The Old Norse counting system was duodecimal - I suggest readers check their knowledge about the era and life of the Vikings on twelve facts from a popular image. Distinguished - 13th for the road!

The Vikings have fascinated me since early childhood. Still, such charismatic characters! At that time, the adolescent consciousness somehow filtered the fact that the Vikings, in fact, were those robbers and pirates. When I decided to become a professional historian, many of the "facts" about the Vikings, which seemed to be axioms, turned out to be debunked, but other, no less interesting aspects of the life of the ancients were discovered.

1 VIKINGS DISCOVERED AMERICA LONG BEFORE COLUMBUS

Vikings discoverers. .

2. THE VIKINGS HAVE A GREAT INFLUENCE ON THE LANGUAGES OF THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE WITH WHICH THEY COME FROM

Answer: true. The influence of Old Norse on different languages ​​was not of the same strength, but, undoubtedly, it did not pass without a trace. There are literally a few words left in Old Russian (“sneak”, “Ladoga” and some others), in French (through the Norman dialect) there are already more of them: for example, such words as é quiper(“to equip”, from other Scandinavian. skipa), rogue("arrogant", from other Scandinavian. hrogn and hrokr), etc. But the system of numerals after 60, unusual for Romance languages, stands out especially: where in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian for "80" there will be ochenta, oitenta and ottanta(from lat. octoginta), in French is square vingt(literally: "four times twenty"), which finds a direct correspondence with the number system in modern Danish:

• "fifty" - halvtredsindstyve(2.5×20),
• "60" - Tresindstyve(3×20),
• "70" - halvfjerdsindstyve(3.5×20),
• "80" - firsindstyve(4×20)
• "90" - halvfemsindstyve(4.5×20).

Even more Scandinavian in Irish: for example, margadh("market", from other Scandinavian. markair), cnaipe(“button”, from other Scand. knappr), brog(“boot”, from other Scandinavian. brok). But we find the deepest influence in English, where up to 500 words of Scandinavian origin are firmly entrenched in the general vocabulary (for example, die,take,sky,they,she,leg,husband and hundreds of others) and about the same number - in dialects and dialects. In addition, in the area of ​​Viking settlement in Britain in the 9th century. a huge number of names are Scandinavian: such as Derby,Holderness, Whitby,Slaithwaite and thousands of others.

Names of Scandinavian origin in England. .

3. THE VIKINGS WERE DISCOVERED BY HOSTILE PROPAGANDA FROM CHRISTIAN SOURCES: THEY WERE REALLY PEACEFUL MIGRANTS AND MERCHANTS JUST BELIEVE IN MORE THAN ONE INVISIBLE FRIEND

…de gente fera Normannica nos libera, quae nostra vastat, Deus

- "... save us, Lord, from the wrath of the wild people of the Normans, who live in the north." According to historian Richard Abels, it was precisely the need to repulse the Scandinavians that forced the Anglo-Saxon kings to create a powerful state machine with an orderly military organization and the most developed bureaucracy in Europe at that time: if the Vikings lived off the robbery of the local population, the English kings could not do this with their subjects and instead were forced to build complex logistics. Another thing is that the Scandinavians were settlers and merchants too, but one did not interfere with the other, and it is unlikely that the sources of that time greatly exaggerated their greed and cruelty.

4 VIKINGS WEARED HORN HELMETS IN BATTLE

A typical Viking in the mass consciousness. .

Döppler's drawing of Hunding. .

5. THE VIKINGS DID NOT ONLY RIP OVERSEAS COUNTRIES, BUT ALSO FOUNDED STATES

Vikings for robbery. Caption: “And remember: we do not rob or ruin. We free them from oppressive possessions." .

6. THE FAVORITE WEAPON OF THE VIKINGS WAS A MASSIVE TWO-EDGED AX

If a viking, then an oromous ax with two blades. .

7. THE VIKINGS WERE SERIOUS BARBARIANS AND DIDN'T CARE ABOUT HYGIENE

8. THE VIKINGS WERE SKILLY ARTIFACTS AND HAVE A SENSE OF PERFECT

A couple of Vikings at the workbench. .

Answer: true. The Scandinavians of the Viking Age not only plundered neighboring peoples, founded states and moved to new lands, but also knew a lot about all kinds of crafts and applied arts of their time. Researchers identify at least six styles: oseberg,Borre,Jelling, Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes(the names are given according to the geographical locations where "exemplary" items of each style were found). A few years ago, Dr. J. Graham-Campbell produced a good overview of Viking art. The only thing that the Scandinavians of that era, perhaps, did not succeed in was monumental architecture, since there was no tradition of stone construction in their culture, and Viking houses, being a masterpiece in their own way, are still utilitarian in nature (which I strongly recommend T. Vidal's doctoral dissertation 2013). However, this did not prevent them from building powerful defensive structures made of wood and earth, such as the Danevirke and Trelleborg-type fortresses.

Viking Age Ornaments. .

9. OVER THE WORST ENEMIES, THE VIKINGS PERFORMED A PARTICULAR KIND OF EXECUTION CALLED "BLOODY EAGLE"

Execution of the condemned by means of the "bloody eagle". .

Answer: myth. The description of this type of execution causes genuine horror, however, although we know from sources about human sacrifices in Scandinavia (in particular, see), the practice of the "bloody eagle" raises great doubts among modern researchers (but not the channel HistoryChannel, who inserted the corresponding scene into the series). The main counter-arguments of the skeptic camp are presented in the 1984 article by R. Frank:

• very rare and contradictory references to such an execution,
• "fouling" of descriptions with each new century,
• probable misunderstanding by Christian authors of the thirteenth century. kennings (metaphors) in skaldic poetry.

Frank concludes that the "blood eagle" is a literary invention, born out of a misinterpretation of skaldic poetry and the ideological attitudes of its time, and later popularized by Victorian authors in the 19th century.

Image of execution on a runic stone from Fr. Gotland, sometimes interpreted as a "blood eagle" scene. .

10. ALTHOUGH THE ALL-FATHER ODIN WAS THE SUPREME GOD IN THE SCANDINAVIAN PANTHEON, MANY VIKINGS WORSHIPED THOR

God Thor in modern mass culture in the Marvel Universe. .

