov table; Suzdal, Vladimir and Yuryev-Polsky received Mstislav's brother Yaropolk. But in 1175 they were expelled by the brothers of Andrei Mikhalko and Vsevolod the Big Nest; Mikhalko became the ruler of Vladimir-Suzdal, and Vsevolod became the ruler of Rostov. In 1176 Mikhalko died, and Vsevolod remained the sole ruler of all these lands, behind which the name of the great Vladimir principality was firmly established. In 1177, he finally eliminated the threat from Mstislav and Yaropolk, inflicting a decisive defeat on the Koloksha River; they themselves were taken prisoner and blinded.

Vsevolod (1175-1212) continued the foreign policy of his father and brother, becoming the chief arbiter among the Russian princes and dictating his will to Kyiv, Novgorod the Great, Smolensk and Ryazan. However, already during his lifetime, the process of crushing the Vladimir-Suzdal land began: in 1208 he gave Rostov and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky as inheritance to his sons Konstantin and Yaroslav. After the death of Vsevolod in 1212, a war broke out between Konstantin and his brothers Yuri and Yaroslav in 1214, ending in April 1216 with Constantine's victory in the Battle of the Lipitsa River. But, although Constantine became the great Prince of Vladimir, the unity of the principality was not restored: in 1216-1217 he gave Yuri Gorodets-Rodilov and Suzdal, Yaroslav - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, and his younger brothers Svyatoslav and Vladimir - Yuryev-Polsky and Starodub . After Constantine's death in 1218, Yuriy (1218–1238), who had taken the Grand Duke's throne, endowed his sons Vasilko (Rostov, Kostroma, Galich) and Vsevolod (Yaroslavl, Uglich) with lands. As a result, the Vladimir-Suzdal land broke up into ten specific principalities - Rostov, Suzdal, Pereyaslav, Yuriev, Starodub, Gorodet, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kostroma, Galicia; the Grand Prince of Vladimir retained only formal supremacy over them.

In February-March 1238, North-Eastern Russia fell victim to the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Vladimir-Suzdal regiments were defeated on the river. City, Prince Yuri fell on the battlefield, Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal and other cities were subjected to a terrible defeat. After the departure of the Tatars, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich occupied the grand-ducal table, who transferred to his brothers Svyatoslav and Ivan Suzdal and Starodub, to his eldest son Alexander (Nevsky) Pereyaslav, and to his nephew Boris Vasilkovich the Rostov principality, from which the Belozersky inheritance (Gleb Vasilkovich) separated. In 1243, Yaroslav received from Batu a label for the great reign of Vladimir (d. 1246). Under his successors, brother Svyatoslav (1246–1247), sons Andrei (1247–1252), Alexander (1252–1263), Yaroslav (1263–1271/1272), Vasily (1272–1276/1277) and grandsons Dmitry (1277–1293) ) and Andrei Alexandrovich (1293–1304), the crushing process was on the rise. In 1247, the Tver (Yaroslav Yaroslavich) principalities were finally formed, and in 1283, the Moscow (Daniil Alexandrovich) principalities. Although in 1299 the metropolitan, the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, moved to Vladimir from Kyiv, its importance as the capital gradually declined; from the end of the 13th century the grand dukes stop using Vladimir as a permanent residence.

In the first third of the 14th century Moscow and Tver begin to play a leading role in North-Eastern Russia, which enter into rivalry for the Vladimir Grand Duke's table: in 1304/1305–1317 it was occupied by Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy, in 1317–1322 by Yuri Danilovich of Moscow, in 1322–1326 by Dmitry Mikhailovich Tverskoy, in 1326-1327 - Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy, in 1327-1340 - Ivan Danilovich (Kalita) of Moscow (in 1327-1331 together with Alexander Vasilyevich Suzdalsky). After Ivan Kalita, it becomes the monopoly of the Moscow princes (with the exception of 1359-1362). At the same time, their main rivals - the Tver and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod princes - in the middle of the 14th century. also take the title of great. The struggle for control over North-Eastern Russia during the 14th–15th centuries. ends with the victory of the Moscow princes, who include the disintegrated parts of the Vladimir-Suzdal land into the Moscow state: Pereyaslavl-Zalesskoe (1302), Mozhaiskoe (1303), Uglichskoe (1329), Vladimirskoe, Starodubskoe, Galicia, Kostroma and Dmitrovskoe (1362–1364), Belozersky (1389), Nizhny Novgorod (1393), Suzdal (1451), Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474) and Tver (1485) principalities.

Novgorod land.

It occupied a vast territory (almost 200 thousand square kilometers) between the Baltic Sea and the lower reaches of the Ob. Its western border was the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipsi, in the north it included Lakes Ladoga and Onega and reached the White Sea, in the east it captured the Pechora basin, and in the south it was adjacent to the Polotsk, Smolensk and Rostov-Suzdal principalities (modern Novgorod, Pskov, Leningrad, Arkhangelsk, most of the Tver and Vologda regions, Karelian and Komi autonomous republics). It was inhabited by Slavic (Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi) and Finno-Ugric tribes (Vod, Izhora, Korela, Chud, All, Perm, Pechora, Lapps).

The unfavorable natural conditions of the North hindered the development of agriculture; grain was one of the main imports. At the same time, huge forests and numerous rivers favored fishing, hunting, and fur trade; The extraction of salt and iron ore was of great importance. Since ancient times, the Novgorod land has been famous for its various crafts and the high quality of handicrafts. Its advantageous location at the crossroads from the Baltic Sea to the Black and Caspian ensured her the role of an intermediary in the trade of the Baltic and Scandinavia with the Black Sea and the Volga region. Craftsmen and merchants, united in territorial and professional corporations, represented one of the most economically and politically influential strata of Novgorod society. Its highest stratum, large landowners (boyars), also actively participated in international trade.

Novgorod land was divided into administrative districts - pyatins, directly adjacent to Novgorod (Votskaya, Shelonskaya, Obonezhskaya, Derevskaya, Bezhetskaya), and remote volosts: one stretched from Torzhok and Volok to the Suzdal border and the upper reaches of the Onega, the other included Zavolochye (onega interfluve and Mezen), and the third - the land to the east of the Mezen (Pechora, Perm and Yugra regions).

Novgorod land was the cradle of the Old Russian state. It was here that in the 860s-870s a strong political formation arose, uniting the Slavs of the Ilmen, Polotsk Krivichi, Meryu, all and partly Chud. In 882 Prince Oleg of Novgorod subjugated the Polans and the Smolensk Krivichi and moved the capital to Kyiv. Since that time, Novgorod land has become the second most important region of the Rurik dynasty. From 882 to 988/989 it was ruled by governors sent from Kyiv (with the exception of 972–977, when it was the inheritance of St. Vladimir).

At the end of the 10th-11th centuries. Novgorod land, as the most important part of the grand princely domain, was usually transferred by the Kyiv princes to the eldest sons. In 988/989 St. Vladimir installed his eldest son Vysheslav in Novgorod, and after his death in 1010, his other son Yaroslav the Wise, who, having taken the throne in 1019, in turn passed it on to his eldest son Ilya. After Elijah's death c. 1020 Novgorod land was captured by Polotsk ruler Bryachislav Izyaslavich, but was expelled by the troops of Yaroslav. In 1034 Yaroslav handed over Novgorod to his second son Vladimir, who held it until his death in 1052.

In 1054, after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Novgorod fell into the hands of his third son, the new Grand Duke Izyaslav, who ruled it through his governors, and then planted his youngest son Mstislav in it. In 1067 Novgorod was captured by Vseslav Bryachislavich of Polotsk, but in the same year he was expelled by Izyaslav. After the overthrow of Izyaslav from the Kyiv table in 1068, the Novgorodians did not submit to Vseslav of Polotsk, who reigned in Kyiv, and turned for help to Izyaslav's brother, Prince Svyatoslav of Chernigov, who sent his eldest son Gleb to them. Gleb defeated the troops of Vseslav in October 1069, but soon, obviously, he was forced to transfer Novgorod to Izyaslav, who returned to the grand prince's table. When in 1073 Izyaslav was again overthrown, Novgorod passed to Svyatoslav of Chernigov, who received the great reign, who planted his other son Davyd in it. After the death of Svyatoslav in December 1076, Gleb again took the throne of Novgorod. However, in July 1077, when Izyaslav regained the Kievan reign, he had to cede it to Svyatopolk, the son of Izyaslav, who returned the Kievan reign. Izyaslav's brother Vsevolod, who became Grand Duke in 1078, retained Novgorod for Svyatopolk and only in 1088 replaced him with his grandson Mstislav the Great, son of Vladimir Monomakh. After the death of Vsevolod in 1093, Davyd Svyatoslavich again sat in Novgorod, but in 1095 he came into conflict with the townspeople and left the reign. At the request of the Novgorodians, Vladimir Monomakh, who then owned Chernigov, returned Mstislav (1095–1117) to them.

In the second half of the 11th c. in Novgorod, the economic power and, accordingly, the political influence of the boyars and the trade and craft layer increased significantly. Large boyar land ownership became dominant. The Novgorod boyars were hereditary landowners and were not a service class; possession of land did not depend on the service of the prince. At the same time, the constant change of representatives of different princely families on the Novgorod table prevented the formation of any significant princely domain. In the face of the growing local elite, the prince's position gradually weakened.

In 1102, the Novgorod elites (boyars and merchants) refused to accept the reign of the son of the new Grand Duke Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, wishing to keep Mstislav, and the Novgorod land ceased to be part of the Grand Duke's possessions. In 1117 Mstislav handed over the Novgorod table to his son Vsevolod (1117–1136).

In 1136 the Novgorodians revolted against Vsevolod. Accusing him of bad management and neglect of the interests of Novgorod, they imprisoned him with his family, and after a month and a half they expelled him from the city. From that time on, a de facto republican system was established in Novgorod, although the princely power was not abolished. The supreme governing body was the people's assembly (veche), which included all the free citizens. The veche had broad powers - it invited and dismissed the prince, elected and controlled the entire administration, resolved issues of war and peace, was the highest court, introduced taxes and duties. The prince from a sovereign ruler turned into the highest official. He was the supreme commander in chief, could convene a council and issue laws if they did not contradict customs; embassies were sent and received on his behalf. However, when elected, the prince entered into contractual relations with Novgorod and gave an obligation to govern “in the old way”, appoint only Novgorodians as governors in the volosts and not impose tribute on them, wage war and make peace only with the consent of the veche. He did not have the right to remove other officials without trial. His actions were controlled by an elected posadnik, without whose approval he could not make judicial decisions and make appointments.

