Variability and dynamic nature of the norm. Features of the language norm

Topic number 3. The concept of a language norm. The main types of norms.

Causes of mass speech errors

The causes of negative phenomena in speech practice include:

· people's trust in the printed word (the habit of considering everything printed and said on television as an example of the norm);

· reduction of editorial exactingness to journalists regarding observance of language norms;

Decrease in the quality of proofreading work;

· the gap between the complicated requirements of the new school curriculum in the Russian language and the real possibilities of today's Russian school;

Decreased interest of schoolchildren in classical literature;

· problems in replenishment of the library fund;

· the transformation of the "Rules of Spelling and Punctuation" of 1956 into a bibliographic rarity and the absence of their new edition;

disrespect for the humanities;

disrespect for addressees of speech;

disregard for one's native language.

In this regard, in the modern school, in the lessons of the humanitarian cycle, it is necessary to pay great attention to the problems of the modern language, not to ignore the existing linguistic facts, but to interpret them and form the attitude of schoolchildren to the development of their native language.

Topic number 3. The concept of a language norm. The main types of norms.

1. What is the norm of the language and what are its features?

Language norm (literary norm)- these are the rules for the use of language means, a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of elements of the literary language in a certain period of its development.

Features of the language norm:

Stability and stability, ensuring the balance of the language system for a long time;

General prevalence and obligatory observance of normative rules;

Cultural and aesthetic perception (assessment) of the language and its facts; in the norm, all the best that has been created in the speech behavior of mankind is fixed;

Dynamic character (variability), due to the development of the entire language system, which is realized in live speech;

The possibility of linguistic "pluralism" (the coexistence of several options that are recognized as normative).

Codification is a linguistically reliable description of the fixation of the norms of the literary language in specially designed sources (grammar books, dictionaries, reference books, manuals).

2. What is the inconsistency of the norm?

The linguistic norm is a complex and rather contradictory phenomenon: it dialectically combines a number of opposite features.

1. Relative sustainability and stability language norms are necessary conditions for ensuring the balance of the language system for a long time. At the same time, the norm is a historical phenomenon, which is explained by the social nature of the language, which is constantly developing along with the creator and native speaker - society itself.

The historical nature of the norm is due to its dynamism, change. What was the norm in the last century and even 10-15 years ago, today may become a deviation from it. If you turn to dictionaries and literary sources 100 years old, you can see how the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words, their (words) meaning and use have changed. For example, in the 19th century they said: closet (instead of a wardrobe), zhyra (instead of heat), strict (instead of strict), quiet (instead of quiet), Alexandrinsky Theater (instead of Alexandrinsky), vernivshis (instead of returning); at the ball, weather, trains, this beautiful paleto(t) (coat); certainly (instead of mandatory), necessary (instead of necessary), etc.

2. On the one hand, the norm is characterized ubiquity and ubiquity compliance with certain rules, without which it would be impossible to "manage" the elements of speech. On the other hand, one can also talk about "linguistic pluralism"- the existence of several options (doublets) at the same time, which are recognized as normative. This is a consequence of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and variability, subjective (the author of the speech) and objective (language).

3. Basic sources of language norms- these are, first of all, works of classical literature, exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, generally accepted, widespread modern usage, as well as scientific research. However, recognizing the importance of literary tradition and the authority of sources, should also be kept in mind author's individuality capable of violating norms, which, of course, is justified in certain situations of communication.
The change in language norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants (doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of the norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the Orthoepic Dictionary, the Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language, the Dictionary of Word Combination, etc.
At present, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science, and technology. It should be remembered that the language norm is not a dogma: depending on the conditions, goals and objectives of communication, on the characteristics of a particular style, a deviation from the norm is possible. However, these deviations should reflect the variants of the norms that exist in the literary language.

3. What are the trends in the development of language norms?

In the development of language norms, certain trends are observed:

1) the trend towards savings. This tendency manifests itself at all levels of the language (from nomination to syntax) and is expressed in the contraction of words and elements, for example scientific (scientific library), you brought me (out of balance); loss of suffixes, endings: rails - rail, grams - grams, wet - wet.

2) a tendency towards unification - trimming private grammatical knowledge under a general form: director, professor

3) the expansion of colloquiality into book speech and the neutralization of colloquial elements in literary speech.

4. What are the differences in the degree of normativity?

According to the degree of normativity, it is customary to distinguish the following types of norms:

1. Strict(mandatory) norm (norm of the 1st degree) - in this type of norm there is only one correct option. Ex: document.

2. Neutral norm (norm of the 2nd degree) - there are two equal options. Pr: cottage cheese - cottage cheese.

3. Movable norm (norm of the 3rd degree) - has two options, these options are not equal: the 1st option is the main one, the 2nd option is not literary.

The norm of 1 degree is called imperative, norms of 2 and 3 degrees - dispositive norms.

5.What types of norms can be distinguished in accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools?

In accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools, the following are distinguished types of norms.

1. Orthoepic norms(gr. correct speech) - the norms of stress and pronunciation. Spelling errors interfere with the perception of the speaker's speech. The social role of correct pronunciation is very great, since knowledge of orthoepic norms greatly facilitates the process of communication.

In order not to make mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, such as the Dictionary of Russian Stress, Orthoepic Dictionary, Dictionary of Oral Speech Difficulties, etc.

Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive marks: “ no rivers."(Not recommended), "not right."(not right), "rude."(rough), "bran."(swear words), etc.

2. lexical rules, or norms of word usage are: a) the use of the word in the meanings that it has in the modern language; b) knowledge of its lexical and grammatical compatibility; c) the correct choice of a word from a synonymic series; d) the appropriateness of its use in a particular speech situation.

3. Morphological norms regulate the formation and use of grammatical forms of the word. Note that morphological norms primarily include: norms for determining the grammatical gender of some nouns, norms for the formation of the plural of nouns, norms for the formation and use of case forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms for the formation of comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs; norms for the formation and use of verb forms, etc.

4. Syntactic norms associated with the rules for the construction and use of phrases and various sentence models. When building a phrase, it is necessary first of all to remember about management; when building a sentence, one should take into account the role of word order, follow the rules for using adverbial phrases, the laws of constructing a complex sentence, etc.

Morphological and syntactic norms are often combined under the general name - grammar rules.

5. Spelling norms (spelling norms) and punctuation norms do not allow distortion of the visual image of a word, sentence or text. To write correctly, you need to know the generally accepted rules of spelling (writing a word or its grammatical form) and punctuation (punctuation marks).

6. Where is the language norm fixed? Give examples.

The language norm is fixed in normative dictionaries and grammars. A significant role in the dissemination and preservation of norms belongs to fiction, theater, school education and the media.

Some names and denominations (for example, names of geographical objects) may exist in the language in various forms (variants), however, usually only one of them is normalized form, that is, in a form that is mandatory for use in scientific, reference and educational publications, as well as in periodicals. For example: St. Petersburg (Peter).

Lecture questions

language norm. Types of language norms.

Variation of language norms.

The concept of culture of speech.

1. Language norm. Types of language norms.

As already mentioned (see Lecture 1), the literary language is called processed a form of a vernacular language that, to a greater or lesser extent, has in writing fixed norms and serving various areas the life of society. A natural question arises, what is meant by the "norm" of the Russian literary language?

The term "norm" in relation to the language has become firmly established in everyday life and has become the central concept of the culture of speech. In modern linguistics, the term "norm" is understood in two meanings: firstly, the standard is the generally accepted use of various language means, regularly repeated in the speech of speakers (reproduced by speakers), and secondly, prescriptions, rules, instructions for use, recorded in textbooks, dictionaries , reference books. In studies on the culture of speech, stylistics, and the modern Russian language, several definitions of the norm can be found. For example, S.I. Ozhegov says: “A norm is a set of the most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) language means for serving society, emerging as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic) from among coexisting existing, formed again or extracted from the passive stock of the past in the process of social, in a broad sense, evaluation of these elements. In the encyclopedia "Russian Language": "Norm (linguistic), literary norm - the rules of pronunciation adopted in the social and speech practice of educated people, grammatical and other language means, rules of word usage."

The definition has become widespread: “... the norm is the language units that currently exist in a given language community and are mandatory for all members of the community and the patterns of their use, and these mandatory units can either be the only possible ones, or act as coexisting within literary language of variants.

In order to recognize this or that phenomenon as normative, the following are necessary (at least!) conditions: 1) the regular use (reproducibility) of this mode of expression, 2) the correspondence of this mode of expression to the possibilities of the literary language system (taking into account its historical restructuring), 3) public approval of the regularly reproduced mode of expression (and the role of the judge in this case falls to the lot of writers, scientists , the educated part of society).

The norm is needed in order to:

people understood each other correctly (social and communicative functions);

to distinguish an educated person from an uneducated one (social and cultural functions);

the educated part of people with the most developed linguistic taste influenced his upbringing and development of the rest (social and aesthetic function);

preserve linguistic traditions (social and cultural functions).

As with any violation of the established rules, there is a punishment for breaking the rules. This punishment is communicative interference (misunderstanding, switching attention from the content to the design of speech). “Punishment” can be the very perception of a person by others as uncultured, uneducated.

The literary language connects generations of people, and therefore its norms, which ensure the continuity of cultural and speech traditions, should be as stable and stable as possible. The norm, although it reflects the progressive development of the language, should not be mechanically derived from linguistic evolution. L.I. Skvortsov introduced the concept dynamic norm, including in it a sign of the potential possibilities of the language implementation. He points out that there are two approaches to the concept of norm: taxonomic (classification, descriptive) and dynamic. The linguistic norm, understood in its dynamic aspect, is "a socio-historically conditioned result of speech activity that consolidates the traditional implementations of the system or creates new linguistic facts in terms of their connection both with the potential capabilities of the language system, on the one hand, and with the realized samples - with another".