Answer: true. The existence of the cult of Odin is known both from continental sources (where he bears the name Wotan) and Anglo-Saxon (under the name Woden) of the 7th-11th centuries, but the first truly detailed description of the Scandinavian pantheon headed by Odin is found only in Icelandic records. 13th century ancient epic ("Poetic (Elder) Edda") of the Christian time. Modern consciousness requires systematization, but to a certain extent it was alien to the people of antiquity, and it is difficult to say to what extent the Vikings themselves saw Odin as the supreme god (and whether they needed him). So, according to, in the sanctuary in Uppsala (Sweden), Thor sat on the main throne, and Odin and Frig (Freya?) - on the sides. Odin was primarily the patron of the elite - those in power and warriors - and Thor, apparently, was worshiped by ordinary members of society (a very similar situation was, apparently, in Russia with the gods Perun and Veles). His name is recorded in many titles ( Thorsager, Torso, Thorwiggar etc.) and personal male and female names ( Thorsteinn,ThormOthr, Thorbjorg, Thordis and etc.); in addition, the cult of Thor, unlike Odin, had a distinctive symbol - a hammer Mjollnir, found in many archaeological finds (it is possible that this was a response to the pectoral crosses of Christians). Perhaps the cult of Odin in the Viking Age was more local (judging by the geography of names with this element - mainly in Sweden), and Christian authors somewhat "streamlined" the Scandinavian pantheon. I recommend this topic.

11. THE VIKINGS WERE NOT JUST BOLD ROBBERS, BUT ALSO SKILLED TACTICS, KNOWLEDGE IN THE ART OF MILITARY

Answer: true . If in battle the Vikings usually used the universal technique "wall of shields", then their general tactics and strategy, as it is restored from contemporary sources, were very flexible and thoughtful. The main emphasis was on the speed of movement and the surprise of the attack. High-speed ships could successfully climb the rivers inland, and on land the Scandinavians often captured horses for swift throws and detour maneuvers (for example, in 878 Guthrum’s detachment made a daring raid on the residence of the Wessex king Alfred in Chippenham (Wiltshire) and forced him to hide). They preferred not to enter into direct contact with the organized army of the enemy, but instead retreated to a fortified camp and waited until the besiegers ran out of supplies. Military ingenuity was not alien to them: if such tricks as luring Askold and Dir from Kyiv or burning the Drevlyansk city of Iskorosten by Princess Olga, perhaps they are legends or wandering literary plots (for example, in the "Saga of Harald the Severe" there is a similar episode of the capture of the city in Sicily), then some of their inventions (for example, entering the Italian city of Luna under the guise of a funeral procession) apparently really took place.

The Vikings are rapidly landing on the shore. .

12. THE VIKINGS WERE A LITERAL PEOPLE, AND ALL OUR INFORMATION ABOUT THEM IS GAINED FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE, FOREIGN AND/OR LATER (XIII C.) SCANDINAVIAN SOURCES

Viking newspaper: you can't write a lot of news without letters. .

Answer: myth. Although in the Viking Age, the Scandinavians really did not compose the written monuments familiar to us (chronicles, lives of saints, letters, etc.), they had a developed writing system in the form that has been well scientifically studied since the 19th century. Contrary to amateurish nonsense, which can sometimes be read on the Internet, both ancient Germanic (older futhark), and Anglo-Saxon (futhark) and Scandinavian (younger futhark) runes were a full-fledged alphabet, which, transforming, was successfully used for one and a half millennia (and in some "bear corners" - up to the 19th century). Indeed, long texts were not written in runes, their main purpose was reduced to ritual (for example, memorial stones) or possessory (“this item belongs to such and such”) inscriptions, the total number of which is estimated at about 6 thousand. Only in the Middle Ages were several complete manuscripts recorded in runes (the most famous is CodexRunicus, containing a record of Skåne's laws). Despite the popularity of the word "runes", it can only be applied to Scandinavian writing, no "Slavic" or any other runes exist in nature (the exception is the so-called Wikipedia, the word "drakkar" ² not going on

from the Old Norse Drage - "dragon" and Kar - "ship", literally - "dragon ship".

The Old Norse language had many words with the meaning "ship" for ships of various designs: skip- general concept (of any size and type); knǫrr- merchant or cargo ship with a spacious hold; (often also langskip) - warship; snekkja- a warship, but smaller than skeið. In the language of the Scandinavian skaldic poets, the ship of the leader or king could be called the word dreki- "dragon" (perhaps in connection with the decoration on the bow of the ship). In the plural, this word looks like drekkar- from here the modern collective slightly euphonic “drakkar” is taken, however, the Vikings themselves preferred more practical terminology to poetic metaphors (see the book).

Different types of Viking ships. .

Notes:

¹ Unfortunately, the editors found this "myth" not interesting and asked to replace it with another one in the test.

- In general, I have a suspicion that such an explanation in the spirit of “folk etymology” is largely a Russian-speaking phenomenon. With one exception, neither in English, nor in German, nor in Danish did I come across the word dr a kkar to describe Scandinavian ships (and even in the singular) - I saw an exception in the signature to the collection model of a Scandinavian ship in the souvenir shop of the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilda (Denmark). Sometimes the terminology is used dreki or dr e kkar, but more often they write / say Viking ship/Wikingerschiffe/vikingeskib or long ship/lange Schiffe/lang skib. Word drage means "dragon" in a non-Old Norse (where, as already stated, would be dreki), according to Wikipedia, but in modern Danish and Norwegian. Moreover, the Old Norse word kar(r) has nothing to do with ships at all: according to the authoritative Cleisby-Wigfusson dictionary, it means

the mucus or slime on new-born calves and lambs

("mucus on newborn calves or lambs").

The word, however, lives on. I can offer three explanations:

1. letter e has been replaced by a solely for the sake of soundness,
2. maybe for some reason e changed to a following Swedish, where "dragon" would really dr a ke, and in the plural - dr ak ar. However, the word kar in Swedish, Danish and Norwegian it means “vessel”, “vat” (Old.Isl. ker), so in any case the word drak-kar ridiculous. It is all the more strange that it (albeit with one letter k- perhaps because the main Scandinavian language of the author was Swedish) is found in the last work of one of the highest Russian specialists in Scandinavia, A.A. Svanidze, who left us untimely this year.