The local bishop (lord) played a special role in the political life of Novgorod. From the middle of the 12th century the right to elect him passed from the Metropolitan of Kyiv to the veche; the metropolitan only sanctioned the election. The Novgorod lord was considered not only the main clergyman, but also the first dignitary of the state after the prince. He was the largest landowner, had his own boyars and military regiments with a banner and governors, certainly participated in peace negotiations and inviting princes, and was a mediator in internal political conflicts.

Despite the significant narrowing of princely prerogatives, the rich Novgorod land remained attractive to the most powerful princely dynasties. First of all, the senior (Mstislavichi) and junior (Suzdal Yuryevich) branches of the Monomashichs competed for the Novgorod table; Chernigov Olgovichi tried to intervene in this struggle, but they achieved only episodic successes (1138–1139, 1139–1141, 1180–1181, 1197, 1225–1226, 1229–1230). In the 12th century the preponderance was on the side of the Mstislavich clan and its three main branches (Izyaslavichi, Rostislavichi and Vladimirovichi); they occupied the Novgorod table in 1117-1136, 1142-1155, 1158-1160, 1161-1171, 1179-1180, 1182-1197, 1197-1199; some of them (especially the Rostislavichs) managed to create independent, but short-lived principalities (Novotorzhskoe and Velikoluki) in the Novgorod land. However, already in the second half of the 12th century. the positions of the Yurievichs began to strengthen, who enjoyed the support of the influential party of the Novgorod boyars and, in addition, periodically put pressure on Novgorod, blocking the supply of grain from North-Eastern Russia. In 1147, Yuri Dolgoruky made a trip to the Novgorod land and captured Torzhok, in 1155 the Novgorodians had to invite his son Mstislav to reign (until 1157). In 1160, Andrei Bogolyubsky imposed on the Novgorodians his nephew Mstislav Rostislavich (until 1161); in 1171 he forced them to return Rurik Rostislavich, who had been expelled by them, to the Novgorod table, and in 1172 to transfer him to his son Yuri (until 1175). In 1176 Vsevolod the Big Nest managed to plant his nephew Yaroslav Mstislavich in Novgorod (until 1178).

In the 13th century Yuryevichi (Vsevolod's Big Nest line) achieved complete predominance. In the 1200s, the Novgorod throne was occupied by the sons of Vsevolod Svyatoslav (1200–1205, 1208–1210) and Konstantin (1205–1208). True, in 1210 Novgorodians were able to get rid of the control of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes with the help of the Toropetsk ruler Mstislav Udatny from the Smolensk Rostislavich family; The Rostislavichs held Novgorod until 1221 (with a break in 1215-1216). However, then they were finally ousted from the Novgorod land by the Yurievichs.

The success of the Yurievichs was facilitated by the deterioration of the foreign policy situation of Novgorod. In the face of the increased threat to its western possessions from Sweden, Denmark and the Livonian Order, the Novgorodians needed an alliance with the most powerful Russian principality at that time - Vladimir. Thanks to this alliance, Novgorod managed to defend its borders. Called to the Novgorod throne in 1236, Alexander Yaroslavich, the nephew of Prince Yuri Vsevolodich of Vladimir, defeated the Swedes at the mouth of the Neva in 1240, and then stopped the aggression of the German knights.

The temporary strengthening of princely power under Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky) was replaced in the late 13th - early 14th century. its complete degradation, which was facilitated by the weakening of external danger and the progressive disintegration of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. At the same time, the role of the veche also declined. In Novgorod, an oligarchic system was actually established. The boyars turned into a closed ruling caste that shared power with the archbishop. The rise of the Moscow principality under Ivan Kalita (1325–1340) and its formation as the center of the unification of Russian lands aroused fear among the Novgorod leaders and led to their attempts to use the powerful Lithuanian principality that had arisen on the southwestern borders as a counterweight: in 1333, for the first time, he was invited to the Novgorod table the Lithuanian prince Narimunt Gedeminovich (although he only lasted a year on it); in the 1440s, the Grand Duke of Lithuania was given the right to collect irregular tribute from some Novgorod volosts.

Although 14-15 centuries. became a period of rapid economic prosperity of Novgorod, largely due to its close ties with the Hanseatic Trade Union, the Novgorod leaders did not use it to strengthen their military-political potential and preferred to pay off the aggressive Moscow and Lithuanian princes. At the end of the 14th century Moscow launched an offensive against Novgorod. Vasily I captured the Novgorod cities of Bezhetsky Verkh, Volok Lamsky and Vologda with adjacent regions; in 1401 and 1417 he tried, though unsuccessfully, to seize Zavolochye. In the second quarter of the 15th c. Moscow's offensive was suspended due to the internecine war of 1425–1453 between Grand Duke Vasily II and his uncle Yuri and his sons; in this war, the Novgorod boyars supported the opponents of Vasily II. Having established himself on the throne, Vasily II imposed tribute on Novgorod, and in 1456 went to war with him. Having suffered a defeat at Russa, the Novgorodians were forced to conclude a humiliating Yazhelbitsky peace with Moscow: they paid a significant indemnity and pledged not to enter into an alliance with the enemies of the Moscow prince; the legislative prerogatives of the veche were abolished and the possibilities of conducting an independent foreign policy were seriously limited. As a result, Novgorod became dependent on Moscow. In 1460, Pskov was under the control of the Moscow prince.

In the late 1460s, the pro-Lithuanian party led by the Boretskys triumphed in Novgorod. She achieved the conclusion of an alliance treaty with the great Lithuanian prince Casimir IV and an invitation to the Novgorod table of his protege Mikhail Olelkovich (1470). In response, Moscow Prince Ivan III sent a large army against the Novgorodians, which defeated them on the river. Shelon; Novgorod had to annul the treaty with Lithuania, pay a huge indemnity and cede part of Zavolochye. In 1472 Ivan III annexed the Perm Territory; in 1475 he arrived in Novgorod and massacred the anti-Moscow boyars, and in 1478 liquidated the independence of the Novgorod land and included it in the Muscovite state. In 1570 Ivan IV the Terrible finally destroyed Novgorod's liberties.

Ivan Krivushin

GREAT Kyiv PRINCES

(from the death of Yaroslav the Wise to the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Before the name of the prince - the year of his accession to the throne, the number in brackets indicates at what time the prince occupied the throne, if this happened again.)

1054 Izyaslav Yaroslavich (1)

1068 Vseslav Bryachislavich

1069 Izyaslav Yaroslavich (2)

1073 Svyatoslav Yaroslavich

1077 Vsevolod Yaroslavich (1)

1077 Izyaslav Yaroslavich (3)

1078 Vsevolod Yaroslavich (2)

1093 Svyatopolk Izyaslavich

1113 Vladimir Vsevolodich (Monomakh)

1125 Mstislav Vladimirovich (Great)

1132 Yaropolk Vladimirovich

1139 Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (1)

1139 Vsevolod Olgovich

1146 Igor Olgovich

1146 Izyaslav Mstislavich (1)

1149 Yuri Vladimirovich (Dolgoruky) (1)

1149 Izyaslav Mstislavich (2)

1151 Yuri Vladimirovich (Dolgoruky) (2)

1151 Izyaslav Mstislavich (3) and Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (2)

1154 Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (2) and Rostislav Mstislavich (1)

1154 Rostislav Mstislavich (1)

1154 Izyaslav Davydovich (1)

1155 Yuri Vladimirovich (Dolgoruky) (3)

1157 Izyaslav Davydovich (2)

1159 Rostislav Mstislavich (2)

1167 Mstislav Izyaslavich

1169 Gleb Yurievich

1171 Vladimir Mstislavich

1171 Mikhalko Yurievich

1171 Roman Rostislavich (1)

1172 Vsevolod Yurievich (Big Nest) and Yaropolk Rostislavich

1173 Rurik Rostislavich (1)

1174 Roman Rostislavich (2)

1176 Svyatoslav Vsevolodich (1)

1181 Rurik Rostislavich (2)

1181 Svyatoslav Vsevolodich (2)

1194 Rurik Rostislavich (3)

1202 Ingvar Yaroslavich (1)

1203 Rurik Rostislavich (4)

1204 Ingvar Yaroslavich (2)

1204 Rostislav Rurikovich

1206 Rurik Rostislavich (5)

1206 Vsevolod Svyatoslavich (1)

1206 Rurik Rostislavich (6)

1207 Vsevolod Svyatoslavich (2)

1207 Rurik Rostislavich (7)

1210 Vsevolod Svyatoslavich (3)

1211 Ingvar Yaroslavich (3)

1211 Vsevolod Svyatoslavich (4)

1212/1214 Mstislav Romanovich (Old) (1)

1219 Vladimir Rurikovich (1)

1219 Mstislav Romanovich (Old) (2), possibly with his son Vsevolod

1223 Vladimir Rurikovich (2)

1235 Mikhail Vsevolodich (1)

1235 Yaroslav Vsevolodich

1236 Vladimir Rurikovich (3)

1239 Mikhail Vsevolodich (1)

1240 Rostislav Mstislavich

1240 Daniel Romanovich

Literature:

Old Russian principalities of the X-XIII centuries. M., 1975
Rapov O.M. Princely possessions in Russia in the X - the first half of the XIII century. M., 1977
Alekseev L.V. Smolensk land in the IX-XIII centuries. Essays on the history of Smolensk and Eastern Belarus. M., 1980
Kyiv and the western lands of Russia in the 9th–13th centuries. Minsk, 1982
Yury A. Limonov Vladimir-Suzdal Rus: Essays on socio-political history. L., 1987
Chernihiv and its districts in the 9th–13th centuries. Kyiv, 1988
Korinny N. N. Pereyaslav land X - the first half of the XIII century. Kyiv, 1992
Gorsky A. A. Russian lands in the XIII-XIV centuries: Ways of political development. M., 1996
Aleksandrov D. N. Russian principalities in the XIII-XIV centuries. M., 1997
Ilovaisky D.I. Ryazan principality. M., 1997
Ryabchikov S.V. Mysterious Tmutarakan. Krasnodar, 1998
Lysenko P.F. Turov land, IX–XIII centuries Minsk, 1999
Pogodin M.P. Ancient Russian history before the Mongol yoke. M., 1999. T. 1–2
Aleksandrov D. N. Feudal fragmentation of Russia. M., 2001
Mayorov A.V. Galicia-Volyn Rus: Essays on socio-political relations in the pre-Mongolian period. Prince, boyars and city community. SPb., 2001



The principality of Smolensk continued to be ruled by the princes of the Rostislavich branch. The change of princes on the Smolensk table in the second half of the 11th century still corresponds to the principle of tribal eldership. In 1239, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodich installed Vsevolod Mstislavich, the younger brother of the former Prince Svyatoslav, in Smolensk71. Later, the Smolensk table was owned by his younger second cousin Rostislav Mstislavich (son of Mstislav Davydovich, Prince of Smolensk in the 1320s). After the death of Rostislav, his sons reign in Smolensk: Gleb (earlier 1269-1277), Mikhail (1277-1279) and Fedor (1280-1297). In 1297, Alexander Glebovich, the elder nephew of Fyodor (who reigned at the same time in Yaroslavl - see more about this below), in violation of the “eldership”, seizes the Smolensk table. In 1313 Alexander was succeeded by his son Ivan, and in 1358 by his son Svyatoslav72. Both of the last princes at the time of the death of their fathers were the oldest among the Rostislavichs (they had no living uncles), so there is no reason to believe that their inheritance of the Smolensk table meant a transition from the clan principle of inheritance (from the elder brother to the younger and from the youngest of the brothers "to the eldest nephew ) to paternal (from father to son).