The dynamic theory of the norm, based on the requirement of relative stability, combines both the consideration of productive and independent speaking tendencies in the development of the language, and a careful attitude to those speech skills that were inherited from previous generations. Recently, linguists have established that the chronological "step", during which significant shifts in the development of the language accumulate, ranges from 10-20 to 30-40 or more years. Three types of evolution have been identified: 1) highly dynamic or accelerated type (10-20 years); 2) moderate (or, more precisely, moderately dynamic) type, which is characterized by smoother shifts in time (30-40 years); 3) low-dynamic, or slow, type of evolution, which is characterized by a slight change in the state of the norm (50 years or more).

Understanding the dynamic nature of the norm includes both statics (a system of language units) and dynamics (language functioning). At the same time, the functional aspect of the norm is especially interesting, since it is associated with such a phenomenon as variance: "The norm cannot be set by a finite set of facts, but inevitably appears in the form of two lists - mandatory and permissible (additional). This is the source of normative variance, i.e. e. options within the normal range".

So, what is the dynamic nature of the norm?

According to scientists, only one generally accepted norm (of behavior, speech) cannot exist in society. It is customary to talk not about one norm, but about a system norms(otherwise - about dynamic nature norms), which vary depending on the speech situation. What is the norm in interpersonal communication, for example, may be different in mass communication. The nature of communication, in addition to the number of participants, is influenced by the following speech factors: readiness - unpreparedness of speech, the direct nature of communication - mediation, written - oral form, monologue - dialogical type of communication, gender and age of the speaker and his audience, etc. In addition, in any society there are many subcultures with their own symbols, norms, language, style and manner of communication. Due to this multiplicity, such a situation may arise that the meaning laid down by the speaker will not be extracted by the listener, and vice versa: the listener will “hear” more than the speaker “said”. This is how communication failures like the one described below are born. At a book exhibition at a prestigious Moscow university, a young man wanted to prove himself to his charming companion from the best side and condescendingly remarked to the stand attendant, pointing to one of the books: “What illiterate authors have gone! Here you have a book called: "Do not speak in a rough language." Is it possible to say that in Russian?!” The intention of the authors, who assumed that the public would get acquainted with the quote from V.V. Mayakovsky, turned out to be unrealized, as well as the impression made on the girl - she knew the source of the quote. You can give examples of communication failures of this kind yourself.

The norms of which social group should be considered the most correct? The answer to this question is just as impossible as the obviously endless debate about who is better - left-handed or right-handed, who is more needed - men or women. In any case, in modern Russia, belonging to the political or economic elite does not guarantee exemplary speech - unlike England, for example. Everyone remembers the notorious “start” and “deepen” or “in the evening you fall asleep with one , and in the morning you wake up with another one” in the speech of Russian political leaders. Although philologists speak of the existence of an elitist speech culture, the criteria for classifying a speaker as a speech elite for non-philologists are still not objective enough, and they can be challenged.

It is known from systems theory that any system must have diversity, only then it develops. Uniformity leads to degeneration. As already cited above Yu.M. Lotman, all the so-called superfluous in the language is only a huge spread of its variative reserves. A working system always has many options, and the language space that connects us is an open space. It can grow, or it can shrink to a single norm or standard. When people say “too correctly”, “they speak as they write”, this gives the impression of not being fluent in speech, of the text being memorized. According to the scientist, the native language implies a reserve of possible irregularities, variants, because it is alive, it changes and develops. The appeal to this reserve includes in action such a complex, painful process as love. The great Pushkin wrote: "I don't like Russian speech without a grammatical error." But without love for the word, for the language you speak, a speech with a “grammatical error” will remain just an illiterate speech of an uncultured person.

Fully sharing this approach, we repeat that, in addition to love, in improving the quality of speech, an important role is played by monitoring the operation of the laws of communication, including communication in a certain language, developing the ability to build your own texts based on these laws, taking into account the speech situation. Love for diversity and a certain cultural tolerance do not eliminate the concept of a general literary norm, because the literary language has been performing an integrative, unifying function in society for many centuries. Therefore, the preservation and maintenance of the general literary norm ultimately provides society as a whole with mutual understanding and success in communication, including public communication. Another thing is that the types of texts underlying the general literary norm change over time. As the remarkable Russian philologist M.M. Bakhtin, depending on the role of certain spheres of activity in different eras, the boundaries of the literary language and the set of speech genres serving these spheres change. So, if in Ancient Russia church texts were considered standard, then in the Pushkin era, the norm was developed on the basis of fiction. In the 60s. XX century the role of popular scientific literature has increased. And in recent decades, the language of the media has begun to play an increasingly important role: newspapers, radio, television, the Internet; the importance of oral speech also increases.

To expand your knowledge of the language norm, the correct choice and use of language means, in addition to observation, you can use various reference materials: dictionaries, grammars, popular science publications, radio and television programs. Help today can also be found on the Internet, for example, the portal www.gramota.ru has existed for many years with the support of the Federal Agency for Press and Mass Communications. Help service, numerous electronic dictionaries, links to useful sites are collected here by specialists for the convenience of all

2. Variability of language norms. The concept of speech error.

In the linguistic literature of recent years, two types of norms are distinguished: imperative and dispositive.

imperative(i.e. strictly obligatory) are such norms, the violation of which is regarded as a poor command of the Russian language (for example, a violation of the norms of declension, conjugation or belonging to the grammatical gender). These norms do not allow options (non-variables), any other implementations of them are considered incorrect: met with Vanya(not with Van), call(not call), quarter(not block), my callus(not my corn), wash your hair with shampoo(not shampoo).

dispositive(complementary, not strictly mandatory) norms allow stylistically different or neutral options: otherwise - otherwise, stack - stack, croutons - croutons(colloquial), thinking - thinking(obsolete) swirl - swirl(permissible), brown-brown, a piece of cheese - a piece of cheese, a record book - a record book, three students went - three students went. The assessments of options in this case do not have a categorical (prohibitive) character, they are more "soft": "so to speak, better or worse, more appropriate, stylistically more justified" and so on. For example, in the oral speech of actors, the phrase I work in theater became widespread (like the adverb exciting: All this is very exciting). In writing, it is more appropriate to use the phrase I work in the theatre. Sailors say compass, report, while the general literary norm compass, report.

In accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools, the following are distinguished norm types:

orthoepic (pronunciation), related to the sound side of literary speech, its pronunciation;

morphological, related to the rules of formation of grammatical forms of the word;

syntactic, related to the rules for the use of phrases and syntactic constructions;

lexical, associated with the rules of word usage, selection and use of the most appropriate lexical units.

There are three degrees of the "norm - variant" ratio:

a) the norm is obligatory, and the variant (primarily colloquial) is prohibited;

b) the norm is mandatory, and the option is acceptable, although undesirable;

c) the norm and the variant are equal.

In the latter case, further displacement of the old norm and even the birth of a new one is possible.

The language norm has the following features:

sustainability and stability ensuring the balance of the language system for a long time;

ubiquity and ubiquity compliance with normative rules (regulation) as complementary moments of "management" of the elements of speech;

cultural and aesthetic perception(assessment) of language and its facts; in the norm, all the best that has been created in the speech behavior of mankind is fixed;

dynamic nature(variability), due to the development of the entire language system, which is realized in live speech;

the possibility of linguistic "pluralism"(coexistence of several options that are recognized as normative) as a result of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and mobility, subjective (author) and objective (language), literary and non-literary (vernacular, dialects).

It should be remembered that along with the options allowed by the dispositive norms of the literary language, there are many deviations from the norms, i.e. speech errors. Such deviations from linguistic norms can be explained by several reasons: poor knowledge of the norms themselves ( We want to read; With twenty-two guys we went to the cinema; put on your coat) inconsistencies and contradictions in the internal system of the language (for example, the reason for the prevalence of incorrect stresses such as called, tore, obviously, is the literary stress on the root in the forms called, called, called; tore, tore, tore. Abnormal form lecturer exists, probably because the language system has normative forms doctors, camps etc.); the influence of external factors - territorial or social dialects, a different language system in the context of bilingualism.

A few years ago, all deviations from the norm of the literary language (except for spelling and punctuation) were considered "stylistic errors", without any further differentiation. This practice has been deemed wrong. Errors must be differentiated depending on the speech level at which they are made. Although there is no single optimal classification of speech errors, most researchers distinguish speech errors at the phonetic, lexical and grammatical levels (with their further differentiation, for example, "mistake in the pronunciation of consonants", "mixing of paronyms", "contamination", "errors in declension numerals", etc.) 1 . Actually, "stylistic" are considered such errors that are associated with a violation of the requirement of the unity of style (uniformity), i.e. stylistic errors are considered as a kind of speech errors: Tourists lived in tents, cooked on a fire; Nastya lost her temper, and the Actor hanged himself; At the beginning of the novel, we see Pavel as an ordinary working guy who is fond of partying; The responsibility for the younger brother was assigned to me.

3. The concept of culture of speech.

Variants (or doublets) are varieties of the same language unit that have the same meaning, but differ in form. Some variants are not differentiated either semantically or stylistically: otherwise-otherwise; stack - stack; workshops - workshops; sazhen - sazhen. However, the vast majority of variants undergo stylistic differentiation: called, called, accountants-accountant, determine-condition, wave-waving(the second options, compared to the first, have a colloquial or colloquial connotation).