Be that as it may, calling a Viking ship a "drakkar" is not correct. This is the same as saying that any Soviet car was called "Mos G vichi": firstly, "Moskvich", secondly, "Moskvichi" - plural, thirdly, there were other brands of cars. A phrase in the spirit: “Olav Tryggvason’s Drakkar was called the Long Serpent,” sounds about the same as: “Leonid Brezhnev’s Muscovites were called the Seagull.”

For all those interested in the Vikings, I can recommend next literature in addition to the article already mentioned:

1. Barnes, Michael P. 2012. Runes: A Handbook. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press.
2. Line, Philip. 2015. The Vikings and Their Enemies: Warfare in Northern Europe, 750-1100. New York: Skyhorse Publishing.

Many worthy works were also published in Russian, as well as some translations; here are just a few of them:

1. Gurevich A.Ya. Selected works. Ancient Germans. Vikings. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University Press, 2007. - 352 p.
2. Jones G. M.: ZAO Tsentrpoligraf, 2007. - 445 p.
3. Melnikova E.A. Scandinavian runic inscriptions: New finds and interpretations. Texts, translation, commentary. M.: Publishing company "Eastern Literature" RAS, 2001. - 496 p.
4. Roesdal E. The Viking World: Vikings at Home and Abroad. St. Petersburg: World Word, 2001. - 270 p.
5. Svanidze A.A. Vikings are the people of the saga: life and manners. M.: NLO, 2014.- 800 s.

They say, "scratch a Russian - you will find a Tatar." With the same confidence we can say: "scratch a Russian - you will find a Varangian."

Scratch the Viking...

Vikings are not a nationality, but a vocation. "People from the bay" - this is how this warlike word is translated from the Old Norse language - brought a lot of trouble to the civilized world at the turn of the second millennium. Sea nomads kept Europe at bay - from the British Isles to Sicily. In Russia, in many ways, thanks to the Vikings, statehood appeared.

Among the Vikings, the Scandinavians-Germans prevailed. Notoriety about them went from the Caspian to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the Pomor Slavs and the Curonian Balts were Vikings, who kept the entire Baltic in tension in the 8th-9th centuries.

According to the Roewer genetic laboratory, published in 2008, up to 18% of Russians are descendants of people from Northern Europe. These are the owners of haplogroup I1, common for Norway and Sweden, but atypical for Russia. "Descendants of the Vikings" are found not only in the northern, but also in the southern cities.

In Russia, the Scandinavians were known as Varangians, Russ and kolbyagov. At that time, in the West, only the name was in use. Normans -"northern people"

Russ

According to one hypothesis, the Rus were a Swedish tribe. The Finns still remember this and call them ruotsi, and the Estonians rootsi. Ruothi call themselves the Swedish Sami. Komi and the eastern Finno-Ugric tribes already call the Russians themselves - rot's, roots. This word in both Finnish and European languages ​​\u200b\u200bgoes back to the designation of red or red.

We say "Rus", we mean "Swedes". In this form, they are mentioned in the documents of Byzantium and European states. "Russian names" in documents and treaties of the 9th-10th centuries turned out to be Scandinavian. The customs and appearance of the Rus were described in detail by Arab historians and are suspiciously similar to the lifestyle and appearance of the Swedish Vikings.

For the “people from the bay”, the Russian lands did not offer wide scope for sea voyages. And yet the wealth of the Eastern worlds attracted the most adventurous. The settlements of the Rus spread along the main waterways - the Volga, the Dnieper, the Western Dvina and Ladoga.

Ladoga is the first Scandinavian city in Russia. Legends mention it as the Aldeigyuborg fortress. It was built around 753 and sits opposite a successful trading stronghold of the Slavs. Here the Russians mastered the Arab technology of making money. These were eye beads, the first Russian money for which you could buy a slave or a slave.

The main occupations of the Rus were the slave trade, robbery of local tribes and attacks on merchants. A century after the founding of Ladoga, the tricks of the Rus were learned in the Arab Caliphate and Europe. The Khazars were the first to complain. The raids of the Russians harmed their traditional craft - with the help of extortions and duties, they "skim the cream" from trade between the west and the east. In the 9th century, the Rus were the most hated tribe. They overcame the Byzantines on the Black Sea and threatened to make a "desert storm" against the Arabs.

Varangians

The Varangians are mentioned in Russian chronicles, first of all, not as a people, but as a military class of "overseas" origin. Under the name "Varangi" (or "Veringi") they served Byzantium and helped protect its borders from the raids of their own tribesmen - the Rus.

"The Calling of the Varangians" is a vivid example of effective management. The overseas prince no longer served the interests of clans, tribes and clans, pursuing an independent policy. Chud, Slovene, Krivichi and the whole were able to “pause” constant strife and occupy the Vikings with affairs of national importance.

The Varangians adopted Christianity when it had not yet become mainstream in Russia. Pectoral crosses accompanied the burials of warriors as early as the 9th century. If we understand the "baptism of Russia" literally, then it happened a century earlier - in 867. After another unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople, the Russians, having changed tactics, decided to atone for their sins and sent an embassy to Byzantium in order to be baptized. Where these Russ ended up later is unknown, but half a century later Helg visited the Romans, who, by misunderstanding, turned out to be a pagan.

Gardar and Biarmland

In the Scandinavian sagas, Russia was called Garar, literally - "fence", the outskirts of the world of people, behind which monsters were located. The place is not the most attractive, for an amateur. According to another version, this word denoted "guards" - the fortified bases of the Vikings in Russia. In later texts (XIV century), the name was reinterpreted as Garariki- "a country of cities", which more reflected reality.

The cities of Gardariki according to the sagas were: Surnes, Palteschia, Holmgard, Kenugard, Rostof, Surdalar, Moramar. Without the gift of providence, one can recognize in them the cities of Ancient Russia familiar to us: Smolensk (or Chernigov), Polotsk, Novgorod, Kyiv, Rostov, Murom. Smolensk and Chernigov can argue for the name "Syurnes" quite legally: not far from both cities, archaeologists have found the largest Scandinavian settlements.

Arab writers knew a lot about the Rus. They mentioned their main cities - Arsu, Cuiaba and Salau. Unfortunately, poetic Arabic does not convey the names well. If Cuiaba can be translated as "Kyiv", and Salau as the legendary city of "Slovensk", then nothing can be said about Arsa at all. In Ars, all foreigners were killed and nothing was reported about their trade. Some see Rostov, Rusa or Ryazan in Ars, but the mystery is far from being solved.