In the second half of the 13th century, the Vyazemsky principality was formed as part of the Smolensk land. The annals of North-Eastern Russia describe the strife in 1299: Prince Alexander Glebovich of Smolensk besieged the city of Dorogobuzh, but Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Vyazemsky (son of Mikhail Rostislavich) came to the aid of the Dorogobuzh residents; as a result, the attack was repulsed73. Later, Fyodor Svyatoslavich, cousin of Andrei (and native of Alexander Glebovich), reigned in Vyazma: it is known that in the 40s of the XIV century. he left this reign, went to the service of the Moscow prince Semyon Ivanovich (his son-in-law) and received Volok74 from him. In a letter from the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd to the Patriarch of Constantinople in 1371, Prince Ivan Vyazemsky is mentioned, who kissed Olgerd on the cross and went over to the side of Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow75. This is Prince Ivan Vasilyevich “Smolensky”, who participated under the command of Dmitry in the campaign against Tver in 137576: it is recorded in the genealogical books that Ivan Vasilyevich (the son of Vasily Ivanovich, the native nephew of the Smolensk prince Svyatoslav Ivanovich), having been expelled by Olgerd, went to Dmitry Moscow77. The former Prince of Vyazma, Fyodor Svyatoslavich, Ivan Vasilievich was a cousin grand-nephew. Prince Mikhail Ivanovich Vyazemsky78 is mentioned in the agreement between Prince Yuri Svyatoslavich of Smolensk and King Jagiello of Poland and his brother Skirgailo dated September 16, 1386. Obviously, this is the son of Ivan Vasilievich (i.e., the cousin-nephew of Yuri Svyatoslavich)79. In 1403, when Vyazma was captured by the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, there were princes Ivan Svyatoslavich (brother of Yuri Svyatoslavich Smolensky) and Alexander Mikhailovich (son of Mikhail Ivanovich)80. Thus, for more than 100 years of its existence, the Vyazemsky principality was attached to any particular “sub-branch” of the Rostislavichs: representatives of at least three such sub-branches reigned there *1.

The situation was similar in the Principality of Bryansk, which passed, as it is said - above, - toda II b. Here, the first authentically known prince from the Rostislavichs was Vasily Alexandrovich, the second son of Alexander Glebovich (until 1314, with a break in 1309-1310, when his uncle Svyatoslav Glebovich captured Bryansk); later Dmitry reigned in Bryansk Romanovich, the son of the younger brother of Alexander Glebovich Roman (with a break in 1339-1340, when the Bryansk table with the help of Moscow was occupied by the son of Svyatoslav Glebovich Gleb) 82 GT "the last Bryansk prince from the Smolensk branch was (1357) the son of the eldest son of Alexander Glebovich Ivan - Vasily Ivanovich83 (whose son and grandson were Vyazemsky princes).

Apparently, in the second half of the XIII century. Mozhaisk Principality arose as part of the Smolensk land, on its eastern outskirts. The first known prince of Mozhaisk was Fyodor Rostislavich, who later became (c. 1260) the prince of Yaroslavl, and from 1280 simultaneously the prince of Smolensk84. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. (finally in 1303) the territory of the Mozhaisk principality came under the authority of the Moscow princes85.

Under 1314-1315 the annals mention Prince Fyodor Rzhevsky, who was the governor of Yuri Danilovich of Moscow in Novgorod86. Apparently, this is Fedor Svyatoslavich, later known as Prince Vyazemsky: the Rzhev principality adjoined Vyazemsky from the north; Obviously, having moved to reign in Vyazma, Fedor united the Vyazemsky and Rzhev principalities under his rule and lost Rzhev together with Vyazma, leaving in the 40s to serve the Moscow prince87.

In the extreme northeast of Smolensk land in the 14th century, there were also two tiny principalities - Fominsky and Berezuisky (with centers in Fomino gorodok and Berezui near Rzheva, near the border of the Tver principality). The Fominsky princes are mentioned in chronicles under 1339 and 1387, they are also known from genealogical books*8. Prince Vasily Ivanovich Berezuisky is mentioned in 1370.89 Both the Fominsky and Berezuya princes apparently descended from Konstantin, brother of Mstislav Davydovich (Smolensk prince in the 20s of the 13th century)90.

In general, although we can talk about the intensification of the fragmentation of the Smolensk land in the second half of the 13th-14th centuries, it did not become characteristic for it to fix specific principalities behind certain princely lines (as was the case in Chernigov land).

The central part of the land always remained in the hands of the Smolensk prince. Nothing is known about the inheritances of the eldest sons of the Smolensk princes Alexander Glebovich (1297-1313) and Ivan Alexandrovich (1313-1358) - respectively Ivan and Svyatoslav. Apparently, in order not to aggravate the fragmentation of the territory, the Smolensk princes in the 14th century did not allocate appanages (at least large ones) to their eldest sons91.

In the 14th century, the princes of Smolensk began to be called “great”: this is how Ivan Aleksandrovich was titled (in an agreement with Riga around 134092), his successors Svyatoslav Ivanovich (in the Moscow-Lithuanian agreement of 1372, in the Moscow-Tver agreement of 1375 and in the annals93) and Yuri Svyatoslavich (in an agreement with Jagiello in 1386) m. Apparently, the grand ducal title was adopted by Ivan Alexandrovich (in the period 1313-1340) and was recognized by the neighbors of the Smolensk principality.

There is information (albeit fragmentary and separated by significant periods of time), from which it can be concluded that in the period after the Batu invasion, the Smolensk princes recognized the political seniority of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir. In 1239, the Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodich drove the Lithuanians out of the Smolensk land and “having ordered the Smolensk people, put Prince Vsevolod on the table”95, i.e., he elevated his protege to reign in Smolensk. In 1269 Prince Gleb Rostislavich of Smolensk took part in the campaign against Novgorod of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Yaroslavich96. In 1294, the third At that time, according to seniority from the Smolensk princes Roman Glebovich, Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich “ambassador” (!) With the Novgorodians to fight the Swedish fortress in the Korel land97. It can be assumed that Roman was Andrey's governor in Novgorod98. In 1311, Prince Dmitry Romanovich led the Novgorod troops on a campaign against Yem99: Mikhail Yaroslavich was the Novgorod prince at that time, and Dmitry, apparently, played the role of his governor in Novgorod.

Even in the first half - the middle of the ХПІ century. an onslaught on the Smolensk lands of Lithuania1 * ® was indicated. At the end of the 30s. 14th century Prince Ivan Alexandrovich of Smolensk recognized the Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas as his “eldest brother”1®*. The offensive of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania against the sovereignty of the Smolensk principality ran into resistance from those who occupied from the second quarter of the 14th century. the grand-ducal table in Vladimir of Moscow princes (who, apparently, did not want to lose their own suzerainty over Smolensk). In 1352, after the military campaign of the Grand Duke Semyon Ivanovich, Smolensk returned under the suzerainty of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir102. In the second half of the 1950s, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Olgerd, made several campaigns against the Smolensk lands, captured Rzhev, Belaya, and Mstislavl103. In 1360, when the princes of Moscow temporarily lost their throne in Vladimir, the Smolensk prince Svyatoslav Ivanovich was forced to once again recognize his dependence on Lithuania, at the same time Olgerd took possession of Bryansk104.

But already in 1365 the Smolensk-Lithuanian war took place105. Apparently, at the beginning of 1368, the Smolensk prince entered into an alliance with Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow, but then Smolensk again became dependent on Lithuania. Smolensk troops take part in Olgerd's campaigns against Moscow in 1368, 1370, and 1372.10 By the mid-1970s, Smolensk broke its dependence on Olgerd and again entered into an alliance with Moscow107. In response, Olgerd in 1375 “fought the Smolensk volost”108.

In 1386, after the conclusion of the Union of Kreva of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Kingdom of Poland, the brother of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jagaila Skirgailo Olgerdovich, who became the Polish king, defeated Prince Svyatoslav Ivanovich, who acted in alliance with Jagaila's elder brother and rival Andrei Olgerdovich and tried to recapture Mstislavl. Prince Svyatoslav died in battle, the Lithuanian army came to Smolensk, and Skirgailo installed Svyatoslav's son Yuri109, who concluded an unequal peace treaty with Skirgailo and Jagiello110, in the Smolensk reign.

The final fall of the independence of Smolensk occurred under Vitovt. In 1395, “prince Vitovt of Lithuania took the city of Smolnesk and took over his plantations”111. However, in 1401, “the prince of Smolensk, Yuri Svyatoslavich, was accepted as prince, and the prince of the governor of Vitovtov, Prince Roman of Bryansk, was killed. And Prince Vitovt come with all the strength of Lithuanian to Smolnensk, and standing under the city for 4 weeks, and bishing the city with cannons, and moving away from the city, with Prince Yuri, peace in the old days; and the Smolnyans with Prince Yury boyars of their huts, who were transferred to Prince Vitovt”112. But the restoration of the independence of the Smolensk principality was short-lived. In 1403, Lithuanian troops captured Vyazma, the last of the appanages that remained under the rule of Smolensk113. In 1404, Vitovt approached Smolensk, besieged the city for 7 weeks - unsuccessfully114. But the forces were clearly unequal, and Prince Yuri in the same year went “to Moscow to bow to Prince Vasily, so that he would be defended from the Grand Duke Vitovt; and at that time I handed over the city of Smolnesk to Prince Vitovt of Lithuania to the clergyman”115.