How and why do options arise? What phenomena can be considered variant, and what are not? What is the fate of variant modes of expression? These and other questions are constantly in the field of view of scientists.

We know that language is constantly changing. It is obvious. Let's compare a text written about 150 years ago with a modern one to see the changes that have taken place in the language during this time:

But as soon as dusk fell on the ground, The ax rattled on the elastic roots, And pets of centuries fell without life! Their clothes were torn off by small children, Their bodies were then chopped up, And they slowly burned them until morning with fire. (Yu.M.Lermontov)

Zeus, throwing thunders, And all the immortals around the father, Their bright feasts and houses We will see in the songs we are blind.(N. Gnedich)

In the above contexts, phenomena are presented that diverge from modern norms on certain grounds: phonetic, lexical, morphological, etc. Permanent, continuous language changes that occur in short periods of time are hardly noticeable. The stage of variation and the gradual replacement of competing modes of expression provide a less perceptible and less painful shift in the norm, contributing in no small measure to the well-known paradox: language changes while remaining itself.

L.V. Shcherba once wrote: "... in normative grammar, the language is often presented in a petrified form. This corresponds to the naive philistine idea: the language has changed before us and will change in the future, but now it is unchanged" . The functioning of the language involves language changes, the replacement of one norm by another. V.A. Itskovich presents the process of changing norms as follows. The new enters the language contrary to the existing rules. It usually appears outside of literary use - in common speech, in professional speech, in colloquial everyday speech, etc. Then it is gradually fixed in the literary language. Schematically, this can be represented as follows.

At first, the phenomenon of X 1 is the norm, the phenomenon of X 2 is outside the CLA (used in colloquial speech, in common speech, in professional speech). At the second stage, there is a gradual convergence of these two phenomena, and is already beginning to be used in KLA, in its oral variety. The third stage is characterized by the fact that two phenomena are used on an equal footing, coexisting as variants of the norm. Then, at the fourth stage, there is a "shift" of the norm: the X 2 variant gradually replaces the X 1 variant, the latter is used only in the written speech of the KLA. And at the final stage, we observe a change in norms: the phenomenon of X 2 is the only form of KLA, and X 1 is already outside the norm. According to this scheme, there was, for example, a change in the endings of the nominative plural in the words lecturer - lecturers, factors - factors, overseers - overseers, compasses - compasses, corporals - corporals and others. In the 70s of the XIX century. normative were forms with the ending -and I), then gradually they were replaced by forms with the ending -s(-s). It is interesting that for these and similar nouns the norm changed twice: the original ending -s(s) changed to -and I), and then again supplanted this, then new, norm. This diagram shows the most common process of changing norms. But this is not always the case.

Several more trends stand out in the development of variance (see the works of L.K. Graudina, V.A. Itskovich and other researchers).

The first is a tendency towards stylistic delimitation of variants (differentiation in terms of stylistic coloring, marking). Such a stylistic stratification occurred, for example, in the 70-80s. 19th century with most non-vowel and full vowel variants (cooling-cooling, gilding - gilding, middle - middle and etc.). Even at the beginning of the XIX century. they (and others like them) were considered stylistically neutral. Later, these pairs sharply diverged, separated: non-vowel variants began to be used in poetic speech and acquired the features of an elevated poetic vocabulary. We also see an increase in contrast in stylistic coloring in pronunciation options for back-lingual consonants. In the XVIII-beginning of the XIX century. the "solid" pronunciation of consonants was considered the norm, often this was reflected in spelling. At K.N. Batyushkov, for example, we observe the following rhyme:

In this hut, a wretched hut Stands in front of the window A dilapidated and three-legged table With torn cloth.

But you, oh my wretched cripple and blind man, Walking along the path... Throw on my wide cloak, arm yourself with a sword And in the deep midnight suddenly knock...("My Penates")

Somewhat later, P.A. Vyazemsky already used other forms for back-lingual consonants, which are widely used today:

The north is pale, the north is flat, The steppe, native clouds - Everything merged into an echo Where melancholy was heard ...

...Now, where are those triplets? Where is their smart escape? Where are you, brisk bell, you, poetry of carts?

("In memory of the painter Orlovsky")

Nowadays, the "hard" pronunciation of back-lingual consonants is observed only in stage speech (and even then inconsistently, more often among the actors of the Moscow Art Theater of the older generation): there is a steady tendency for spelling and pronunciation to converge. Thus, in the second half of the XX century. the ratio of forms with "hard" and "soft" pronunciation of back-lingual consonants is different compared to what it was in the 18th - early 19th centuries.

Along with such a stylistic differentiation of linguistic means, there is also an opposite trend - the neutralization of bookish and colloquial coloring. For example, back in the 19th century. units of measurement of physical quantities in the genitive plural had the usual ending -s (amps, volts, watts). Then (obviously, under the influence of the law of economy) there was a shift in the norm: the form with zero inflection was neutralized (amp, watt, volt) in the modern language, for most technical units of measurement, it has become dominant: ohm, watt, pendant, ampere, erg, hertz. This stage began, according to L.K. Graudina, in the 80s of the XIX century. and ended in the first decade of the XX century, i.e. with the change of one generation of physicists by another. The same units of measure as gram, kilogram, in the genitive case of the plural, zero inflection is common in oral form in a colloquial style, and in writing, due to strict editorial corrections, forms on -ov: grams, kilograms. Thus, the process of "shifts" in the ratio of options is not straightforward, it often proceeds unevenly and unevenly.

Variants are classified according to different features. By belonging to the linguistic types of units, options are distinguished:

pronunciation (bulo [h "] nov - boolo[w]naya);

inflectional (tractors - tractors, in the workshop - in the workshop, hectare - hectares and under.);

derivational (cutting - cutting, flashing - flashing, stuffing - stuffing etc.);

syntactic: a) prepositional control (to ride a tram - to ride a tram, a height of 10 meters - a height of 10 meters, comments on someone's address - comments on someone); b) unsolicited control (wait for the plane-wait for the plane, can't read the book-couldn't read books, two main questions-two main questions and etc.);

5) lexical (film-film - film, international - international, export - export, import-import etc.).

It should be noted that phonetic, derivational and grammatical variants, in essence, are semantic doublets, while lexical variants stand somewhat apart. As L.K. Graudin, the classification of variants according to their belonging to linguistic types of units is hardly expedient; it is interesting only from the point of view of the relative frequency of variants of some types compared to others. P.M. Zeitlin classifies variants according to the types of stylistic relationships between members of the pairs, highlighting, on the one hand, groups of pairs of variants in which one of the members is sharply stylistically colored. (blato - swamp, breshchi - protect, helmet - helmet), and on the other - pairs in which the options are closest to each other in stylistic terms [short - short, incessant - incessant and under.).

This approach to variants is recognized by most researchers as fruitful. For example, M.V. Panov believes that the types of stylistic opposition should form the basis for the classification of variants. It does not matter whether the syntaxes, lexemes, morphemes or phonemes vary. The main ones are stylistic patterns that govern their functioning in speech.

In the process of language development, the number of variants, according to most researchers, is noticeably and continuously reduced. This is due to the increase in the general literacy of the population, the strengthening of the influence of the mass media and propaganda on the culture of speech, the normalization activities of linguists, the constant unification in the field of spelling and orthoepy, the strengthening of the role of book styles of language - speech, etc.

The concepts of normalization and codification are closely related to the issues of norms and their variance. Often the terms "normalization" and "codification" are used interchangeably. However, in recent studies, these terms and concepts are demarcated.

Ways of mastering the norm. The system of norms (the dynamic nature of the norm)

From this section you will learn how the dynamic nature of the norm is manifested, what are its functions.
You will learn how to use various sources of information about the norm, take into account the plurality of norms in modern society and develop your own model of linguistic behavior in the face of a plurality of options.
You will master the basic mechanisms for improving your own speech culture.

Who and on the basis of what makes a choice from the options offered by the language? How are speech norms acquired? There is no single, simple answer to this question. A hundred years ago, the center of the formation of speech culture, of course, was the family. Then social institutions began to play an increasingly important role: the school, the army, radio, television, and cinema. The erasure of former differences between the dialects of different regions of Russia is, of course, their merit.

And what is happening now? Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Kirill, in an interview, expressed the opinion that today at school one can hardly learn to speak well, rather, to write correctly. But if the school cannot turn an ordinary person into a speaker, then it is quite in its power to teach him to speak without mistakes, to express his thoughts in the correct literary language, to monitor his speech.

In addition to self-control, communication in the family and with people who are exemplary in literary speech is very important for the formation of speech culture. Such communication teaches you to pronounce words correctly, to express your thoughts concisely, to be careful with words, especially those whose meaning you do not quite understand. Imitation of models can teach much better than just following the prohibitions or fear of punishment. It is no coincidence that the ideas of “how it should be, how it should be” existing in the public consciousness and brought up from the school bench, an ordinary person cannot state in the form of rules, but can easily illustrate with a concrete example. And, of course, in order to speak Russian well, you need to read a lot, and not just read, but also retell what you read.

Among the factors influencing speech culture, we also note the knowledge of other languages, the ability to observe the speech of others, to use dictionaries and reference books. Academician V. G. Kostomarov reasonably notes that types of texts can be consciously taught, “but more often they come to them, spontaneously overcoming failures, observing authoritative examples and imitating them.”

In any conversation, one should “be on “you” with the language, remember that the word reveals our essence, opens us to other people like nothing else,” Patriarch Kirill gives such advice to his listeners. And he continues: “We carefully look in the mirror before leaving the house. As they say, they meet by appearance... But for some reason no one thinks about what impression his word makes, and the word makes a greater impression than a person's appearance. We need to be careful about the words we say." And one cannot but agree with him - after all, the correctness of speech in the full sense of the word is a visiting card, a pass to an intelligent society.