A dark history with Biarmia, which Scandinavian legends placed in the northeast. Finnish tribes and mysterious Biarms lived there. They spoke a language similar to Finnish, and mysteriously disappeared in the 13th century, by the time the Novgorodians came to these lands. These lands, according to the descriptions, resemble Russian Pomorye. The Scandinavians left few traces here: in the vicinity of Arkhangelsk they found only weapons and decorations of the 10th-12th centuries.

First princes

Historians trust chronicles, but they do not believe and they like to find fault with words. Confuses the "blank spot" in the evidence of the first Varangian princes. The texts say that Oleg reigned in Novgorod and took tribute from him, which is a contradiction. This gave rise to a version of the "first capital" of Russia near Smolensk, where there was the largest Scandinavian settlement. At the same time, Ukrainian scientists are adding fuel to the fire. They claim to have found the grave of a "Varangian prince" near Chernigov.

According to the documents, the names of the first Russian princes sounded differently than in The Tale of Bygone Years. If there is almost no news about Rurik, then Igor “by passport” was Inger, Oleg and Olga were Helg and Helga, and Svyatoslav was Sfendoslav. The Scandinavians were the first princes of Kyiv - Askold and Dir. The names of the princes of Turov and Polotsk - Tur, Rogneda and Rogvolod - are also attributed to Scandinavian roots. In the 11th century, Russian rulers became so “glorified” that Scandinavian princely names were rather a rare exception.

The fate of the Varangians

By X-XII, the state of Rurikovich became very rich, and could simply afford to “buy” the Varangians needed for service. They were left in the city garrisons and squads. Viking attacks on Russian cities would have been pointless. It was easier to get a good salary for the service.

In the cities, ordinary people often did not get along with the Vikings - there were skirmishes. Soon the situation began to get out of control and Yaroslav Vladimirovich had to introduce "concepts" - Russian truth. Thus, the first legal document in the history of Russia appeared.

The Viking Age ends in the 12th century. In Russia, references to the Varangians disappear from the annals by the 13th century, and the Rus are dissolved in the Slavic Russian people.

The medieval Viking Age refers to the period of the 8th-11th centuries, when the European seas were plied by bold robbers from Scandinavia. Their raids struck terror into the civilized inhabitants of the Old World. The Vikings were not only robbers, but also merchants, as well as pioneers. By religion they were pagans.

The advent of the Vikings

In the VIII century, the inhabitants of the territory of modern Norway, Sweden and Denmark began to build the fastest ships at that time and go on long journeys on them. The harsh nature of their native lands pushed them to these adventures. Agriculture in Scandinavia was underdeveloped due to the cold climate. A modest harvest did not allow local residents to feed their families enough. Thanks to the robberies, the Vikings became noticeably richer, which gave them the opportunity not only to buy food, but also to trade with their neighbors.

The first attack by sailors on neighboring countries occurred in 789. Then the robbers attacked Dorset in the south-west of England, killed thethen and robbed the city. Thus began the Viking Age. Another important reason for the emergence of mass piracy was the decomposition of the former system based on community and clan. The nobility, having strengthened its influence, began to create the first prototypes of states on For such jarls, robberies became a source of wealth and influence among compatriots.

Skilful sailors

The key reason for the conquests and geographical discoveries of the Vikings was their ships, which were much better than any other European ones. The warships of the Scandinavians were called drakkars. Sailors often used them as their own home. Such vessels were mobile. They could be relatively easily dragged ashore. At first, the ships were oared, later they acquired sails.

Drakkars were distinguished by their elegant shape, speed, reliability and lightness. They were designed specifically for shallow rivers. Entering them, the Vikings could go deep into the devastated country. Such voyages came as a complete surprise to Europeans. As a rule, drakkars were built from ash wood. They are an important symbol left behind by early medieval history. The Viking Age is not only a period of conquest, but also a period of development of trade. For this purpose, the Scandinavians used special merchant ships - knorrs. They were wider and deeper than the Drakkars. Much more goods could be loaded on such ships.

The Viking Age in Northern Europe was marked by the development of navigation. The Scandinavians did not have any special devices (for example, a compass), but they perfectly managed the prompts of nature. These sailors knew the habits of birds thoroughly and took them with them on a voyage to determine if there was land nearby (if there was none, the birds returned to the ship). The researchers also focused on the sun, stars and moon.

Raids on Britain

The first Scandinavian raids into England were fleeting. They plundered defenseless monasteries and promptly returned to the sea. However, gradually the Vikings began to claim the lands of the Anglo-Saxons. There was no single kingdom in Britain at that time. The island was divided among several rulers. In 865, the legendary Ragnar Lodbrok went to Northumbria, but his ships ran aground and crashed. Uninvited guests were surrounded and captured. King Ella II of Northumbria executed Ragnar by ordering him to be thrown into a pit full of poisonous snakes.

The death of Lodbrok did not go unpunished. Two years later, the Great Pagan Army landed on the coast of England. This army was led by numerous sons of Ragnar. The Vikings conquered East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. The rulers of these kingdoms were executed. The last stronghold of the Anglo-Saxons was South Wessex. His king Alfred the Great, realizing that his forces were not enough to fight the interventionists, concluded a peace treaty with them, and then, in 886, completely recognized their possessions in Britain.

Conquest of England

It took Alfred and his son Edward the Elder four decades to clear their homeland of foreigners. Mercia and East Anglia were freed by 924. In remote northern Northumbria, Viking rule continued for another thirty years.

After some lull, the Scandinavians again began to appear frequently off the British coast. The next wave of raids began in 980, and in 1013 Sven Forkbeard completely captured the country and became its king. His son Canute the Great ruled three monarchies at once for three decades: England, Denmark and Norway. After his death, the former dynasty from Wessex regained power, and foreigners left Britain.

In the 11th century, the Scandinavians made several more attempts to conquer the island, but they all failed. The Viking Age, in short, left a noticeable imprint on the culture and government of Anglo-Saxon Britain. On the territory that the Danes owned for some time, the Danelag was established - a system of law adopted from the Scandinavians. This region was isolated from other English provinces throughout the Middle Ages.