The territory and cities of the Smolensk principality until the beginning of the XIII century

We have determined the common ethnographic boundary of the lands of the Krivichi and Dregovichi; now let us turn to a more precise definition of the political boundaries of the principalities formed by the named tribes.

The Dregovichi formed a special principality already under St. Vladimir (Grand Duke of Kyiv in 980–1015 - Ed.), with the main city of Turov; they also inhabited the Beresteiskaya land in the west in the region of the middle course of the Western Bug. Polotsk Krivichi stood out even earlier than this time; they formed a separate principality, after the death of Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise (died in 1054 - Ed.), and Smolensk Krivichi. Thus, already in the early era, three principalities were formed: Smolensk, Polotsk and Turov.

"The Primary Chronicle" (written by Nestor around 1115. - Ed.), in his geographical outline, in brief outlines, determines the position of the named tribes. She says about the Dregovichi that they were sitting between Pripyat and Dvina; The Krivichi sat on the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Dvina and Volga, and some of them settled on the Polot River.

Even with a cursory glance at these annalistic news, all their incompleteness and uncertainty are visible. When studying the subsequent news, with the help of other indications of the annals about cities, it is possible to determine the political boundaries of the named principalities with greater accuracy.

Getting down to the definition of political boundaries, we note, however, that chronicle data is not always enough to determine the frontier places. In this case, you have to use other instructions. Thus, the circumstance is known that the ancient Russian princes built border fortifications, which bore the names: town, gorodets, ancient settlement, gorodnya, border, abroad, etc. At the fortifications, border residents settled, formed villages, cities with the same names.

Knowing this circumstance, and carefully following the maps for those places where we can assume the ancient border, we really find a number of villages with such names, which should lead us to the conviction that the border really ran here. Moreover, since ethnographic borders for the most part coincided with political ones, we always find villages with names reminiscent of one or another tribe in frontier places. With these names, the people, obviously, tried to designate the belonging of the inhabitants to one or another tribe. Thus, we will meet with names reminiscent of Krivichi: Krivsk, Krivichi, Kriveno, etc .; Radimich: Radimich, Radulya and others; Dregovichi: Dorogichin, etc. Taking into account the above, it is possible to draw the boundaries of the Smolensk Krivichi in this way.

But sometimes you can pick up several similar-sounding geographical names or even quite similar ones, while the source's news does not indicate the approximate position of the given area. Then, we think, we should rather adhere to the names of rivers and lakes, since they are, in general, older than the names of inhabited places and their very names are more stable among the people. At the same time, it is a well-known fact that the Russian Slavs often called the inhabited cities after the river. We will adhere to this foundation in subsequent essays.

In the east, the borders of the Smolensk region reached the upper reaches of the Volga near the city of Verzhavsk (now Rzhev, Tver province), from where they passed to the upper reaches of the Protva, the Moscow River, on the tributary of which the Iskani was the city of the same name. Then they headed south, approximately along the Vora River, which flows into the Ugra River in Yukhnovsky District, along which the border stretched to its upper reaches, located in the Smolensk Region. The Ugra with its upper reaches approaches the rivers Degna and Bolva, or Obolva, on which in the middle of the 12th century we see the Smolensk city of Obolv, which, therefore, was the extreme point in the southeast.

From here, the border crossed along the Desna River, to its confluence with Sno-pot, and along Snopot to the Desna; further along the Desna, perhaps, to the confluence with the last river Gabnya in the Oryol province, not far from the borders of the Smolensk province. On this border we meet the cities of Patsyn, now a village in the Roslavsky district, Rognedino on the border of the same county, and Roslavl. Further, the line went along the watershed of the Desna and Voronitsa rivers, south of Roslavl, from where the border turned southwest to Sozh.

Turning to the data of modern geographical nomenclature, we see on this border: Pogoreloe Gorodishche in the Tver province to the east of Zubtsov, Buigorodok on Gzhat in the Smolensk province, and several others. Further in the Ugra region: the village of Rubikhino, on the border with the Moscow province, north of Yukhnov; Settlement on the Ugra, in particular - Abroad, between Vyazma and Dorogobuzh, not far from the borders of the latter; Gorodechno, near the headwaters of the Bolva in the Kaluga province, Gorodok on the upper Ugra, in the southern corner of the Dorogobuzh district; Raduli, reminiscent of neighboring Radimichi, a village in the Roslavl district; south of Patsyn - Gorodets, a station on the railway from Bryansk to Roslavl.

The southern border of the Smolensk reign, starting in the southern part of the Roslavl district, also captured the middle part of the Klimovichi district of the Mogilev province, where we see the Smolensk city of Zara and the village of Dedin on Ostra, in which you can see the ancient Dedogostich. Higher on the Sozh - Krecheut (Krichev). Further, the Smolensk possessions captured the entire upper reaches of the Sozh, crossing it between Chichersk and Propoisk at the mouth of the Dobrycha River, on which, in all likelihood, Dobrochkov, mentioned in the charter of Rostislav, was located. On this border we see Propoisk of the Rogachev district on the Sozh (ancient Prupoi) and, to the south of it, Chichersk, at the confluence of the Chichera with the Sozh, the Radimich city, which belonged to the Chernigov Principality. Along the Dobrych River, the southern Smolensk border was heading towards the Dnieper, to which it adjoined at Luchin, below Rogachev. A little higher here was the Smolensk village of Vet, between Novo-Bykhov and Rogachev, and to the south of its city of Luchin.

Turning then to the data of modern geographical nomenclature, we see on this border Gorodets of the Klimovichi district southwest of the town of Shumyach, directly south of Zhuravich on a tributary of the Dobrych; to the west of it, near the headwaters of Dobrych - Krivsk, south of the last Gorodok, then Gorodets southeast of Rogachev and some others.

From the neighboring border towns of Chernigov on this border, we point out: Lobinits on the Protva and Nerinsk, Vorotnitsy at the confluence of the Zhizdra into the Utra, Mosalsk (now a county town of the Kaluga province), Vshchizh on the Desna above Bryansk, not far from it Vorobein and Ormin on the Iput and, finally, Chichersk on the Sozh.

The western border of the Smolensk Principality ran from Veti up the Dnieper, although it is not known whether in all places this border adjoined directly to the Dnieper. So on this way we see the Kyiv city of Rogachev. Kopys and Orsha belonged to the Smolensk volost only from 1116, when they were occupied by Vladimir Monomakh from the princes of Polotsk. The settlements of the Smolyans, perhaps, already crossed the Dnieper in this place: the Dnieper itself in these places is an obstacle to attack, and, moreover, on this border, the Smolyans had the least clashes with their neighbors. In addition to these cities, there were also: Dobryatin (the village of Dobreiki below Kopys) and Basei by the river of the same name. Therefore, here we notice only Gorodetskoye on the Pron, Gorodets on the border with the Smolensk province. From Orsha, and a little higher, the Smolensk border crossed the Dnieper and in the eastern part of the Orsha district passed into the Porech district of the Smolensk province to the Khotenka River on the border of the Mogilev and Smolensk provinces, which flows into the Kasplya; Khotshin is assumed to be on this river.

Smolensk principality in the XII century

Further along the Rubezhnitsa River, which flows on the border of the Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces, the line reached the borders of the Smolensk province, where it flows into Palenitsa, a tributary of the Kaspli. On Kasple was the city of Kaspli (the village of Kaspla not far from the lake of the same name). In addition to the city of Kaspli, at this border we will notice Zhidichy, the ancient Zhidchichi. From Kaspli, the borders headed towards the Dvina approximately opposite the Usvyat of the Surazh district and, perhaps, cut the Dvina south of Lake Dvinya, from which the border ran along the watershed between the rivers Kunya, a tributary of the Lovat, and Toropa, a tributary of the Dvina, ending north of the Toropets of the Pskov province, from where the border turned to the East. On this border we see the ancient Zhizhtsi near the lake Zhizhetsky of the Toropetsky district.

Turning to the data of modern geographical nomenclature, we find: to the north, on the very border, Frontier, and finally, Gorodets to the north of Usvyat.

As for the northern border of the Smolensk Principality, its determination is difficult due to the lack of annalistic data. The Smolensk Krivichi in the north bordered on a very related tribe of the Novgorod Slavs, and, moreover, the trade interests of the neighboring regions were so common that there were very few clashes between them. All this leads to the fact that at this line the traces of fortifications are least noticeable, and, moreover, the chronicles do not have a chance to mention border places.

The northern border of the Smolensk region with Novgorod began north of Toropets, which belonged to the Smolensk region; then the line went to Lake Seliger, although it is not known whether this important point of the waterway was in the possession of Novgorodians alone or they owned it together with the Smolensk people. From Seliger, the line went to the Volkhov to the city of Rzhev, Tver province, from which it passed in the southeast direction to the Gzhatsk district of the Smolensk province.

Such were the borders of the Grand Duchy of Smolensk in the first era of its independent life, as a separate independent inheritance, which actually refers to the middle of the 12th century during the reign of Rostislav Mstislavich, the grandson of the great Monomakh.

Having determined the border of the Smolensk land, let us now turn to its cities.

To restore the border of the Smolensk principality in the period up to the end of the XII century, we have few indications in the annals and, in addition, a very important document - the Statutory Charter of Prince Rostislav Mstislavich, given to him by the Smolensk diocese in 1157. The chronicle and the named charter mention almost 60 cities, the location of which (at least those that can be found on modern maps) makes it possible to determine the boundaries of the principality with sufficient clarity.

Topography of "princely" Smolensk (reconstruction by L. V. Alekseev)

Churches: 1 - Michael the Archangel, 2 - Nameless on B. Krasnoflotskaya Street, 3 - Kirillovskaya, 4 - Peter and Paul, 5 - "Latin Goddess" (rotunda), 6 - John the Evangelist, 7 - Fridays at Small Market, 8 - on Voskresenskaya Gora, 9 - pillarless chapel, 10 - Monomakh's Cathedral (1101), 11 - "Terem", 12 - on Bolshaya Rachevka, 13 - Abraham's Monastery (9–11 - on the citadel); a - pre-Mongolian churches preserved, b - pre-Mongolian churches known from excavations

Fortifications of Smolensk in the XII century. (Reconstruction by Yu.E. Kashtanov)

The most important geographical document is the Rostislav charter. She mentions 47 cities, of which only a few are mentioned in the annals. Before proceeding to the definition of the cities of the Smolensk land, let's consider the composition of the said charter.

When identifying cities on modern maps named in the Rostislav charter, scientists usually look for similar-sounding names of current villages on the territory of the former Smolensk principality, if there are no other, more specific indications. But at the same time, there are often several identical or similar-sounding names. Which of them should be preferred? What exactly was the city or village in the time of Rostislav?