Is this pass necessary? Why is hard work needed to master literary samples? Perhaps the academician was right

A. A. Shakhmatov, at the beginning of the 20th century. who wrote that a small group of specialists cannot tell a great people how to speak. And what can one object to a little girl who indignantly reacts to her grandmother’s remarks: “Only you say: “call”, and all normal people say: “call” nit”? As an argument in favor of mastering the norm, let us recall once again that the responsibility for It was not by chance that during the Great Depression of the late 1920s, thousands of American entrepreneurs and professionals took Dale Carnegie's courses on the art of using speech and influencing people in the business world to avoid such failures. Lee Iacocca claimed that he owed all his success to the study of psychology and rhetoric, because business, according to those who succeeded in it, is primarily the art of communication.

Speaking about the culture of speech and the norm, it is often noted that over the past decades, our society has broken up into many different social strata, separate groups. Their speech features often diverge from the norms of the literary language. Previously peripheral elements penetrate into the language: colloquial vocabulary, special terms, borrowings. The boundaries between previously clear stylistic layers are erased, words change their usual meaning, and are used in an unconventional environment. The situation that has developed in the Russian language today is reminiscent of the beginning of the 17th century: representatives of different social groups do not understand each other, sometimes using the same words. As a result, a specialist linguist can write without hesitation in a dictionary of computer terminology that “the first generation of computers ran on electric light bulbs” (instead of “on lamps”), the TV program host reads news about the monks of the “St. e. monastery) or talks about “illegal gangs” (as if there are legitimate ones!), parents do not understand why “wallpaper” is for the computer and what kind of new “clamshell” the son wants, and young people express a positive assessment of the words “Gothic”, “ glamorous" or "brutal", in the dictionary meaning of which this evaluative ™ is not at all.

It is natural that both the culture of speech and social psychology now reject the idea that only one generally accepted norm (of behavior, speech) can exist in society. It is customary to talk not about one norm, but about system of norms(otherwise - about dynamic nature norms), which vary depending on the speech situation. What is the norm in interpersonal communication, for example, may be different in mass communication. The nature of communication, in addition to the number of participants, is influenced by the following speech factors: readiness - unpreparedness of speech, the direct nature of communication - mediation, written - oral form, monologue - dialogical type of communication, gender and age of the speaker and his audience, etc. In addition, in any society there are many subcultures with their own symbols, norms, language, style and manner of communication. Due to this multiplicity, such a situation may arise that the meaning laid down by the speaker will not be extracted by the listener, and vice versa: the listener will “hear” more than the speaker “said”. This is how communication failures like the one described below are born.

At a book exhibition at a prestigious Moscow university, a young man wanted to prove himself to his charming companion from the best side and condescendingly remarked to the stand attendant, pointing to one of the books: “What illiterate authors have gone! Here you have a book called: "Do not speak in a rough language." Is it possible to say that in Russian?!” The intention of the authors, who assumed that the public would get acquainted with the quote from V. V. Mayakovsky hidden in the title, turned out to be not realized, as, indeed, the impression made on the girl - she knew the source of the quote. You can give examples of communication failures of this kind yourself.

The norms of which social group should be considered the most correct? The answer to this question is just as impossible as the obviously endless debate about who is better - left-handed or right-handed, who is more needed - men or women. In any case, in modern Russia, belonging to the political or economic elite does not guarantee exemplary speech - unlike England, for example. Your parents remember the notorious “start” and “deepen” or “you fall asleep in the evening with one [thought. - Auth.], and in the morning you wake up with another one” in the speech of Russian political leaders. Although philologists speak of the existence of an elitist speech culture, the criteria for classifying a speaker as a speech elite for non-philologists are still not objective enough, and they can be challenged.

It is known from systems theory that any system must have diversity, only then it develops. Uniformity leads to degeneration. As Yu. M. Lotman, already cited above, wrote, all the so-called superfluous in the language is only a huge spread of its variative reserves. A working system always has many options, and the language space that connects us is an open space. It can grow, or it can shrink to a single norm or standard. When people say “too correctly”, “they speak as they write”, this gives the impression of not being fluent in speech, of the text being memorized. According to the scientist, the native language implies a reserve of possible irregularities, variants, because it is alive, it changes and develops. The appeal to this reserve includes in action such a complex, painful process as love. The great Pushkin wrote: "I don't like Russian speech without a grammatical error." But without love for the word, for the language you speak, a speech with a “grammatical error” will remain just an illiterate speech of an uncultured person.

Fully sharing this approach, we repeat that, in addition to love, in improving the quality of speech, an important role is played by monitoring the operation of the laws of communication, including communication in a certain language, developing the ability to build your own texts based on these laws, taking into account the speech situation. Love for diversity and a certain cultural tolerance do not eliminate the concept of a general literary norm, because the literary language has been performing an integrative, unifying function in society for many centuries. Therefore, the preservation and maintenance of the general literary norm ultimately provides society as a whole with mutual understanding and success in communication, including public communication. Another thing is that the types of texts underlying the general literary norm change over time. As noted by the remarkable Russian philologist M. M. Bakhtin, depending on the role of certain areas of activity in different eras, the boundaries of the literary language and the set of speech genres serving these areas change. So, if in Ancient Russia church texts were considered standard, then in the Pushkin era, the norm was developed on the basis of fiction. In the 1960s the role of popular science literature has increased. And in recent decades, the language of the media has begun to play an increasingly important role: newspapers, radio, television, the Internet; the importance of oral speech also increases.

To expand your knowledge of the language norm, the correct choice and use of language means, in addition to observation, you can use various reference materials: dictionaries, grammars, popular science publications, radio and television programs. Help today can also be found on the Internet, for example, by looking at the portal www.gramota.ru we have already mentioned (hereinafter we will call it in Russian: Gramota.ru), which has existed for many years with the support of the Federal Agency for Press and Mass Communications. Help service, numerous electronic dictionaries, links to useful sites are collected here by specialists for the convenience of everyone.

Workshop

Test

1. The dynamic nature of the norm implies that:
- a) society is guided by only one generally accepted norm;
- b) in society there is a system of norms that vary depending on the situation;
- c) society either acts in accordance with the norm, or rejects it altogether;
- d) there are no rules.
2. Types, genres of texts that form the literary norm:
- a) remain unchanged since the time of Pushkin;
- b) never changed throughout the history of writing;
- c) have become different only recently under the influence of the media;
- d) in different eras were and will be different.
3. Belonging to the social and political elite:
- a) is not a guarantee of a high level of speech culture;
- b) also means belonging to the speech elite;
- c) always indicates a low level of speech culture;
- d) gives the right not to be guided by any norms.

Questions for self-control

1. What are the ways of assimilation of the literary norm? Which of them do you use yourself?
2. What is the "dynamic nature of the norm"?
3. What is the reason for the plurality of norms in modern society?
4. What is the function of the literary language in society?
5. What sources of information about the literary norm can you name?
6. What is the source of linguistic errors in the speech of those for whom the language is native?
7. What type of texts plays the role of exemplary in modern Russian? Do you agree with this opinion? What samples are you referring to? Justify your position.

Tasks for independent work Exercise 1 . Go to the Gramota.ru portal (see above) to the help desk. What questions do portal visitors ask? Give examples of questions and answers. How accessible are the portal experts presenting their answers?

Task 2. Get acquainted with the site http://www.kursy.ru/jur_wrds - what usage errors are covered in this online course?

Essay topics

1. Who is the modern speech elite?
2. Ways to improve speech culture.
3. Issues of culture of speech in the media.

Picture for desktop computer. -Aut.

The main sources of language norms are the works of classical literature, the exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, the generally accepted, widespread modern usage, and scientific research.

However, while recognizing the importance of literary tradition and the authority of sources, one should also keep in mind the author's individuality, which can violate norms, which is justified in certain situations of communication.

The literary norm is objective: it is not invented by scientists, but reflects the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language. Norms of the language are obligatory for both oral and written speech. It is necessary to understand that the norm does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”. It indicates the appropriateness of their use in a particular communicative situation.

The change in language norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants (doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of the norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the Orthoepic Dictionary, the Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language, the Dictionary of Word Combination, etc.

Language norms reflect the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language and are supported by speech practice. Norms are dynamic and mobile. The new norm does not replace the old one overnight - it is a long process, so for some time the old and the new norms can coexist in the language, forming variants. The change in norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers.

Variants of norms at all levels of the language are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 - Variants of norms by language levels

Level	Options
Phonetic	To - to, fern - fern, empower - empower
derivational	Comprehension - comprehension, locksmith - locksmith, heroically - heroically, reading room - reading room, she-wolf - she-wolf
Morphological	This roofing - this roofing, coffee is cold - coffee is cold, towels - towels, in the workshop - in the workshop, go - go, the most important - the most important - the most important, a hundred meters - a hundred meters - a hundred meters
Syntactic	Wait for the train - wait for the train, buy bread - buy bread, ride the train - ride the train - ride the train, recommend by a coach - recommend as a coach, recommend as a coach
Phraseological	The tongue is stuck / stuck to the larynx, the tongue does not turn / does not turn to say, wag / scratch / chat / grind with the tongue, as if / as if / as if a cow had licked it with its tongue

Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Language means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be ridiculous in another (official business communication). The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, changes in social conditions of life, the emergence of new traditions, relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to a constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

Compliance with the language norms of oral and written speech is typical for a native speaker of the literary language, since this is the only codified, standardized variety of the Russian national language. The speaker of dialect, vernacular or jargon does not follow the language norm due to its absence in the indicated varieties of the language. A modern specialist in his social and professional status should be a native speaker of the literary language, must know, use in speech and maintain a system of norms.