Normans and Franks

The Viking Age is the period of the Norman attacks. Under this name, the Scandinavians were remembered by their Catholic contemporaries. If the Vikings sailed to the west mainly in order to rob England, then in the south the Frankish Empire was the goal of their campaigns. It was created in 800 by Charlemagne. As long as under him and under his son Louis the Pious a single strong state was preserved, the country was reliably protected from the pagans.

However, when the empire broke up into three kingdoms, and those in turn began to suffer from the costs of the feudal system, dizzying opportunities opened up for the Vikings. Some Scandinavians plundered the coast every year, while others were hired into the service of Catholic rulers in order to protect Christians for a generous salary. During one of their raids, the Vikings even captured Paris.

In 911, the Frankish king Charles the Simple gave the Vikings this region became known as Normandy. Its rulers were baptized. This tactic proved to be effective. More and more Vikings gradually switched to a settled way of life. But some daredevils continued their campaigns. So, in 1130, the Normans conquered southern Italy and created the Kingdom of Sicily.

Scandinavian discovery of America

Moving further west, the Vikings discovered Ireland. They often raided this island and left a significant imprint on the local Celtic culture. For more than two centuries, the Scandinavians owned Dublin. Around 860, the Vikings discovered Iceland ("Ice Country"). It was they who became the first inhabitants of this deserted island. Iceland proved to be a popular place for colonization. The inhabitants of Norway, who fled the country due to frequent civil wars, sought to go there.

In the year 900, a Viking ship, accidentally lost its way, stumbled upon Greenland. The first colonies appeared there at the end of the 10th century. This discovery inspired other Vikings to continue their search for a way to the west. They rightly hoped that there were new lands far beyond the sea. The navigator around the year 1000 reached the shores of North America and landed on the Labrador Peninsula. He called this region Vinland. Thus, the Viking Age was marked by the discovery of America five centuries before the expedition of Christopher Columbus.

Rumors about this country were fragmentary and did not leave Scandinavia. In Europe, they never learned about the western mainland. Viking settlements in Vinland lasted for several decades. Three attempts were made to colonize this land, but they all failed. Indians attacked strangers. Keeping in touch with the colonies was extremely difficult because of the vast distances. Eventually the Scandinavians left America. Much later, archaeologists found traces of their settlement in Canadian Newfoundland.

Vikings and Russia

In the second half of the 8th century, Viking troops began to attack the lands inhabited by numerous Finno-Ugric peoples. This is evidenced by the finds of archaeologists discovered in the Russian Staraya Ladoga. If in Europe the Vikings were called Normans, then the Slavs called them Varangians. The Scandinavians controlled several trading ports along the Baltic Sea in Prussia. Here began a profitable amber route, along which amber was transported to the Mediterranean.

How did the Viking Age affect Russia? In short, thanks to the newcomers from Scandinavia, East Slavic statehood was born. According to the official version, the inhabitants of Novgorod, who often had contact with the Vikings, turned to them for help during an internal civil strife. So the Varangian Rurik was invited to reign. A dynasty came from him, which in the near future united Russia and began to rule in Kyiv.

Life of Scandinavian people

At home, the Vikings lived in large peasant dwellings. Under the roof of one such building fit a family that included three generations at once. Children, parents, grandparents lived together. This custom was an echo. Houses were built from wood and clay. The roofs were turf. In the central large room there was a common hearth, behind which they not only ate, but also slept.

Even when the Viking Age came, their cities in Scandinavia remained very small, inferior in size even to the settlements of the Slavs. People concentrated mainly around craft and trade centers. Cities were built in the depths of the fjords. This was done in order to get a convenient harbor and, in the event of an attack by an enemy fleet, to know in advance about its approach.

Scandinavian peasants dressed in woolen shirts and short baggy trousers. The costume of the Viking Age was quite ascetic due to the scarcity of raw materials in Scandinavia. Wealthy members of the upper classes could wear colored clothes that distinguished them from the crowd, showing wealth and position. The women's costume of the Viking Age necessarily included accessories - metal jewelry, a brooch, pendants and belt buckles. If the girl was married, she put her hair in a bun, unmarried people picked up her hair with a ribbon.

Armor and weapons of the Vikings

In modern popular culture, the image of a Viking with a horned helmet on his head is common. In fact, such headdresses were rare and were no longer used for combat, but for rituals. The clothing of the Viking Age included the obligatory light armor for all men.

Weapons were much more diverse. The northerners often used a spear about one and a half meters long, with which they could chop and stab the enemy. But the most common was the sword. These weapons were very light compared to other types that appeared in the subsequent Middle Ages. The Viking Age sword was not necessarily made in Scandinavia itself. Warriors often acquired Frankish weapons, as they were of the best quality. The Vikings also had long knives - the Saxons.

The inhabitants of Scandinavia made bows from ash or yew. Braided hair was often used as a bowstring. Axes were a common melee weapon. The Vikings preferred a wide, symmetrically divergent blade.

The last Normans

In the first half of the 11th century, the Viking Age came to an end. It was due to several factors. Firstly, in Scandinavia the former tribal system finally decomposed. It was replaced by classical medieval feudalism with overlords and vassals. Remained in the past and half Scandinavians settled in their homeland.

The end of the Viking Age also came because of the spread of Christianity among the northerners. The new faith, unlike the pagan one, opposed bloody campaigns in a foreign land. Gradually, many sacrificial rituals were forgotten, etc. The first to be baptized were the nobility, which, with the help of the new faith, legitimized in the eyes of the rest of the civilized European community. Following the rulers and the aristocracy, ordinary residents did the same.

In the changed conditions, the Vikings, who wanted to connect their lives with military affairs, went into mercenaries and served with foreign sovereigns. For example, the Byzantine emperors had their own Varangian guards. The inhabitants of the north were valued for their physical strength, unpretentiousness in everyday life and many combat skills. The last Viking in power in the classical sense of the word was King Harald III of Norway the Severe. He went to England and tried to conquer it, but died at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066. Then came the end of the Viking Age. William the Conqueror from Normandy (himself also a descendant of the Scandinavian sailors) conquered England in the same year.