So, the charter mentions Dobryatino and Dobrochkovo. On modern maps of Smolensk and the eastern part of the Mogilev province, many villages can be indicated, the name of which comes from the word “kind”: Dobroe, a village in the Chaussky district of the Mogilev province; Dobromysl of the Orsha district of the same province; Dobrichki, Rogachev Uyezd, pointed out by Barsov. We will add more Dobreiki on the Dnieper, between Kopys and Mogilev, and so on. If you directly select the area on the map, then each of them has an equal right to be recognized for the mentioned villages in the charter. Such a definition is unsatisfactory. It would be important to determine at least approximately the area in which the named cities should be sought.

It seems to us that for such a definition, the Rostislav charter itself provides some basis, if we pay attention to the order of the cities mentioned in it. It is natural to assume that the scribe who compiled it was guided by some kind of beginning when listing cities. It is unlikely that he named the city that would come to his mind, without any order. Most likely, the order of transfer depended on the position of the cities along the way of collecting tribute by the prince. The scribe remembered from which city to which the prince usually goes for tribute, had at hand the corresponding records and, according to them, he named the cities in order.

Indeed. If we pay attention to the order of those of the named cities, the position of which we can undoubtedly indicate on a modern map, we will see that the cities in the charter were mentioned in a certain sequence.

According to its composition, the letter is divided into three parts (actually three letters): the first lists the cities and the amount of tribute due to them to the bishop, the second (from the words “Behold the thin and sinful”, etc.) the approval of the prince of the letter, and in the third (from the words “And this is the outskirts”, etc. to the end) is a list of cities from which “the outskirts and honors” are given to the bishop). In the last part, 11 most important cities are named without any order.

In the first part, 37 localities are named, with the exception of villages given to the bishop in direct possession (Drosensky, Yasensky, etc.). It seems to us that the compiler of the charter named these localities in a certain order. Here are the cities listed:

1. Verzhavleni Great.

2. Vrochnitsy.

3. Hurry up.

5. Caspli.

6. Hotshin.

7. Zhabachev (Votoovichi).

8. Shuispei.

9. Deshpyani.

10. Vetskaya.

12. Bortnitsy.

13. Showcase.

14. Zhidchichi.

16. Miryatichi.

17. Dobryatino.

18. Dobrochkovo.

19. Bobrovnitsy

20. Dedogostich

22. Jenny the Great

23. Patsin

24. Malt makers

25. Puttin

26. Benitsi

27. Dedichi

29. Prutui

30. Krechyut

32. Obolv

33. Search

34. Suzhdal-Zalessky

35. Verzhavsk

36. Lodejnitsy

37. Toropets

Even the most superficial look at the order of counting the cities suggests a certain order in their enumeration: the compiler, starting with the Verzhavsky graveyards and Toropets, ends with the fool of Verzhavsky (near which the graveyards were located) and Toropets. Little of. From the subsequent review of the cities, we will see that the 15 localities of the charter are determined quite accurately. Namely: Verzhavleni the Great, Toropchi, Zhizhtsi, Kaspli, Vetskaya, Basei, Zarub, Patsin, Kopys, Prupoi, Krecheut, Luchin, Obolv, Iskan, Suzhdal Zalesky. If we trace these cities on the map, we will see that the first three make up the northern group; Kaspli, Vetskaya and Basei - western; Zarub, Patsin, Prupoi, Krecheut and Luchin - southern; Iskan and Suzhdal Zalesky - the eastern group. All of them follow one after another in order on the map.

Only Kopys does not fit under the general order of calculation: according to his position in the letter, he is in the southern group, while his geographical position gives him a place in the western. This fact can be explained by chance, but the remaining 14 localities, of course, are not accidental in a certain order.

Determining further the cities of the charter, it is possible with a high probability to indicate the position of the following: Khotshin, Zhabachev, Vitrytsa, Zhidchichi, Dobrochkov (and maybe Dobryatina) and again these cities follow the same order.

Thus, the indicated property of the order of counting cities in a charter makes it possible for us to indicate the position of one or another city with greater certainty; likewise, if several consonant names can be found for the same city of the charter, then preference should be given to the one that corresponds to the place in the list: the position of the area, if not completely, then at least approximately, will be determined. For several names it is impossible to find consonants at all; in such a case we can at least give an approximate indication of their position.

Now let's move on to determining the position of the cities, which were mentioned both in the charter and in the annals. Note that some scientists (Belyaev) expressed doubt that all the areas named in the charter were cities. But if we recognize the cities of a given era as primarily fortified points for military and commercial purposes, near which merchants and farmers settled, to which well-known districts stretched, then it will be necessary to recognize the areas of letters as cities, regardless of the tribute they pay, as has already been proved by Professor Samokvasov.

Here is his evidence:

1) in the enumeration of the settlements that were supposed to pay tribute in favor of the Bishop of Smolensk, the first statutory charter named: Toropets, Kopys, Luchin, Mstislavl, Suzdal and Izyaslavl, but that these settlements were cities, we are convinced by the evidence of the annals and the third charter of Rostislav.

2) In terms of the amount of tribute paid, Toropets, Kopys, Luchin, Msti-Slavl, Suzhdal and Izyaslavl do not differ from other settlements.

3) Verzhavsk is named a city in the act itself: “Verzhavsk has 3 hryvnias of the Holy Mother of God near the city”, and Verzhavsk, in terms of the amount of tribute paid by him, was the smallest of the settlement points listed in the charter.

4) Seven of the settlements listed in the first letter are mentioned in the third, where they are directly named cities. See: "Ancient cities of Russia", p. 87–88. - Auth.

Great verges, consisting of nine churchyards, in which the istuzhniks lived, were undoubtedly located near the city of Verzhavsk, now Rzhev, a county town of the Tver province on the upper Volga, so to speak, in its district.

Toropets- county town of the Pskov province near the lake of the same name. This is one of the oldest cities; we meet the first mention of it in the XII century; Rostislav Mstislavich passed through it in 1168 to meet his son Svyatoslav, who then reigned in Novgorod. Toropets is mentioned in the Paterik of the Caves in the biography of St. Isaac, who was originally from this city.

It was located on one of the branches of the great waterway, and therefore already in the 12th century it was one of the richest cities: 400 hryvnias of income went from it to the prince, by the amount of which he significantly stood out from all the cities named in the charter. There were also rich princely fishing grounds (Rostislav's charter). The Kiev-Pechersk recluse Isaac is called a rich Toropetsk merchant. At the very beginning of the 13th century, Toropets already stood out as a special lot, and since that time it has gained particular fame and importance. The city was well fortified in antiquity, as it represents the extreme and important point of the Smolensk principality in the north; there are several settlements around it. In the 16th century it was surrounded by wooden fortifications.

Zhizhtsi- should be searched on the shores of lakes Zhizhetsky or Zhyuzhitsky in Toropetsky district. In the annals, this city is mentioned under the year 1245; under it, Alexander Nevsky defeated the Lithuanians who robbed Toropets. Judging by the amount of tribute (130 hryvnias), it was a rather significant city. Fishing was also carried out in it (“Zhizhtsi also from all the fish that comes to me, the tithe of the Holy Mother of God and the bishop”; Letter of Rostislav).

Kasplya - at the present time there is a lake Kasplya in the Porechsky district of the Smolensk province, from which the river of the same name flows into the Western Dvina. On the banks of this river there is a Kasplya settlement. This is one of the big cities: from it the prince received 100 hryvnias of tribute; he lay on the trade route from the Dnieper region to the Dvina region.

Vetskaya- on the Dnieper in the Bykhov district of the Mogilev province between Novy Bykhov and Rogachev there is a village Vet. An insignificant village in antiquity (40 hryvnia tribute).

Basei- is determined by the river Baseya, which flows into the Pronya in the Chaussky district of the Mogilev province. In ancient times, the village was insignificant, only 15 hryvnias of tribute.

Patsin- currently a village in the southeastern part of the Roslavl district, west of the Desna; small settlement in antiquity.

Church of St. John the Evangelist in Smolensk (1101; reconstruction)

Kopys- a place in the Mogilev province on the Dnieper, below Orsha.

Luke, the famous bishop of Novgorod, died in it on his way from Kyiv to Novgorod in 1059. Before the beginning of the XII century. he, together with Rsha (Orsha), belonged to Polotsk and was probably inhabited by these Krivichs, but in 1116 Monomakh took it away in a fight with Gleb. The population of this city was small, since only 40 hryvnias were taken from it. But there was a transfer across the Dnieper, from which the prince received 100 hryvnias. As a city near the Dnieper and a border town, it had a customs (trade tribute was taken and inns were set up here, a tavern tribute was taken).

Prupoi- now Propoisk, a place in the Mogilev province of the Bykhov district on the Sozh, at the confluence of the Prony. Also a sparsely populated city (polyudya was only 10 hryvnia). This is the first Smolensk station on the Sozha River near the Chernihiv borders, on the way from the Middle Dnieper to Smolensk. Here were the inns of the principality.

Krechyut- now the town of Krichev, Cherikovsky district of the same province, an insignificant city.

Luchin. Researchers define the position of this important city differently. However, we think that the position of this city with the greatest certainty can be attributed to the present large village of Luchin on the Dnieper, a little lower than Rogachev.

Luchin was the personal property of Prince Rurik Rostislavich, received by him from his father. When Rurik left Novgorod in 1172 and returned with his family to his southern possessions, transferred for a while to his brother David, his son Mikhail Rostislav was born here. In memory of this event, the prince built the church of St. Michael and the city itself gave the newborn.

Luchin had any significance in trade, as the Dnieper city, located in a very convenient place, is difficult to determine, because the amount of tribute that went from it to the prince was not read by the publishers of the charter. As from a border city and, moreover, lying on the waterway, a wash went from it to the prince, i.e. duties on goods passing through it, and "taverns", i.e. a tribute with a tavern arranged in it, probably for the stops of passing people. From this it is clear that he served as a trading and customs station.

Obolv - at present, it is easily determined by the Bolva River, a tributary of the Desna, in the Masalsky district of the Kaluga province, the upper reaches of which are located near the border of the Smolensk province; near the upper reaches of the Bol you currently have the village of Bolva. It was a small town on the way from Chernigov land to Vyatichi land and to Rostov. From him, the prince did not receive polyudya, but only a tribute to the living room, i.e. tribute from passing merchants, which gives us some right to conclude that Obolv was just a small border fortification, in which only warriors and princely officials lived, at the same time it was a customs town. Obolv and its environs were in the land of the Vyatichi and the mention of it as a city of Smolensk is only in the Rostislav charter of 1150. Other indications of chronicles, both earlier (1147) and later (1159), mention it as a Chernihiv city. Consequently, it belonged to Smolensk for only 10 years.