Language varieties form different literary styles, differing not only in terms of vocabulary and phraseology, but also in pronunciation. Pronunciation styles are related to language styles. There are three styles: basic, high (book) and colloquial. The norms of the main style have no correspondence in high style or colloquial. A large group of words are pronounced the same in all styles. Colloquial pronunciation style is characterized by casualness,
less articulatory clarity, fast pace. For high style - slowness, increased clarity of pronunciation of sounds, intonation design of speech. The colloquial manner of pronunciation is outside the norm.

You can also find information of interest in the scientific search engine Otvety.Online. Use the search form:

;color:#000000">Pronunciation of vowel sounds

">1. "> "> A strong position for vowels is a position under stress. In an unstressed position, vowels undergo a change (qualitative or quantitative), i.e. are reduced.

"> Attention should be paid to difficult cases of reduction. After the hissing ["> w ">] and [ "> w ">] and sound [ "> c ">] unstressed vowel [">a ">] is pronounced like a short ["> a ">]: "> "> jargon, kings ">. But before soft consonants - like the sound [">ye ">]: "> "> sorry, thirty">. In rare cases, [">ye ">] is also pronounced before hard consonants:"> "> rye, jasmine ">.

"> 2. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of letters"> "> a, e, i"> "> pronounce the sound ["> ie ">]: "> "> clock ">. This is the so-called "hiccup". It is found in neutral and colloquial styles. "Ekanye" (pronunciation in a given phonetic position of the sound [">hey ">] characterizes stage speech: in ["> ei ">] net, t[ "> ei ">]new. Pronunciation h["> and ">]sy - obsolete, h[">a ">]sy - dialectal.

"> 3. Consonants c, w, w - solid sounds, after them in place of letters and pronounced ["> s ">]: revolutionary ["> s ">] I, w["> s ">] zn, w["> s ">] p.

"> 4. In a few words of foreign origin, not completely assimilated by the Russian language, in place of the letter"> "> about ">, unlike the Russian orthoepic norm, in an unstressed position, pronounced weakened [">o ">], i.e. without reduction: for the sake of[">o ">]. Too distinct [">o ">] is perceived as a mannered, on the other hand, distinct pronunciation [">o ">] in "Russified" book words (">sonata, short story">) is also not desirable, because gives the pronunciation a colloquial connotation.

"> 5. The letter "> "> e "> "> proposed to use the Russian historian N. M. Karamzin, simplifying the complex pattern that existed earlier in the alphabet of the letter. However, the letter">">e"> "> Now we can only meet in primers and textbooks for foreigners studying Russian. The absence of this letter in books and periodicals leads to incorrect pronunciation of words. You should pay attention to words in which the vowel [">o ">], denoted by a letter"> ">yo ">, sometimes erroneously replaced with a percussive [">e ">], "> "> whitish, maneuvers"> pronounced like "> ">whitish, maneuvers">. Sometimes, on the contrary, shock [">uh ">] is erroneously replaced with ["> about ">] "> "> ё">: "> ">grenadier, scam"> "> pronounced like "> "> grenadier, scam">. This pronunciation is not normative

;color:#000000">Pronunciation of consonants

">1. "> "> Voiced consonants at the absolute end of the word and before deaf consonants are deafened: arbu [s], pre[">t ">]acceptance.

"> 2. The sound [g] at the end of a word is usually replaced by the sound [k] (for example,"> "> could "> "> sounds like mo [k]). And only in the word god [g] is replaced by the sound [x]. In pronunciation, this word should not be confused with the word"> "> side ">.

"> 3. In the Russian language, there is a tendency for the adaptability of the sound image of borrowed words with"> "> e "> "> after a hard consonant, many such words have "Russified" and are now pronounced with a soft consonant before"> "> e ">: "> "> museum, cream, academy, overcoat, plywood, Odessa">.

"> But a number of words retain a solid consonant:"> ">antenna, business, genetics, detective, test">. Variant pronunciation is allowed:"> ">dean, claim, therapy, terror, track">. The hard or soft pronunciation of a consonant is determined in dictionary order.

"> 4. According to the old Moscow norms, the spelling combination ch was pronounced as [">sh ">]. Currently [">sh ">] is stored in words:"> "> of course, boring, scrambled eggs, on purpose, birdhouse, fiddling"> "> and in female patronymics on"> ">-ichna ">: "> "> Fominichna, Kuzminichna">.

"> In a number of words, a double pronunciation is allowed: bulo ["> ch ">] naya and bulo [ "> shn ">]naya, although the latter is becoming obsolete.

"> 5. According to the "older" norm, the combination">">Thurs"> ">pronounced like [">pcs">] in the word ">">what"> "> and words derived from it:"> "> nothing, something "> "> etc.

">Currently, this rule is preserved for all specified words except"> "> something "> "> [ "> th ">]. In all other words, spelling">">Thurs"> "> always pronounced like [">Thurs">]: ">mail, dream ">.

"> 6. The combination "> "> wait "> "> in the word "> "> rain"> "> and its derivatives were pronounced according to the "higher" norm as [">w"w" ">] (at the end of the word - [">w"w" ">]).Modern pronunciation of [">train" ">] (at the end of the word - [">pcs" ">]) is evaluated as a variant of the literary norm.

"> 7. According to the "older" norm, spelling combinations"> "> zh "> "> and "> "> zhzh "> "> ("> yeast, later ">) worn out like [">w"w" ">] - long and soft hissing. Currently in place"> ">lj "> "> and "> ">lj ">pronounced solid hissing [">lj ">]. And this pronunciation is evaluated as a variant of the literary norm

"> 8. In masculine nouns on"> "> -ism "> "> consonant ["> z ">] is pronounced firmly in all cases, including when softening the final consonant in D.p. and P.p.:"> "> under capitalism">.

"> 9. The consonant [n] softens before soft [t], [d], [s], [h], [u]: candidate - ka [n "d"] idat, guarantee - gara [n "t" ]ia, pension -pe[n"s"]ia, finally - eye[n"h"]ately, concrete worker - beto[n"u"]ik.

"> Phonetic laws (sound laws) - the laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of the language, which govern both the stable preservation and the regular change of its sound units, their alternations and combinations.

"> 1. The phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding paired deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goat - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: breast - sadness, entrance - drive up [pΛdjest], etc.

"> Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:

"> 1) before a pause: [pr" ishol post] (a train has arrived); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [v]: [praf he], [sat ours], [slap jа], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your kind). Sonorant consonants are not stunned: rubbish, they say, com, he.

"> 2. Assimilation of consonants by voicing and deafness. Combinations of consonants, of which one is deaf and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different voicing are next to each other, the first consonant is likened to the second. Such a change in consonants sounds is called regressive assimilation.

"> By virtue of this law, voiced consonants before the deaf turn into paired deaf ones, and deaf ones in the same position into voiced ones. darling), [in "yes" ty - in "yes" t "and] (to carry - to lead), [fp" yr "em" eshka - fp "yr" yeshka] (interspersed - interspersed).

"> Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [c], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λtjest] (departure), yours, yours.

"> Voiced and deaf consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pΛhotk] (gait), [collection] (collection); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [where "elu] (to the point), [zd "elm] (with business); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got-th] (a year), [dod`zh`by] (daughter would); 4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without pauses: [rock-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).

"> 3. Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists in additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).

"> Assimilation in softness has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming like the subsequent soft consonant. In the indicated position, not all consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.

"> All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel [e]; [b" el], [c" eu], [m" el], [s" ate] ( white, weight, chalk, sat down), etc.; 2) before [and]: [m "silt], [n" silt "and] (mil, drank).

"> Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible with the exception of [l], [l"] (compare the end - the ring).

"> Dental [s], [s], [n], [p], [d], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f] are most susceptible to softening Do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ( [here - l "eu]; compare [Λ tor]) and in front of the particle ([grew-l" and]; compare [rΛsli]) (here is the forest, otter, grew, grew).

"> Consonants [h] and [s] soften before soft [t"], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m "ês" t "], [v" eez "d" e], [f-ka with "b], [execution"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). Softening [h], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft labials: [raz "d" iel "it"], [r's "t" ienut "], [b" eez "-n" ievo), [b "yes" -s "il] (divide, stretch, without it, without strength). Before soft lips, softening [s], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end prefixes on -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s "m" ex], [z" in "êr], [d" in "êr |, [t" in "êr], [s"n"ut"], [s"-n"im], [is"-pêch"], [rΛz"d"ut"] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).

"> Labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt" n "h" bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).

"> 4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of a root and a suffix that begins with a hard consonant: a locksmith - a locksmith, a secretary - a secretary, etc. Assimilation by hardness does not occur before the labial [b]: [prΛs" it "] - [proz" b], [mllt "it"] - [mulΛd" ba] (ask - request, thresh - threshing), etc. Assimilation is not subjected to [l "]: [sex" b] - [field "nyj] (field, field).

"> 5. Assimilation of the teeth before hissing. This type of assimilation extends to the teeth [h], [s] in the position before the hissing (anteropalatal) [w], [g], [h], [w] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [h], [s] to the subsequent hissing.

"> Complete assimilation [h], [s] occurs:

"> 1) at the junction of morphemes: [zh at"], [rΛ zh at"] (compress, unclench); [sh yt"], [rΛ sh yt"] (sew, embroider); [sh "from], [rΛ sh "from] (account, calculation); [rΛno sh" ik], [out of sh" ik] (peddler, cab driver);

"> 2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [s-zh arm], [s-sh arm] (with heat, with a ball); [bies-zh ar], [bies-sh ar] (without heat, without a ball ).