The most striking events in history can rightfully be considered the campaigns of the Vikings, just as they themselves would rightly be called very interesting figures in the period from the 9th to the 11th century. The very word "Viking" roughly means "sailing in the sea." In the native language of the Normans, "vik" means "fjord", which in our opinion will be "bay". Therefore, many sources interpret the word "Viking" as "man from the bay." A common question is "Where did the Vikings live?" would be as inappropriate as the assertion that "Viking" and "Scandinavian" are one and the same. In the first case, we are talking about a person, in the second - about belonging to a particular people.

As for belonging to a certain ethnic group, it can be difficult to identify it, since the Vikings settled in the occupied territories, soaking in all the local “benefits”, as well as saturating the culture of these lands. The same can be said about the titles that were awarded to the "people of the fort" by various peoples. It all depended on the place where the Vikings lived. Normans, Varangians, Danes, Russes - such names were received by the "sea army" on more and more new shores, where it landed.

A lot of myths and misconceptions hover around the bright historical characters, which were the Vikings. Where the Norman invaders lived, what they did, besides their campaigns and raids, and whether they did anything other than them at all, are very delicate questions that torment the heads of historians to this day. However, at least seven misconceptions about the "Scandinavian barbarians" can be deduced today.

Cruelty and thirst for conquest

In most films, books and other entertainment resources, the Vikings appear before us as bloodthirsty barbarians who cannot imagine their life without daily sticking their ax into someone's skull.

The initial reason for military campaigns among the Normans was the overpopulation of the Scandinavian lands where the Vikings lived. Plus constant strife of clans. Both forced a large part of the population to go in search of a better life. And the river robbery was nothing more than a bonus to their difficult journey. Naturally, poorly fortified European cities became easy prey for sailors. However, as for other peoples - the French, the British, the Arabs and others, who also did not disdain bloodshed for the benefit of their pockets. Suffice it to recall that all this happened in the Middle Ages, and this way of making money was equally attractive to representatives of various powers. And the national propensity for bloodshed had nothing to do with it.

Hostility

Another claim that the Vikings were hostile to everyone but themselves is also a delusion. In fact, foreigners could both take advantage of the hospitality of the Normans and join their ranks. Many historical records confirm that French, Italians and Russians could meet among the Vikings. An example of staying in the Scandinavian possessions of Ansgar - the envoy of Louis the Pious - is another proof of the hospitality of the Vikings. You can also recall the Arab ambassador ibn Fadlan - the film "The 13th Warrior" was filmed based on this story.

Natives of Scandinavia

Although, contrary to the above remark, the Vikings are equated with the Scandinavians, this is a deep delusion, which is explained by the fact that the Vikings lived on the territory of Greenland, Iceland, as well as France and even Ancient Russia. In itself, the assertion that all "people of the fiord" are from Scandinavia is a mistake.

Where the Vikings lived at the beginning of the Middle Ages is an inappropriate question, since the “marine community” itself could include various nationalities, from various lands. Among other things, it is worth noting the fact that the French king freely gave part of the land to the Vikings, and in gratitude they stood guard over France when it was attacked by an enemy “from outside”. It is not uncommon that this enemy was the Vikings from other lands. By the way, this is how the name "Normandy" appeared.

Dirty heathen savages

Another oversight of many narrators of bygone years is the depiction of the Vikings as dirty, unscrupulous and wild people. And again, this is not true. And the proof of this is the finds that were extracted during excavations in various places where the Vikings lived.

Mirrors, combs, baths - all these remnants of an ancient culture found during excavations confirmed that the Normans were a clean people. And these finds were extracted not only in Sweden, Denmark, but also in Greenland, Iceland and other lands, including the Sarskoye settlement, where the Vikings lived on the banks of the Volga, which was located on the territory of Ancient Russia. In addition to everything else, it is not uncommon for the remains of soap made by the hands of the Normans themselves to be found. Once again, their cleanliness is proved by the joke of the British, which approximately sounded like this: “Vikings are so clean that they even go to the bathhouse once a week.” It does not hurt to recall that the Europeans themselves visited the bathhouse much less frequently.

Two-meter blondes

Another false statement, as the remains of the bodies of the Vikings say otherwise. Those who are presented as tall warriors with blond hair, in fact, reached no more than 170 centimeters in height. The vegetation on the head of these people was of different colors. The only thing that is indisputable is the preference for this type of hair among the Normans themselves. This was facilitated by the use of a special coloring soap.

Vikings and Ancient Russia

On the one hand, it is believed that the Vikings were directly related to the formation of Russia as a great power. On the other hand, there are sources that deny their participation in any event in history. Historians perceive Rurik's affiliation with the Scandinavians, and vice versa, are especially controversial. However, the name Rurik is close to the Norman Rerek - this is how many boys were called in Scandinavia. The same can be said about Oleg, Igor - his relative and son. And wife Olga. Just look at their Norman counterparts - Helge, Ingvar, Helga.

Many sources (almost all) unanimously state that the possessions of the Vikings extended to the Caspian and Black Seas. In addition, in order to reach the Caliphate, the Normans used crossings across the Dnieper, Volga and many other rivers flowing on the territory of Ancient Russia. The presence of trade transactions in the area of ​​the Sarsky settlement, where the Vikings lived on the Volga, was repeatedly noted. In addition, raids were often mentioned, accompanied by robberies in the region of Staraya Ladoga, the Gnezdovsky mounds, which also confirms the presence of Norman settlements on the territory of Ancient Russia. By the way, the word "Rus" also belongs to the Vikings. Even in the "Tale of Bygone Years" it was said that "Rurik came with all his Rus."

The exact location where the Vikings lived - on the banks of the Volga or not - is debatable. Some sources mention that they were based right next to their forts. Others argue that the Normans preferred a neutral space between water and large settlements.

Horns on helmets

And another misconception is the presence of horns on the top of the military vestments of the Normans. For all the time of excavations and research in the places where the Vikings lived, no helmets with horns were found, with the exception of the only one that was found in one of the Norman burial grounds.

But a single case does not give grounds for such a generalization. Although this image can be interpreted differently. It was in this way that it was beneficial to represent the Vikings to the Christian world, which classifies them as the offspring of the devil. And everything that has to do with Satan, Christians for some reason necessarily have horns.