Church of Michael the Archangel in Smolensk XII century (reconstruction)

Iskani- is determined by the Iskany River in the Mozhaisk district, a tributary of the Moscow River. A small village on the eastern border.

Suzhdal Zalessky at the time of writing the letter did not belong to Smolensk. The letter says about him: “The Zalesky tribute was already destined to return the Gyurgis, and what will be in it, from that holy Mother of God tithe”; this place serves as an indication that shortly before the struggle between Rostislav and Yuri, Smolensk owned land in the Suzdal land itself, perhaps Smolensk colonies.

Verzhavsk - now the city of Rzhev, Tver province on the Volga. Judging by the amount of tribute (30 hryvnia) - an insignificant city.

Hotshin- to some extent determined by the river Khotenka on the border of the Porech district of the Mogilev region. Judging by the amount of tribute (120 hryvnia), one of the big cities.

Showcase- perhaps determined by the river Votreya, a tributary of the Vop in Dukhovshchinsky district. At its upper reaches there are the villages of Votrya and Berlina.

Zhidchichi- now a village in the Porech district - Zhichitsy.

Dobryatino- perhaps now the village of Dobreika on the Dnieper, below Kopys, Mogilev province.

Dobrochkovo - perhaps now it is defined by the Dobrych River, which flows into the Sozh a little higher than Chichersk.

Dedogostichi - perhaps now the village of Dedin, Klimovichi district, Mogilev region.

Zarub.- We also have indications about him in the annals: Rostislav Mstislavich, passing from Novgorod after a meeting with his son Svyatoslav, stopped in Zaruba, the village of Rognedino, adds an annals, where he died. Thus, he was on his way from Smolensk. In the Roslavsky district of the Smolensk province on the Desna, there is currently a large village of Rognedino, lying on the way from Smolensk to Kyiv.

Drosenskoye- is determined by the Dresenko River of the Smolensk district, not far from the city; on this river there is a village called Dresenka. Drosenskoye, together with another village Yasensky (now, perhaps, the village of Yasenskaya in the Ostashkovsky district), land in Pogonovichi Moishinsky, lakes and hay harvesters Nemikorsky, hay harvesters on Svekrovy Luki and Lake Kolodarsky were given to the bishop in the possession of Rostislav in 1150. All these names are hard to find on modern maps. In addition, the hill was given to the bishop.

Mstislavl - now a county town of the Mogilev province.

Rostislavl

Mstislavl in the XII century (reconstruction)

Yelnya- also now a county town of the Smolensk province on the Desna. In the geographical description of the beginning of the 17th century (“The Book of the Big Drawing”), the Yelnya Settlement is listed at this place.

Dorogobuzh- now a county town of the Smolensk province.

We have listed all the cities mentioned by Rostislav's letter, the geographical position of which can now be positively indicated, or at least with some certainty.

Let's name the cities that were not included in the previous listing due to the lack of indications in the modern geographical nomenclature:

Vrochnitsy

Zhabachev

Jenny the Great

Votoovichi

Shuispei

All these cities were among the most significant. So, the first three paid tributes of 200 hryvnias, the Votoovichi - 100 hryvnias, and the last one - 80 hryvnias. Unfortunately, their position can only be indicated approximately, in connection with the order in which the cities of the charter are listed. Namely: Vrochnitsy should be sought in the Toropetsky district, Zhabachev, Votoovichi and Shuyspei - anywhere in the Dnieper region, between Kaspley and Vetya, and Jenny the Great - in the south of the Roslavsky district.

In addition, the last letter also mentions Kruplya and Izyaslavl. Judging by the fact that they are among very significant cities (Mstislavl, Yelny, Roslavl, etc.), from which they took suburbs and estates, one can think that these cities were more or less significant.

Of the small towns, the following are mentioned in the charter, the location of which is determined only relatively;

Deshpyany,

Bylev,

Bortnitsy

/they/ lay somewhere near Veti in the Dnieper region. Miryatichi and Bobrovnitsy

/them/ should be looked for on the southern border, between Basya and Zarub. Adjacent to them are: Malting, Puttino, Benici and Dedici.

And finally Lodeynitsy lay somewhere in the Rzhevsky district or Toropetsky.

We have listed all the cities of the Rostislav charter. Let's supplement this enumeration of the cities of the Smolensk Principality with an indication of those cities that are mentioned in the annals. There are not many of them, so if it weren’t for Rostislav’s letters, there would be no way at all to even approximately determine the boundaries of the principality.

Vasiliev and Red.

Both cities are mentioned in the annals as specific cities allocated by Rostislav Mstislavich to Roman in 1165. The first of them is difficult to determine at present. Belyaev points to the village of Vasilevka on the borders of the Krasnensky district with Roslavsky, and Barsov points to the village of Vasilyevo in the Dorogobuzh district. Both definitions have no evidence behind them.

Krasny is now a county town of the Smolensk province.

Rsha - now Orsha, on the Dnieper, a county town of the Mogilev province. Until 1116, together with Kopys, she belonged to Polotsk, but Monomakh took her away. Vseslav of Polotsk was captured here in 1068.

Zara. - The chronicle mentions him under the year 1156 on the following occasion: Yuri Vladimirovich (Dolgoruky) went to Smolensk. Rostislav went out to meet Zara and then they made peace. Consequently, Zaroy was on the southern border of the principality. At the present time there is the village of Zara in the Klimovichi district, 10 versts from Klimovichi, near the /river/Iput.

In addition, another area is mentioned: Skovyshyn Bor, whose position is not defined; this area is considered to be part of the Smolensk Principality, although one can doubt this. Skovyshinsky boron got into the annals for the following reason: Rurik in 1180 sent his brother David Rostislavich from Vyshgorod to Smolensk to their brother Roman: “And you will die and the news on Skovyshina boron” - that Roman died. Thus, the chronicle does not at all indicate in whose territory David learned about the death of his brother.

We have listed all the cities of the Smolensk land. It remains to be said about the main city of the earth - Smolensk.

It was a beautifully built and decorated city located on both sides of the Dnieper. By the end of the 12th century, it shone with many rich and beautiful churches. The main part of the city and the fortress were located on the left side of the Dnieper, in a hilly area crossed by ditches. The prince's palace, according to legend, was located in the current Svir settlement.

Smolensk princes contributed to the decoration of the city with churches. So, Vladimir Monomakh built in 1161 the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin; in 1146, Rostislav Mstislavich built the Church of the Apostles Peter and Paul in the Zadneprovsky part of the city; church of st. John the Theologian was built by Roman Rostislavich in 1180, and the latter's brother David built a magnificent stone church in the name of the Archangel Michael, which in ancient times was considered one of the most beautiful and richest.

There were several monasteries in the city itself and in its environs: the Bogoroditsky Monastery was located 5 versts from the city, on a place called Selishche, then the Otroch Monastery, the monastery of sn. Cross and the monastery built by Bishop Ignatius in honor of the position of the Robe of the Virgin.

Not far from the city, the harbor of Smyadyn was known, at a distance from the city “as if ripe”, where Gleb Muromsky died. Near Smolensk was the village of Dresenskoye, from 1150 given by Rostislav to the bishop.

Smolensk was the main city of a vast region, the Grand Duchy of Smolensk; it is located in an extremely prominent position. Through it ran the path from the Lake region to the middle and lower Dnieper, from where to Greece, the path from the Volga region and the upper Dvina. This connection of three important trade routes indicates the commercial importance of Smolensk.

From the book Alternative to Moscow. Grand principalities of Smolensk, Ryazan, Tver author Shirokorad Alexander Borisovich

Chapter 8 The Destruction of the Principality of Smolensk In history, it often happened that the petty personal affairs of the rulers had a decisive influence on the fate of peoples. So, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, Prince Dmitry Donskoy sent his eldest son Vasily as a hostage to the Horde. Through

author

Chapter 3. Non-Slavic peoples of the IX - early XIII centuries. The Old Russian state, having included in its composition separate non-Slavic ethnic groups, nevertheless remained predominantly Slavic, and along with it there were various peoples, of a different ethnicity, who were

From the book History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century author Bokhanov Alexander Nikolaevich

Chapter 8. Culture of Russia X - early XIII century. § 1. How the culture of Russia was born The culture of the people is part of its history. Its formation, subsequent development is closely connected with the same historical factors that affect the formation and development of the country's economy.

From the book Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII-XIII centuries. author Rybakov Boris Alexandrovich

Chapter six. Russian principalities XII - early XIII century

From the book History of Belarus author

§ 3. HISTORY OF THE PRINCIPALITY OF SMOLENSK The other two principalities - Smolensk and Turov did not achieve such social development. Upon the death of Yaroslav, Smolensk was in the possession of his son Vsevolod, and then the grandson of Vladimir Vsevolodovich, but then it did not matter

From the book Foreign Policy Factors in the Development of Feudal Russia author Kargalov Vadim Viktorovich

From the book Russia and the Mongols. 13th century author Team of authors

Cities and Principalities What cities, principalities and lands existed at that time in Russia? Why and how did the picture of the structure of the Russian land change from year to year? the lot of the Rostov Principality. It stood out in 1238 under Prince Gleb Vasilkovich.

From the book Historical Geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. author Egorov Vadim Leonidovich

The territory and borders of the state in the XIII century. Throughout the thirteenth century the territory of the Golden Horde did not undergo any special changes in the direction of expansion or contraction, and the borders of the state during this period were quite stable. This by no means indicates that

author

From the book History of Spain IX-XIII centuries [deducted] author Korsunsky Alexander Rafailovich

From the book History of Spain IX-XIII centuries [deducted] author Korsunsky Alexander Rafailovich

From the book Borderlands in the system of Russian-Lithuanian relations at the end of the 15th - the first third of the 16th century. author Krom Mikhail Markovich

Chapter One The Cities of Lithuanian Russia in the Political System of the Grand Duchy Following the same order of presentation as in the first part, we will begin by studying the situation of Russian (East Slavic) cities in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and then move on to analyzing them.