"> The combination of zzh inside the root, as well as the combination of zhzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh"]: [by zh"] (later), (I drive); [in zh" and], [trembling" and] (reins, yeast) Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [zh] can be pronounced.

"> A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], resulting in long [h], [c]: [Λ h "from] (report), ( fkra q] (in short).

"> 6. Simplification of consonant combinations. Consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such a simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts : [sleep], [posn], [w" iflivy], [g" igansk "and], [h" set], [heart], [son] (oral, late, happy, giant, feeling, heart, sun ).

"> 7. Reduction of groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of the root and suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra sor "it"] (time + quarrel), [s ylk] (with reference), [kΛlon ny] (column + n + y); [Λde s ki] (Odessa + sk + y).

"> The main phonetic processes occurring in the word include: 1) reduction; 2) stunning; 3) voicing; 4) softening; 5) assimilation; 6) simplification.

"> Reduction is a weakening of the pronunciation of vowels in an unstressed position: [house] - [d ^ ma] - [d ^ voi].

"> Stunning is a process in which the voiced ones agree in front of the deaf and at the end of the word are pronounced as deaf; book - book [sh] ka; oak - du [p].

"> Voicing is a process in which the deaf in a position in front of voiced ones are pronounced as voiced: do - [z"] do; selection - o [d] boron.

"> Mitigation is a process in which hard consonants are soft under the influence of subsequent soft ones: depend[s’]t, ka[s’]n, le[s’]t.

"> Assimilation is a process in which a combination of several dissimilar consonants is pronounced as one long one (for example, combinations of sch, zch, shch, zdch, stch are pronounced as a long sound [w "], and combinations ts (i), ts (i) are pronounced like one long sound [c]): volume [w]ik, spring [w]aty, mu [w "]ina, [t"] astye, ichi [c] a. Simplification of consonant groups is a process in which in combinations of consonants stn, zdn, eats, dts, persons and others, a sound falls out, although the letter denoting this sound is used in the letter: heart - [s "e" rtsj], sun - [sun ].

"> 8. Reduction of vowels. The change (weakening) of vowels in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish the position of unstressed vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in other unstressed syllables (weak second-degree position.) Vowels in weak position of the second degree undergo more reduction than vowels in weak position of the first degree.

"> Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [bieda] (trouble), etc.

"> Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [parʌvos] (locomotive); [kargΛnda] (Karaganda); [kalkla] (bells); [p "l" ie na] (shroud); [voice] (voice), [ exclamation] (exclamation), etc.

"> Synchrony - (from the Greek sýnchronós - simultaneous), consideration of a language (or some other system of signs) in terms of the relationship between its constituent parts in one period of time. For example, the nominative form of the singular "table" in synchrony has zero ending, in contrast to the genitive case "stol-a".

"> Revealing the dynamics of development in synchrony is also possible by comparing several simultaneously functioning styles (the choice of which is determined by the conditions of communication) - more solemn (high), retaining old features, and more colloquial (low), in which the direction of language development is guessed (for example, shortened form [chiek] instead of "man").

"> The study of phonetic phenomena in terms of synchrony is the study of the phonetics of a particular language at the moment as a ready-made system of interrelated and interdependent elements.

34) Russian stress and accentological norms

Among the main features of stress in Russian: - mobility, which means - the stress is not fixed; - the presence of stylistically colored and professional types of pronunciation of a number of words; - the presence of several accentological options; - fluctuations in the setting of stress; - accent in proper names.

Norms of stress (accentological norms).

Russian stress is non-fixed (various) and mobile (it can move in different grammatical forms of the same word). Because of this, literary variants of stress arise. These options can be evaluated either as equal, or one of the options may be more or less preferred. The different areas of use include options:

1) common and professional;

2) literary and folk-poetic;

3) modern and outdated (music - music, cemetery - cemetery);

4) literary and colloquial (repeat - repeat, call - call, understood - understood);

5) literary and dialectal (blizzard - blizzard, cold - cold);

6) in semantic variants, the heterogeneity of stress performs a semantic function: sharpness (blades) - sharpness (witty expression), cowardly (to be afraid) - cowardly (to flee).

35) Lexical norms of the Russian language

Lexical norms are norms that regulate the rules for the use and combination of words in speech. The use of a word in speech is always determined by the peculiarities of its lexical meaning - the content in which our knowledge and understanding of an object, phenomenon, property or process is displayed.

lexical norms have two aspects: accuracy and expressiveness. When using a word in speech, we must ensure that, firstly, its lexical meaning is realized appropriately and correctly, and secondly, that the word correctly expresses our attitude, that is, it is expressive. In accordance with this, lexical norms have two aspects : precision and expressiveness.

Lexical norms, or how else they can be called, norms of word usage, in the literary Russian language are as follows:

1) the word should be used taking into account its lexical meaning;

2) the word should be used taking into account its stylistic coloring (accessory);

3) the word should be used taking into account its lexical compatibility.

Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.

Lexical norms that regulate the aspect of accuracy prescribe to avoid speech errors - violations of lexical norms:

1. ^ Violation of lexical compatibility of words. Lexical compatibility of words is the ability of words to connect with each other. If you do not take into account the lexical meaning of words, as well as the tradition of combining words in a phrase, there islexical incompatibility. For example, there are words whose compatibility in Russian is phraseologically related: stale bread, a callous person but not a stale cake or a stale friend . We can say deep night or deep old agebut we can't talk deep day or deep youth . In some other cases, we are inattentive to the lexical meaning of the words that we combine into a phrase. For example,conversation read(this is an oral genre!), a conversation can be held, and a book or lecture can be read.

2^ . Mixing paronimo�� . Paronyms are words that are similar in sound but not the same in meaning.remains and remnants; effective and efficient; economical, economical, economical). The words that make up the paronymic series, as a rule, correlate with each other in a logical and semantic way, which can cause their confusion in speech. But paronyms cannot replace each other (illustrated and illustrative. It is forbidden: illustration book or illustrated material) .

3. Inaccuracies of word usage. The accuracy of word usage is the correct choice of a word in accordance with its lexical meaning. Inaccuracy of word usage occurs when a person is not aware of the meaning of a word, or does not take this meaning into account. For example:Tatyana is contraindicated for Onegin(instead of: opposed). Tatyana loves a nanny - this gray-bearded old lady (instead of: gray-haired or gray-haired).

4. Pleonasms - words that are close in meaning and therefore logically superfluous ( Bold and brave man is a clear, open pleonasm.Free vacancy, the main essence- hidden, implicit pleonasm).

5. Tautology - repetition of the same root or the same words (organize an organization).

6. ^ Speech deficiency- unmotivated omission of words to the detriment of the content of the statement (In the office hung< portraits >Russian writers).

36) Grammar norms and their varieties

The grammatical norms of the modern Russian language can be divided into three categories: derivational; morphological; syntactic.

Two big problems are connected with word formation: - observance of norms or rules of word formation; - the choice of a particular word, which includes evaluative morphemes, in accordance with a specific situation of communication.

Morphological norms determine the correctness of the formation and use of word forms. Morphological norms apply to all parts of speech in the Russian language.

Morphological norms determine the correctness of the formation and use of word forms. For example, the normative form of the genitive plural is a lot of stockings, boots, but socks, you can’t say places, deeds, you shouldn’t change indeclinable nouns: in a new coat, incorrect: better (simply - better) or the smartest (smartest or smartest) .

"> Morphological norms apply to all parts of speech of the Russian language. The gender of nouns refers to constant features, therefore, violations of grammatical norms are often associated precisely with the incorrect use of nouns in a certain gender. It is not difficult to determine the gender of a noun, it is enough to choose the right pronoun for it (he, she , it).

"> There are also morphological norms for the declension of nouns, where case endings are clearly defined. The main grammatical norms of case endings are as follows

"> Syntactic norms regulate the formation of phrases and sentences, for example, when driving: you can’t talk shows that ... (shows what?), confidence in victory (in victory), the limit of patience (patience) has come, pay for travel (pay for h t o?); After watching this film, I felt sad (After watching this film, I became sad. Or: I became sad after I watched this film).

37) Communication and communication

Communication is a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, the perception and understanding of another person.

The transfer of information is possible with the help of signs, sign systems.

From the definition of communication it follows that this is a complex process, which includes three components:

communicative side communication (exchange of information between people);
interactive side(organization of interaction between individuals);
perceptual side(the process of perception of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding).

In the communicative process, verbal and non-verbal communication are usually distinguished.

Verbal communication of communication is carried out through speech. Speech is understood as a natural sound language, i.e. a system of phonetic signs, including two principles - lexical and syntactic.

The means of non-verbal communication include gestures, facial expressions, intonations, pauses, posture, laughter, tears, etc., which form a sign system that complements and enhances, and sometimes replaces the means of verbal communication - words.

Communicative side(information exchange) is characterized by:

the ability to establish psychological contact;
taking into account the peculiarities of communicative influence;
argumentation, logic and adequacy of the situation of communication;
the effectiveness of the use of verbal and non-verbal means of communication.

38) Types of communication and types of speech activity

Types of communication

Depending on the content, goals and means of communication, there are several types of communication.

">- "> According to the content, communication can be material, cognitive, conditional, motivational and activity.

"> In material communication, subjects, being engaged in individual activity, exchange its products, which, in turn, serve as a means of satisfying their actual needs.

"> In conditional communication, people exert an influence on each other, calculated to bring each other into a certain physical or mental state.

"> Motivational communication has as its content the transfer to each other of certain motives, attitudes or readiness for action in a certain direction.