On one of the summer days of 789, an event occurred on the coast of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, which only local chroniclers paid attention to. To the shore of the island of Portland, in the era of the Roman Empire, called Vindelis in Latin, three long boats landed, capable of going both at oars and under sails. Bearded, fair-haired strangers disembarked from the ships, speaking a language vaguely similar to Old English - at least the roots of most words were understandable to the inhabitants of Wessex. Thane Beochtrik came out to meet the shipmen with his men. We don’t know what the conversation was about, but it ended in a quarrel: the aliens killed Beochtrik, slaughtered his small detachment, took the trophy weapons, plunged into the boats and disappeared into the ocean.

In general, this story at that time was not something out of the ordinary - it was a matter of everyday life. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain diligently fought among themselves, and when closely related swarms got bored, they began to shove the Celts in Wales or Scotland, got back and returned to the usual civil strife. The war was the most common thing, and if you pay attention to every minor skirmish in the annals, you won’t get enough parchment. So why did such an insignificant incident on Vindelis attract the attention of the chronicler, and in our times is considered almost the key event of the 8th century in Europe, which launched a new era?

Scheme of Scandinavian expansion in VIII –XI centuries. Green indicates areas that were attacked by the Vikings, but not colonized by them

It should be noted here that the Anglo-Saxons have been Christians for more than two hundred years - as well as all their neighbors without exception: the Franks and Bretons across the English Channel, the Irish, the Scots and the Welsh. Relics of polytheism, if preserved, were at the household level or in very remote and inaccessible mountainous regions. The ill-mannered bearded men who landed in Wessex turned out to be real pagans - which in itself was extremely unusual.

The story of Tan Beochtrik is the first documentary evidence of the appearance of the Vikings. The sacking of Lindisfarne and Yarrow, the raids on Ireland, the landings on Orkney and Shetland - all this will happen later. In 789, none of the British or Franks could even imagine that Christian Europe was faced with a force that over the next three centuries would change not only the borders, but also the demographic situation, culture, and even cause a new prayer: “A furore Normannorum libera nos Domine!” - "From the fury of the Normans, save us, Lord!"

So let's try to figure out where the Vikings came from, who they are and why their invasion took place at all.

Scandinavia in the Dark Ages

People on the Scandinavian Peninsula appeared long before the birth of Christ. The earliest cultures (Kongemose, Nöstvet-Lihult culture, Ertebölle culture, etc.) date back to the Mesolithic and around the sixth millennium BC. For two or three thousand years BC. in southern Scandinavia, carriers of the “Culture of Battle Axes and Corded Ware” appear, which, presumably, become the core of the emergence of the Germanic peoples - they migrate north from the Jutland Peninsula and begin to populate the territories of present-day Sweden and Norway.

However, these are very old cases, and we are interested in the period after the fall of the Roman Empire, when a group of North Germanic tribes began to separate from the rest of Europe. The great migration of peoples, the collapse of Rome, the adoption of Christianity by the Goths, Franks and other Germans - in a word, all the grandiose changes in the middle of the first millennium of our era practically did not affect Scandinavia: too far. In the Dark Ages, no one showed interest in Scandinavia: the Franks had something to do on the continent, the introduction of Christianity proceeded, albeit confidently, but slowly: the church first had to establish itself in the new barbarian states. The inhabitants of the peninsula, located behind the North and Baltic Seas, have been “boiling in their own pot” for many centuries, knowing practically nothing about the turbulent events in Europe. If Christian missionaries appeared there, they were isolated and incapable of achieving serious success: the old Germanic gods were revered, as they were centuries ago, and nothing threatened their cult.

Wendel style helmet, 8th century (from the collection of the Stockholm Museum of Antiquities)

Here it is necessary to make a lengthy digression and talk about the climatic features of those times - otherwise it will not be clear why all of a sudden, starting from the 8th century, the Scandinavians rushed to look for new lands for settlement. Over the centuries, the climate changed more than once, optima (warming) and pessimum (cooling) alternated - the so-called Roman climatic optimum, which lasted from the time of Julius Caesar until about 400 AD, contributed a lot to the prosperity of the Roman Empire. The average temperature then was higher by an average of 1-2 degrees, Roman authors tell us that in Britain and Germany they even began to grow grapes - approximately from 280 AD.

In turn, the climatic pessimum of the early Middle Ages, which occurred during the Great Migration, exacerbated the already not very prosperous military-political and demographic situation in Europe - the cooling that began around the 5th century reduces the sown area, especially goes to the northern regions in general and, of course, Scandinavia in particular. St. Gregory of Tours in the extensive work of the VI century "History of the Franks" notes: " At that time, there were heavy rains, there was a lot of water, it was unbearably cold, the roads were limp with mud and the rivers overflowed their banks.". In 535–536, an unprecedented climatic anomaly occurs. Let's give the floor to the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea ("War", IV, 14. 5-6):

“... And this year the greatest miracle happened: the whole year the sun emitted light like the moon, without rays, as if it was losing its strength, ceasing, as before, to shine purely and brightly. From the time this began, neither war, nor pestilence, nor any other calamity that brings death has ceased among people. Then was the tenth year of the reign of Justinian.

Other authors claim that even at noon the sun looked "bluish" and objects did not cast shadows - this means that for almost a year and a half there was a dust suspension in the atmosphere caused by a supervolcano eruption or a large meteorite fall, and most likely both factors. The German scientist Wolfgang Behringer, in his book Kulturgeschichte des Klimas, cites archaeological data - in Norway in the 6th century, about forty percent of the farms were abandoned, that is, their owners either died out or migrated south. In general, in Old Norse mythology, cold, frost and ice have eschatological properties, being a symbol of death and chaos – remember the ice giants…

Nevertheless, by the 8th century, the climate begins to stabilize - warming sets in, crop areas expand again, grain crops can be harvested at latitudes adjacent to the Arctic Circle, and the quality of life rises sharply. The result is quite natural - explosive population growth.

However, here one should take into account not only climatic features, but also the geographical specifics of the Scandinavian Peninsula. If in eastern Sweden there are vast plains suitable for agriculture, then in mountainous Norway it is possible to grow bread and graze herds only on narrow strips of land along the coast and in river valleys. It is impossible to endlessly divide allotments between sons - the earth will not feed them anyway. In the bottom line: excess (and passionate) population, lack of food. Scandinavia is not rubber. What to do?