From the book Grand Duchy of Lithuania author Levitsky Gennady Mikhailovich

The inclusion of the western lands of Russia (the territory of modern Belarus) into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (XIII - XIV centuries) 1. The appearance of Lithuanian princes in the Novgorod land However, as shown

From the book History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century author Sakharov Andrey Nikolaevich

Chapter 8 Culture of Russia X - early XIII in § 1. How the culture of Russia was born The culture of the people is part of its history. Its formation, subsequent development is closely connected with the same historical factors that affect the formation and development of the country's economy, its

author Dovnar-Zapolsky Mitrofan Viktorovich

Chapter 4. Territory and cities of the Principality of Polotsk To the west of the Smolensk Krivichi lived their relatives Polotsk Krivichi. They also early stood out as an independent destiny. The boundaries of this principality can be defined as follows. In the east, the Polotsk border was adjacent to

From the book Essay on the history of the Krivichi and Dregovichi lands until the end of the 12th century author Dovnar-Zapolsky Mitrofan Viktorovich

Chapter 5 It did not occupy the entire vast area occupied by the settlements of the Dregovichi. Only the northern border of their region with Polotsk remained basically unchanged, until

Smolensk principality

Addressing in turn to all the Russian princes, the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign very restrainedly and somewhat mysteriously expresses his appeal to the Smolensk princes, the two Rostislavich brothers:

You, buoy Rurich and Davyda!

Do I howl howling with gilded helmets for the blood of the swimmer?

Do not wow brave squad

Roar like Turi, wounded with red-hot sabers, unknown on the field?

Enter, sir, into the golden stirrup

For the offense of this time, for the Russian land,

For the wounds of Igor, the buoy of Svyatoslavlich!

Rurik at that time was, as we know, co-ruler and potential rival of the Kyiv prince. The singer kept silent about both, he simply put Rurik in one section with the Smolensk prince, the treacherous, selfish Davyd. Without going into all the subtleties of inter-princely enmity, either bursting with unbridled rage, as it was in 1180, or hidden, as in 1185, the author of the Lay reminds the Smolensk princes that both of them once suffered heavily from Polovtsian steel sabers.

In the summer of 1177, "during the mermaid week", that is, in June, the Polovtsy broke into Russia; Rurik and Davyd were sent against them, but "Davyd was not attracted and was squashed by brothers" - that's when their spears began to "sing loudly." The Polovtsians inflicted a terrible defeat on all Russian troops. Svyatoslav Vsevolodich demanded a trial of Davyd, the deprivation of his principality. These distant and not very pleasant events were reminded by the author of the "Lay" to Prince Davyd, and at the same time to Rurik, as if making him responsible for his brother.

The ten-year enmity between Svyatoslav and Davyd made the lines of the Lay, dedicated to the prince of Smolensk, too stingy and politely hostile. From them it is very difficult to find out what Smolensk was at that time.

The Smolensk principality - the ancient land of the Krivichi - occupied a middle position, was surrounded on all sides by Russian regions. Important main roads to Western Europe and Byzantium passed through Smolensk: the way up the Dnieper ended at Smolensk; further through the portage system, he could lead to the Western Dvina (to Polotsk and the Baltic), and to Lovat, and then to Novgorod.

The commercial importance of Smolensk is reflected in the treaty between Smolensk and Riga and Gotland in 1229.

The principality of Smolensk, separated from time to time as an appanage back in the 11th century, separated from Russia under Rostislav Mstislavich (1127-1159), the grandson of Monomakh and the father of Rurik and Davyd mentioned above.

Smolensk had a very convenient connection with Kyiv - a flotilla of any size could be launched down the Dnieper, and in just eight days it was already under the walls of the capital. The only obstacle on this path was Lyubech, which belonged to the Chernigov princes, but this was also removed. In 1147, Rostislav, taking advantage of the absence of the Chernigov troops, burned Lyubech and, as he himself wrote to his brother, "did a lot of evil to the Olgovichi." After that, only “houndsmen and Polovtsy” lived in Lyubech, and the Smolensk boats could sail to Kyiv without hindrance.

Perhaps this important strategic proximity to Kyiv (combined with the complete security of the Smolensk principality itself from the Polovtsy) was the reason that almost all Smolensk princes were on the throne of Kiev: Rostislav Mstislavich and his sons Roman and Rurik, grandson Mstislav Romanovich and son Mstislav - Roman.

From the time of Rostislav, a most interesting document has come down to us, introducing us in detail to the princely feudal economy. This is a letter from Rostislav Msti-Slavich to Bishop Manuel, given on the occasion of the establishment of a diocese in Smolensk around 1137. Here are listed articles of princely income from different cities of the Smolensk principality, a tenth of which (tithe) was transferred to the church. In 36 points collected various requisitions for 4,000 hryvnia; there were wirs, and sales, and polyudye, trade duties, myt (customs fees), guest fees, etc. The bishop received, in addition, land holdings with a feudally dependent population (outcasts, beekeepers, etc.) and income from church courts for specific types of crimes.

At that time, in all the crystallizing principalities, independent dioceses were established and the property rights of bishops were formalized. This happened at the initiative of the princes, who entrenched themselves in certain lands and wanted to strengthen their positions with the support of the church.

The growth of ecclesiastical wealth and estates in the 1130s drew sharp criticism. Kliment Smolyatich, a well-known writer of the mid-12th century, who became a metropolitan at the behest of the Kievan prince, wrote that he, Kliment, does not belong to those, "izhi attach house to house and villages to villages, outcasts and syabrs and boards and reap, people and antiquity." It is possible that Clement, answering the Smolensk priest, had in mind, first of all, the Bishop of Smolensk, his political enemy, Manuel. Clement himself was charged with the curious accusation that he, a Christian, was too carried away by such pagan "philosophers" as Homer, Aristotle, and Plato.

During the reign of Davyd Rostislavich (1180-1197), already known to us for his inglorious deeds in the south, there were conflicts between the prince and the townspeople of Smolensk. Even in his youth, Prince Davyd had many troubles with the Novgorodians, who more than once "showed the way" to him. In 1186, shortly after returning from Trepol, "stand up Smolensk between Prince Davyd and Smolnyany. And there were many heads of the best men." What were the contradictions between the prince and the boyars, the chronicle does not tell.

The principality of Smolensk was no exception - the struggle of the boyars with the princes was in a very sharp form in other lands.

By the beginning of the 13th century, an interesting event took place in Smolensk, partially opening the veil over the internal socio-ideological life of Russian medieval cities: abbots and priests staged a nationwide trial of a certain priest Abraham. Some wanted to sharpen him, others wanted to “nail him to the wall and light it,” and still others wanted to drown him. Abbots and priests, "like roaring oxen", wanted, "if it is powerful, devour him alive."

Why did Abraham so infuriate the Smolensk churchmen? It turns out that while in one of the outlying monasteries of Smolensk, Abraham read books to the population and "interpreted" them to everyone - "small and great, slaves and free and handicrafts." In Smolensk, they said everywhere that "he has already turned the whole city to himself." He was accused of reading "deep books", of which one is mentioned in his life. This is the so-called "Golden Chain", a collection of sayings and words sometimes directed against "bad shepherds" - priests and monks. In such collections, anti-clerical ideas appeared, close to the teachings of the Western European Waldensians, who were persecuted by the Catholic Church. In similar conditions in Russia, similar ideas arose.

The open preaching of such ideas dangerous for the church, the sermon addressed to slaves and handicrafts, aroused the hatred of the clergy. The prince saved Abraham from execution, but the church attached such importance to the heretic preacher that soldiers (obviously, lords, bishops) were placed along all the roads leading to Smolensk, blocking the path of Abraham's supporters; they acted so decisively that some of the people who went to Abraham were "plundered".

The Smolensk Principality, sheltered inside the Russian lands from all external enemies, for a long time, until the beginning of the 15th century, retained its independence. Batu, during the campaign of 1237-1238, was headed towards Smolensk, but then bypassed him. Obviously, a rich trading city, decorated with dozens of magnificent buildings and surrounded by strong walls, represented an insurmountable barrier to the army, exhausted by the resistance of Russian cities, and the bloodthirsty conqueror did not dare to appear under its walls.

From the book Tragedy of 1941. Causes of the disaster [anthology] author Morozov Andrey Sergeevich

DE Komarov THE UNKNOWN BATTLE OF SMOLENSK In modern historical science and society, there has recently been an increased interest in the history of the Great Patriotic War. There are many scientific and journalistic works that consider various episodes of that

From the book of the Generalissimo. Book 1. author Karpov Vladimir Vasilievich

The Battle of Smolensk The fighting of our troops on the border area was very unsuccessful, many formations fell into large and small encirclements. There were not enough forces to create a single front line. On June 28, on the sixth day of the war, Hitler's pincers

From the book Alternative to Moscow. Grand principalities of Smolensk, Ryazan, Tver author

Section I Grand Duchy of Smolensk

From the book Rus and Lithuania author Shirokorad Alexander Borisovich

Chapter 9 Smolensk Principality The city of Smolensk was first mentioned in the annals under 862 as an already existing city. In 1125, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the Smolensk throne was occupied by his grandson Rostislav Mstislavich, during which the principality finally separated from Kievan Rus.

From the book The Birth of Russia author

Principality of Smolensk Addressing in turn to all the Russian princes, the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign very restrainedly and somewhat mysteriously expresses his appeal to the Smolensk princes, the two Rostislavich brothers: You, buoy Rurich and Davyda! Don't I howl with gilded helmets for blood

From the book Marshal Zhukov, his associates and opponents during the years of war and peace. Book I author Karpov Vladimir Vasilievich

The Battle of Smolensk On June 28, on the sixth day of the war, the pincers of the Nazi mechanized units converged in the Minsk region, and the capital of Belarus was taken. To the west of Minsk, a large grouping of Soviet troops remained surrounded. South of the Belarusian battlefields group

From the book Fatal Decisions of the Wehrmacht author Westphal Siegfried

Battle of Smolensk After the 2nd Panzer Group crossed the Dnieper, and the 3rd - the Western Dvina, Russian resistance increased. The Soviet command transferred strong reinforcements from the east and tried to recapture the "Stalin Line". I will not describe in detail

author Glezerov Sergey Evgenievich

From the book Historical districts of St. Petersburg from A to Z author Glezerov Sergey Evgenievich

From the book Lost Victories of the Red Army author Ivanovsky Artem L

Chapter 6 Smolensk offensive battle

From the book From the Grand Duchess to the Empress. Women of the royal house author Moleva Nina Mikhailovna

The Smolensk Affair In October 1733, Empress Anna Ioannovna received a report from Hamburg that the nobles of the Smolensk province had decided to put an end to her power. It was meant to invite the husband of the deceased princess Anna Petrovna, the Duke of Holstein, to rule the country,