"> Cognitive communication - the exchange of knowledge, activity communication - the exchange of actions, operations, skills and abilities. An illustration of these types can be communication associated with cognitive or educational activities.

"> By goals, communication is divided into biological and social.

"> Biological communication is communication necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body, associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs.

"> Social communication pursues the goals of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth of the individual.

"> According to the means, communication can be direct and indirect, direct and indirect.

"> Direct communication is carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature (organs of hearing, vision, speech, etc.).

"> Mediated communication is associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and information exchange (sign systems, print, radio, television).

"> Direct communication involves personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people in the very act of communication.

"> Indirect communication is carried out through intermediaries, which can be other people.

"> According to the duration, short-term and long-term communication is distinguished. The time during which communication takes place affects its character.

"> Short-term communication - communication within the same topic and a period of time of several hours. Short-term communication with an unfamiliar person unfolds in two plans: on the one hand, it is aimed at solving the problem at hand, on the other hand, at knowing this person. To know a person in detail in a short time it is not possible, but an attempt to comprehend the basic personal qualities constantly exists.

"> Long-term communication (within one or more topics, intermittent or continuous) involves not only solving problems, but also self-identification of each of the parties and, thus, knowledge of each other. Long-term communication creates a prerequisite either for the emergence and strengthening of positive business and friendly relations and, consequently, psychological compatibility, or for the emergence of confrontation, opposition, i.e. psychological incompatibility.

"> Among the types of communication, one can also distinguish business and personal, instrumental and targeted.

"> Business communication is usually included as a private moment in any joint activity of people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. Its content is what people are doing, and not those problems that affect their inner world.

"> Personal communication is mainly focused around psychological problems of an internal nature, those interests and needs that deeply and intimately affect a person's personality (search for the meaning of life, resolution of any internal conflict, etc.).

"> Instrumental communication is communication that is not an end in itself, is not stimulated by an independent need, but pursues some other goal, except for obtaining satisfaction from the very act of communication.

"> Targeted communication is communication, which in itself serves as a means of satisfying a specific need - the need for communication.

"> The most important types of communication in humans are verbal and non-verbal.

"> Verbal communication is inherent only to a person and, as a prerequisite, involves mastering the language.

"> Non-verbal communication does not involve the use of sound speech, natural language as a means of communication. It is communication using facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through direct sensory or bodily contact.

Types of speech activity. speaking.

This concept characterizes any sounding speech. Historically, speaking is the primary language form that arose much earlier than writing. From a material point of view, oral speech is sound waves. What is spoken is the result of the activity of certain human organs (voice apparatus). Intonation is a combination of the timbre of pronunciation, tempo (increasing or slow), duration, loudness (intensity), melody. Great importance in oral speech is given to the absence or presence of pauses, the degree of clarity in pronunciation, the ability to correctly place logical stresses. Speaking, having intonation diversity, is able to convey the fullness of experiences, emotions, moods.

Types of speech activity. Letter.

This type of human linguistic activity is an auxiliary system of signs used to fix speaking (sound speech). However, the letter can be called an independent structure. In addition to the function of fixing speech (oral), the written system allows you to assimilate the accumulated knowledge, expanding the scope of communication.

The main purpose of the letter is to fix what is said in order to preserve it. This type of speech activity is used in communication between those people who are separated by time and distance. It should be noted that the role of writing has decreased significantly due to the advent of the telephone.

Types of speech activity. Listening (auditing).

Listening is a process that involves both direct and indirect (using audio recording, radio, etc.) interaction between the listener and the speaker.

In the first case (with direct contact), the interlocutors have the opportunity to use not only language forms (verbal communication), but also means of non-verbal communication (facial expressions, body movements, gestures), which contribute to more effective perception and understanding.

Types of speech activity. Reading.

By simple definitions, reading is characterized as the process of extracting information from printed or handwritten text.

This specific form of linguistic communication of people is one of the mediated types of communication. At the same time, reading is not perceived as a one-sided influence on the reader. It is not expressed by passive perception, assimilation of content. Reading involves active interaction between the recipient (the reader) and the communicator (the author of the text).

39) Rules of conducting speech. Speech behavior. Social roles of speakers.

Speech etiquette is the rules of speech. The basis of the culture of communication is the observance of ethical norms of speech behavior (speech etiquette). In a person's life, there are many situations when he needs to say something or someone to answer what was said. Such situations are called verbal. Any speech situation consists of several components: who - to whom - about what - where - when - why - why is he talking. The statement itself is determined by the purpose: for the sake of what the person spoke: to ask, ask, promise, convince, etc. Also, any statement corresponds to the social role played by the speaker. social role - this is a normative combination of position (the general position of a person in the social environment - a baby, a schoolchild, a student, a worker, a pensioner; father, mother, grandfather, son, granddaughter, etc.; worker and employee; engineer and director, etc. ) and the functions that the occupant of this position is able and obliged to perform. At the same time, this or that role in the minds of people is associated with a pattern of behavior, with the expectations that a person in a given role is obliged to do and what he has the right to do. Hence,position, function, rights, duties, expectations- all this adds up a generalized normative pattern of a particular social role.

Being a social being, a person not only acts, behaves, but also speaks in accordance with the role, in other words, his speech behavior is directly related to role behavior.

Social roles are characterized by both constant and variable features. Constants include gender, age, place of residence, degree of education, profession, position at work and in the family.

40) Speech etiquette as the basis of the psychological comfort of participants in pedagogical communication

Basic principles of communication ethics. Ideas of pedagogical communication in the communicative experience of the people (based on folklore materials). Ethics and etiquette in pedagogical communication. Etiquette in the culture of the appearance and behavior of the teacher. General requirements of ethics and speech etiquette in typical situations of pedagogical communication: teacher - applicant, teacher - student (teacher - student), teacher (teacher) - leader, teacher - teacher (teacher - teacher), teacher - student's parents, etc. Choosing the optimal etiquette formulas in speech genres typical of pedagogical communication (greeting, attracting attention, offer, advice, approval, reprimand, heart-to-heart talk, etc.).

41) Speech etiquette: politeness formulas, greetings, farewell, gratitude, addressing the interlocutor, communicative gestures and facial expressions

Greeting formulas. Any conversation, as a rule, begins with a greeting, it can be verbal and non-verbal. The order of greeting also matters, the younger one greets the elder first, the man - the woman, the young girl - the adult man, the junior - the senior.

Forgiveness formulas. At the end of the conversation, they use formulas for ending communication, parting. These formulas are expressed in the form of wishes (all the best, all the best, goodbye), hopes for further meetings (see you tomorrow, I hope to see you soon, we'll call you), or doubts about further meetings (goodbye, do not remember dashingly).

Gratitude formulas. For the fulfillment of a request, the provision of a service, useful advice, it is customary to express gratitude to the interlocutor. Also an important element in speech etiquette is a compliment. It can be used at the beginning, middle and end of a conversation. Tactful and timely said, he lifts the mood of the interlocutor, disposes to a more open conversation. A compliment is useful and pleasant, but only if it is a sincere compliment, said with a natural emotional coloring.

Communicative gestures, facial expressions and body movements:

a) greeting and farewell gestures.

Typically, the greeting phase includes six visual elements: smiling, raising the eyebrows, tilting the head back, raising the hand in greeting, waving the hand, and moving with the intention of hugging. When those who meet approach each other, the key moment of the meeting arrives. i.e. physical contact of bodies: shaking hands, hugging, kissing.

b) gestures to attract attention.

In the most common form, the beckoning is carried out by the movement of four fingers pressed against each other, successively opening and closing the palm. The beckoning gesture over long distances is done by raising the arm and waving it from side to side.

c) "yes" and "no" gestures.

Nod - "yes." Shaking the head is the most common form of conveying the meaning of denial. It can also mean disapproval and bewilderment.

42) Non-verbal means of communication. Rules for the use of gestures by the speaker.

Mimicry is the movement of the facial muscles. The main element of facial expressions is the facial code. This is a special combination of parts and elements of the face: the position of the mouth, lips, eyebrows, forehead, the shape and brightness of the eyes, which convey one of the emotional states. The main ones are anger, contempt, joy, surprise, suffering, fear.

Sight. Of exceptionally great importance in communication is the look - a complex that includes the state of the pupils of the eyes (constriction or dilation), eye color, shine, corneas, position of the eyebrows, eyelids, forehead, duration and direction of the gaze. Psychologists have shown that the gaze of a communicating person is closely related to the process of thought formation.

Postures. The source of information about the state and intentions of a communication partner is the human body, its static or dynamic state. Pose - a kind of more or less stable spatial position of a person. There are several thousand such provisions, the acceptability or unacceptability of which depends on the nationality, gender, age, cultural and religious characteristics of people.

An important means of communication is gestures. Usually, when talking about gestures, they mean only hand movements. However, gestures must include any human body movement that is used as a way to emphasize the meaning of spoken words.