From the book 1812 - the tragedy of Belarus author Taras Anatoly Efimovich

The battle of Smolensk Napoleon understood that now the Russians would inevitably unite in the Smolensk region, and hoped that under the circumstances they would not be able to evade a major battle (“decisive” - as he thought). Indeed, on July 22 (August 3), the 1st and 2nd armies joined

From the book Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII-XIII centuries. author Rybakov Boris Alexandrovich

The Principality of Smolensk Addressing in turn to all the Russian princes, the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign very restrainedly and somewhat mysteriously expresses his appeal to the Smolensk princes, the two Rostislavich brothers: You, buoy Rurich and Davyda! Don't I howl with gilded helmets for blood

From the book A Brief Course on the History of Belarus in the 9th-21st centuries author Taras Anatoly Efimovich

5. Principality of Smolensk On the territory of the present Smolensk region for a long time lived the tribes of Krivichi (Dnieper-Dvinsk Balts). In the 8th century, the Varangians also appeared here. In the 9th century, the first settlements of the Smolensk Krivichi appeared - Gnezdovo on the Dnieper (many

author

Smolensk embassy For a trip to the king near Smolensk in early September, a representative embassy was formed. At the direction of the patriarch, Metropolitan Philaret of Rostov was appointed its head. He was instructed to uphold the main condition - the mandatory

From the book History of Russia. Time of Troubles author Morozova Lyudmila Evgenievna

Smolensk embassy For a trip to the king near Smolensk in early September, a representative embassy was formed. At the direction of the patriarch, Metropolitan Philaret of Rostov was appointed its head. He was instructed to uphold the main condition - the obligatory

The eastern part of the Smolensk land reached Mozhaisk and, judging by the testimony of contemporaries, in the XV-XVI centuries. was densely forested (and there are almost no mounds here either). The way from Smolensk to Moscow was all through the forest. 130 miles between Vyazma and Mozhaisk, according to A. Meyerberg (1661), a continuous forest stretched, “the desert of which is protected by one village of Tsarevo-Zaimishche”. “The path from Smolensk to Moscow,” Adolf Lisek (1675) echoes him, “is as dangerous from bears as it is boring because of continuous forests. The only road between these cities runs along a strip of cut down forest about 30 feet wide with a log flooring across the swamps.

Dense forests were also in the southeastern limits of Smolensk land. In 1370, chasing away Olgerd, “gnashe mozhaichi and beaten Smolny in the forest on Bologna, and full of otyash”. The village of Belonovtsy on the river. Desnoga, 16.5 versts from Yelnya, indicates to us that this forest began somewhere to the southeast of this city. Most likely, in the upper reaches of the Bolva, where there are few kurgan groups, there was the Bleve point.

There are many forests even now in the southern Smolensk region. In Roslavl as early as the beginning of the 20th century. they occupied 40.5%, and in ancient times there were much more of them. The forest crossed at the headwaters of the river. Bolva in the so-called Bryn forest, which stretched from Kaluga to Bryansk, according to the Book of the Big Drawing. In addition to the border forests of Smolensk, which went deep into the Earth, there were forests that did not go to the borders. Smolensk, according to S. Herberstein, "is surrounded by extensive forests, from which various furs are extracted." A. Lizek also writes about the dense forests between the border of Lithuania and Smolensk: having traveled 8 miles from the border of Lithuania, he had to spend the night among the dense forest, kindling fires from bears. Near Smolensk, his embassy was waiting for an invitation to the city, also in a large forest. Having fallen into a great flood, S. Herberstein was forced to transfer to a boat, controlled by a monk, and sail from Smolensk to Vyazma among the forests, etc.

It is important for us that the spaces that were deserted, according to the reviews of travelers of the 16th-17th centuries, do not have burial mounds. This means that the picture of the population for the pre-Mongolian time according to the mounds is quite objective.

Clusters of settlements in ancient Smolensk region. Let us turn to the study of the territories taken away by man from the forest. In Smolensk land, there are three largest concentrations of settlements of ancient Slavs: in the area between the Sozh - Dnieper - Kaspli rivers, in the upper reaches of the Western Dvina (near the Toropetsky and Zhizhetsky lakes), in the interfluve of the Dnieper - Desna.

About the population of the Western Dvina - Toropy V.V. Sedov noted that these were areas in which earlier (7th-9th centuries) the population buried in long mounds, which gave him the right to speak about the genetic continuity of these places of the population of the 10th-12th centuries. from an earlier one. The abundance of burial mounds in Toropetsky district. already noted by M.I. Semevsky, a large number of them on the river. Veles (former Moninsky parish) was also indicated in the literature. The works of Ya.V. Stankevich found out that the Toropetsk cluster of settlements arose at the beginning of the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e. At the same time, clusters of people began to appear near the lake. Zhizhetskoye, to the northeast between the lake. Luchansky and Okhvat, the history of the population of these areas is undoubtedly close to the Toropetsk population. A different picture awaits us to the south: between the Velizh course of the Western Dvina and the Dnieper; here on the river Gobze density is very low; judging by the burial mounds, the ancient villages stretched in narrow strips across the watershed. The western one went through the Kasplya, the middle one - from Smolensk to the north to Verzhavsk, the eastern one - from the mouth of the Vopi also to Verzhavsk (Fig. 2). The volost Verzhavlians the Great, which we read about in the Charter of Rostislav in 1136 as the most solvent, consisting of 9 graveyards, should be seen in small clusters of settlements scattered along the rivers around Verzhavsk; a comparatively larger cluster near the left bank of the Western Dvina was obviously considered to be two churchyards, and the most remote Verzhavsky churchyard to the northeast of Verzhavsk should be seen in the village of Devyataya, where there are both mounds and a settlement of the pre-Mongolian time (Fig. 4) . In the northern part of the Smolensk land there were still clusters of settlements, however, of a smaller size: on the river. Pyryshne at the very edge of the Okovsky forest, where at the village. Okovets has burial mounds and a settlement of the 9th-10th centuries, as well as on the upper Mezha with tributaries.

The central cluster of settlements in the area of ​​Sozha - the Dnieper and Kaspli most of all spread to the left bank of the Dnieper (Fig. 4). E.A. Schmidt divided this population into three chronological groups: at the first stage (VII-VIII centuries) there was little population here, forests abounded, one might think. In the second (IX-X centuries) to the west of modern Smolensk (which did not yet exist) on both sides of the Dnieper, a colossal Krivichi tribal center grew up, which, as I tried to show, was ancient Smolensk, as they rightly suggest to consider, similar to the Scandinavian wikis - Birke and others. At the third stage (XI-XIII centuries), this city died out, since feudal Smolensk was transferred to a modern place. However, the territory of this cluster on the left bank was intensively populated. Residents cut into the forests, expanding crops. Archaeological monuments of this time, showed E.A. Schmidt, are diverse - they reflected villages, churchyards, feudal estates, etc. The remains of the settlements of the same cluster in its eastern part were studied by V.V. Sedov and were also divided into three groups according to time, however, the late stage also captures the developed Middle Ages. Close to the central group of the cluster of settlements is their cluster in the region of that part of the upper Dnieper, where the path to the portage to the Ugra with the toponyms Volochek (Dnieper side) and Luchin-Gorodok (Ugra bank) departed. The spontaneous enrichment of the population of the portage of the 11th-12th centuries, which traded in transportation along the watershed, was soon (mid-second half of the 12th century) stopped by the feudal center of Dorogobuzh, which, apparently, moved into the zone of the princely domain. To the north of the Dorogobuzh population cluster, we will mention the clusters of ancient inhabitants of the 10th-11th centuries. and later on the river Vyazma, the upper reaches of which were close to the upper reaches of the Vazuza, and other tributaries of the Ugra (Fig. 2; 4). These accumulations also led to the formation at the beginning of the XIII century. the feudal center of Vyazma (first mentioned in 1239).

Rice. 5. Coin treasures and individual finds of coins in the Smolensk region. 1. Hoards. 2. Single finds of coins. 3. Clusters of settlements (according to mounds). 4. Borders of the Smolensk land. 5. Voloki, according to toponyms. 1 - "Gnezdovsky Smolensk", 2 - Ilovka, 3 - Sour, 4 - Slobodka (Przhevalsk), 5 - Saki, 6 - Glazunovo, 7 - Toropets, > 8 - Kurovo, 9 - Paltsevo, 10 - Zhabachev, 11 - Gulce , 12 - Gorki, 13 - Semenov-Gorodok, 14 - Rzhev, 15 - Dunaevo, 16 - Panovo, 17 - Kharlapovo, 18 - Dorogobuzh, 19 - Yartsevo, 20 - Zhigulino, 21 - Mutyshkino, 21 - Borshchevshchina, 23 - Sobolevo , 24 - Zastenok, 25 - Starosele, 26 - Stary Dedin, 27 - Gorki, 28 - Popovka, 29 - Peschanka, 30 - Zimnitsa

We see scattered Smolensk villages (sparse clusters) both to the east and again in the areas of convergence of the right tributaries of the Vazuza and the left Ugra, among them the village of Panovo stands out, where during excavations foreign things, dirhems, etc. were discovered (see section "Trade "), as well as r. Iskona, even to the east, near the border of the Vyatichi and Krivichi, is the volost known from the Charter of Rostislav in 1136 - Iskona, which paid tribute directly to Smolensk and, therefore, is quite independent.

The third large cluster of settlements is located in the southern Smolensk region, inhabited by the Radimichi. A few mounds with cremation (IX-X centuries) show that then only small settlements were scattered here, with several houses each. Obviously, the bulk of the inhabitants of these places, judging by the mounds with inhumation, arose in the 11th-12th centuries. But this process was internal, because there are no foreign materials testifying to migration in the barrows. The Radimichi were intensively populated: the upper reaches of the Stometi, Ostra, middle Sozh, and the upper Besedi. At the southern border of the Smolensk lands, there are fewer burial mounds; forests abounded here, separating the northern Radimichi from the rest, which were the border between the principalities. How to explain the existence of such a border within a large tribe of Radimichi? Based on the funeral rite, G.F. Solovieva outlined 8 small tribes of Radimichi. In the zone of the Smolensk Radimichi, she managed to isolate only one such tribe (the eighth group). The remaining Radimic territory, where signs of small tribes could not be caught, is twice as large as the neighboring small tribes in terms of area and number of monuments. It is possible that two small tribes of Radimichi lived here, separated along with the third (the eighth group of Solovyova) from the rest by forests, which Rostislav Smolensky took advantage of, adding them to his land (1127?, see below). If the assumption about these two small tribes is confirmed and the Radimichi had, therefore, 10 such tribes, then this will confirm the interesting hypothesis about the decimal division of the ancient Russian large tribes put forward by B.A. Rybakov.