;background:#ffffff">Mimicry (from the Greek.;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff">mimikos ;background:#ffffff"> ; background: #ffffff "> - imitating) - the movement of the facial muscles. The main element of facial expressions is the facial code. This is a special combination of parts and elements of the face: the position of the mouth, lips, eyebrows, forehead, the shape and brightness of the eyes, which convey one of the emotional states "Psychologists outline six basic facial codes and many shades of transition from one to another. The main ones include anger, contempt, joy, surprise, suffering, fear. It is noteworthy that only two of them express a positive emotional state - joy and surprise. The rest convey the negative states of a person. And this is not at all an accidental phenomenon. Mimicry is not invented by people, it is biological in nature and is inherent in animals in the wild, perfectly conveying their various states. Obviously, survival in nature is more often associated with overcoming negative for living the essence of the circumstances.;background:#ffffff">

;background:#ffffff">Glance">

;background:#ffffff">The gaze is of exceptionally great importance in communication - a complex that includes the state of the pupils of the eyes (narrowed or dilated), eye color, shine, cornea, position of the eyebrows, eyelids, forehead, duration and direction of the gaze. Psychologists have shown that the gaze of a communicating person is closely connected with the process of thought formation (R. Axline, L. Wintere).The birth of a thought is a difficult and very intimate process, so a person looks to the side when a thought is just being formed, and when it is ready, then the look is directed at the interlocutor The speaker looks less at the partner - just to check his reaction. The listener in this sense is more active: he sends feedback signals to the speaker. If there is visual contact between the partners, there is a disposition to communicate, if not, it is worth considering whether it makes sense to continue it. To build a good relationship with the interlocutor, your gaze should meet his gaze for about 60-70% of the total time of communication. use dark glasses, as your partner will definitely have the feeling that you are looking at him point-blank. This will cause awkwardness and irritation, and the positive atmosphere of communication will be broken.

;background:#ffffff">Poses ">

;background:#ffffff">The source of information about the state and intentions of the communication partner is the human body, its static or dynamic state. Posture (fr.;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff">pose ;background:#ffffff"> ; background: #ffffff "> - body position) - a type of more or less stable spatial position of a person. There are several thousand such positions, the acceptability or unacceptability of which depends on the nationality, gender, age, cultural and religious characteristics of people. The main semantic content of the posture is as means of communication - an expression of openness, readiness for communication or closeness, unpreparedness for it (V. Schubts).Taking "closed" postures, a person covers the most vulnerable places of the body (chest, peritoneum, genitals) and tries to take as little space as possible in space If your partner crosses his arms, legs, crosses his legs, sits half-turned towards you, leans back, props his chin with his hands, etc., communication will be ineffective. legs are extended, the person is standing facing you, sitting slightly leaning forward, etc. Almost all communicators "read" the poses of partners, but this happens completely unconsciously, and not everyone understands how he does it.">
;background:#ffffff">Gestures">
;background:#ffffff">Gesticulation is an important kinesic means of communication. Usually, when talking about gestures, they mean only hand movements. Indeed, they are very expressive and are the first thing that catches the eye. However, any body movement of a person, which used as a way to emphasize the meaning of spoken words.Gesticulation has long been recognized as an essential element of oratory practice, and when Demosthenes was asked what a good speaker is, he answered: "Gestures, gestures, gestures!"

;background:#ffffff">Rhythmic gestures;background:#ffffff"> ; background: #ffffff "> associated with the rhythm of speech - they emphasize logical stress, slowing down and accelerating the tempo, the place of pauses, that is, what intonation usually conveys. These can be up and down movements of the palm edge, characterizing frequent and fractional phenomena , smooth movements of the palm, reminiscent of the sea surface, if we are talking about a calm, slow process, beating the musical beat with the toe of the shoe, shaking the body and head, etc.">
;background:#ffffff">Emotional gestures;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff"> convey various shades of feelings. Many of them are fixed in stable combinations (phraseologisms): "beat your chest" (despair, justification), "hit your fist on the table" (anger), "slap your forehead "(unexpected recall, guess), "turn your back" (refusal to communicate, indifference), "point to the door" (anger, unwillingness to communicate, breakup), "shrug" (bewilderment), "look away" (confusion, internal recognition of one's guilt), "tear one's hair" (belated repentance, despair), "shrug" (admit oneself insolvent, powerless to solve any problem).">
;background:#ffffff">Pointing gestures;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff"> serve to distinguish an object from a number of homogeneous ones, indicate their location, sequence. Very often, without using a pointing gesture, speech becomes completely incomprehensible. Is it possible to adequately understand a request, indication, order of the following content, if they are expressed only verbally: “Give me this pen, please”, “Don’t take this textbook, take that one over there.” “Close that window immediately.” All these phrases must be accompanied by pointing gestures, otherwise it is impossible to understand their true meaning. head, hand, finger (thumb or forefinger), foot, turn of the torso. Pointing gestures can be ambiguous: in different situations, the same gesture acquires different meanings. If during a lecture a student shows his friend on the wrist (the place where they wear hours), then the meaning of the gesture is the question: “How much is left until the end of the lecture.” The same gesture addressed to the lecturer by his assistant means that the time there is little left, and we must move on to the final part of the lecture. This gesture can mean "hurry up, it's time to leave" if used by a person rushing to a train, plane, etc.">

;background:#ffffff">Kinesiology">
;background:#ffffff">The style of movement of a person, his gait is also a kinesic means of communication. Psychological studies show that this or that emotional state affects the gait of a person, and, therefore, it is possible, even without approaching a partner, to assess the potential effectiveness of communication Anger gives the style of movement a special severity, it seems to press a person to the ground, his gait becomes "heavy". Joy is expressed in a "light", even "flying" gait. A sluggish and oppressed gait is evidence of the suffering experienced. The largest step width is observed people who have done something very extraordinary and are proud of themselves.If your potential partner is in this state of mind, then it is likely that you will be able to achieve such results that you would hardly have obtained at another time.">
;background:#ffffff">Prosodic and extralinguistic means">

;background:#ffffff">Non-verbal means of communication include prosodic and extralinguistic means. Prosody (from the Greek.;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff">proscidia;background:#ffffff"> ; background: # ffffff "> - stress, chorus) - rhythmic-intonational features of speech: pitch and loudness of voice tone, voice timbre, stress strength. A person receives individual features of prosodic from nature, but much can be corrected by systematic work. Prosodic means are given a lot of attention. Thus, the discipline "stage speech" is studied for three semesters and has a predominantly practical orientation. Closely related to prosodic means are extralinguistic means (lat.;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff">extra- outside, above, lat.;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff">lingua ;background:#ffffff"> ; background: #ffffff "> - language) - psychophysiological manifestations included in speech. These are pauses, sighs, coughs, laughter, crying, etc. Prosodic and extralinguistic means regulate the flow of speech, with their help language means of communication are saved, they complement, replace and anticipate speech statements, express emotional states.">
;background:#ffffff">Takesian tools">

;background:#ffffff">The next group of non-verbal means of communication are takees means (lat.;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff">taktus ;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff">- touch, sensation). These are dynamic touches in the form of handshakes, pats on the shoulder, knee, back, kisses, body touches. acquaintances, position on the social ladder. The use of tactical means in business contacts should be extremely selective, as they are very expressive means of communication. The most neutral tactical means is a handshake. In the business world, it is used not only as a greeting, but also as a symbol of a prisoner agreement, a sign of trust and respect for the partner.The characteristics of the handshake can be its duration and intensity.Short and sluggish indicates the indifference of the partner.A long handshake, accompanied by a smile and a friendly look, demonstrates a friendly attitude towards you.Long and intense ("dead grip") should alert you: par ner fights for leadership in a relationship. The handshake has its own specific features that reflect the hierarchical position of the partners relative to each other: dominant (the hand is on top, the palm is turned down), subordinate (the hand is below, the palm is turned up) and equal (the hand is directed straight, the palm is perpendicular to the plane on which the person is standing) .

;background:#ffffff">Proxemic agents">
;background:#ffffff">Anthropologist E. Hall identified four main areas of interpersonal communication (for North Americans and Europeans), the size of which depends on the degree of proximity of people to each other, and introduced the term "proxemics" (from the Greek.;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff">proximus ;background:#ffffff"> ;background:#ffffff"> - closest): intimate distance (communication with relatives and friends) - from contact to 45 cm, personal (communication with familiar people) - from 45 to 120 cm, social (official communication and communication with strangers) - from 120 to 400 cm and public (communication with the audience) - from 4 to 7.5 m. Violation of the optimal communication distance in a given situation can cause misunderstanding, misunderstanding between communicants and even lead to conflict. In connection with the studies of E. Hall the behavior of large groups of people gathered in a limited space (crowd phenomenon) becomes more understandable: the aggressiveness of passengers on an overcrowded bus, participants in political events, fans of a particular sports team. and this leads to increased aggressiveness.

;background:#ffffff">Paralinguistics">

;background:#ffffff"> Paralinguistics (Greek para - about) studies the totality of non-verbal means included in a speech message and transmitting, together with verbal means, semantic information. There are three types of paralinguistic means: phonation, kinetic, graphic.;background:#ffffff"> ">

;background:#ffffff">Phonation includes the timbre of speech, its tempo, loudness, types of filling pauses ("e-;background:#ffffff">e", "mm", etc.), features of the pronunciation of sounds;;background:#ffffff"> ">

;background:#ffffff">Kinetic gestures include gestures, the type of posture chosen, facial expressions;;background:#ffffff"> ">

;background:#ffffff">Graphic means are handwriting, ways of graphic additions to letters, their substitutes, symbols

Portal for the student. Self-training

Variability and dynamic nature of the norm. Features of the language norm

Topic number 3. The concept of a language norm. The main types of norms.

Ways of mastering the norm. The system of norms (the dynamic nature of the norm)

More on the topic Variability and the dynamic nature of the norm:

Pronunciation norms

;color:#000000">Pronunciation of vowel sounds

;color:#000000">Pronunciation of consonants

Portal for the student. Self-training

Topic number 3. The concept of a language norm. The main types of norms.

Ways of mastering the norm. The system of norms (the dynamic nature of the norm)

More on the topic Variability and the dynamic nature of the norm:

Pronunciation norms

;color:#000000">Pronunciation of vowel sounds

;color:#000000">Pronunciation of consonants

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