The way out was found quite quickly - since there is no fertile land, it means that one must be sought overseas. Given the fact that the ancient Scandinavians knew how to build excellent ships a long time ago, the solution to the issue lay in the palm of their hand. The first "prototype" of the drakkar, the "Hjortspring Boat", found by archaeologists in Denmark, on the island of Als, dates back to the 4th century BC. - the boat could accommodate up to 20 rowers. Moreover, the Scandinavian boats, having a minimum draft, could walk in any shallow water and penetrate into narrow rivers.

Hjortspring boat - the ship of the ancient Germans, ca.4th century BC National Museum of Denmark

It was then that the first forays of the ancient Scandinavians towards the continent and the British Isles begin - for starters, for more reconnaissance purposes than conquest. It was necessary to get acquainted with the situation, and this clearly testified: there is a lot of land there, the density of the local population is extremely low, such a population is unusual for lightning raids from the sea, and in general is not aware that they are possible. There is also documentary evidence - let's quote the scientist, theologian and poet of the 8th century Flaccus Albinus (Alcuin):

“Three hundred and fifty years we and our fathers have lived in this beautiful land, and never before has Britain known such horror as it has known now, after the appearance of the Gentiles. No one suspected that robbers could come from across the sea.”

Nobody suspected. And Europe has paid a huge price for its ignorance.

They came!

In the light of the foregoing, the question remains open - how did the European kings and bishops, who played an increasingly important political role, miss such an incredible danger? Where did the great historical figures of that era look? In the end, the emperor Charlemagne cannot be called an incompetent loafer, and the former barbarians quite successfully adopted such an important tool for the state as intelligence from Rome that had gone into oblivion! It is quite obvious that at least some connections existed between the Frankish Empire and Scandinavia - the northern borders of Saxony and Frisia adjoined the territory of present-day Denmark, the inhabitants of which will also take a lively part in the coming atrocities of the Vikings.

No answer. Perhaps the growing cultural and civilizational differences played their role - let us recall the words of Alcuin, in which the key is the concept of "pagan", which is opposed to "Christians". Europeans were then united not by ethnicity, but by religion: any non-Christian was a stranger, be it a Spanish Moor-Muslim or a Scandinavian who worshiped the gods of Asgard. For the time being, the Franks and the kingdoms of Britain treated the unwashed pagans from the distant northern fjords with disdain, sincerely believing that the Lord was on the side of the Christians (then - who is against them?!).

Vikings. Old English miniatures

Now we need to explain what we generally mean by the term "Viking". The word itself is formed from two parts: “vik”, that is, “bay, bay”, and the ending “ing”, denoting a community of people, most often generic - compare: Caroling, Capet, etc. We get the "man from the bay"! Initially, the Viking squads were made up of those very surpluses of the population - the younger sons who did not inherit the allotment, people who left the clan themselves or were expelled from it, or even just seekers of adventure, wealth and glory. That is, not settled Scandinavian landowners. However, why only the Scandinavians? Anyone could be in the crew of the ship - a Norwegian, a Wend, a Ruyanin, a Ladoga Krivich. After the Scandinavians began to master the “Road from the Varangians to the Greeks” through the Neva, Ladoga, Volkhov and further to the Volga basin, many Slavs began to appear in the squads, especially since the polytheistic pantheons of Scandinavia and Ancient Russia were very close, and on this basis it was possible to find a common language very quickly.

So, Viking is not a profession, not a nationality and not an occupation. This is a social status, a marginal social group, something between a soldier of fortune, a person without a fixed place of residence and a bandit as part of an organized group of people of Scandinavian (and not only) nationality. Such good fellows, without any unnecessary reflection, could easily rob the neighboring fjord, their own relatives, Norwegians or Swedes - the precedents are known. For the most part, they were not limited by the obligatory system of moral taboos for settled Scandinavians and gradually began to believe that they were superior to boring farmers, if only because the sacralization of war began in the religious sphere - it is enough to recall the cult of the warrior gods, Odin, Thor and others.

Thor with the hammer Mjollnir. Statuette dating from about 1000 AD.

If a social group has appeared, then its own subculture, its own ethics and its own religious views will certainly arise in such a group - especially in the conditions of the tribal system that dominates around. You don’t need to go far for examples - the functions of the priesthood, godi, are gradually transferred to military leaders: if you are a successful king, it means that you are close to the gods, they favor you - therefore, you send the necessary rituals and make sacrifices. There is only one way to be guaranteed to get to Valhalla after death - to die heroically in battle. One of the first places is given to personal prowess and glory, of course, obtained in a fair battle.

Finally, it is the Vikings who "invent" the marines in the form in which we know it - there was nothing to oppose them to unprecedented tactics before the European Christians. The scheme worked out by the ancient Scandinavians was simple, but incredibly effective: a sudden raid at almost any point of the sea or river coast (again, recall the ability of drakkars to walk in shallow water), and after a successful attack, an equally lightning-fast retreat, until the enemy managed to pull up any significant strength - then look for fistulas of these robbers on the high seas. It is only later that the Vikings will engage in respectable trade, for the sake of curiosity they will discover Iceland, Greenland and America and go to serve in the "Varangian squad" to the Byzantine emperors, and at the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th centuries they were engaged exclusively in the most egregious robberies, seizing land in England, Ireland and on the mainland, the slave trade and other equally interesting things ...

Old Norse ships, modern reconstruction. Drakkar in the foregroundislandingur("Icelander"), who in 2000 sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. Currently in the Njardvik Museum, Iceland

To tell here about the first major raid of the Vikings - the attack on the monastery of St. Cuthbert on the island of Lindisfarne on June 8, 793 - does not make sense, this story is well known. Suffice it to say that this unfortunate event took place only four years after the first appearance of the Vikings off the coast of Wessex; Scandinavians very quickly realized that Christian monasteries and cities store a lot of wealth, which should have been put to more reasonable use. From Lindisfarne, the Vikings dragged even the coffin of the founder of the monastery, St. Cuthbert, and it was found only three hundred years later, in 1104, fortunately, slightly damaged. Since then, Europe no longer knew peace - they appeared almost every year, here and there. It was absolutely impossible to predict the direction of the next blow, as well as to seriously resist the Scandinavians by military force - they slipped out of their hands like drops of mercury; the armies of the heirs of Charlemagne or the British kings simply did not have time to approach the site of the next attack.

However, we will tell about the further history of the Viking campaigns some other time - this text was intended to explain how the climatic and geographical features of the early Middle Ages predetermined the beginning of the era of the Norman conquests, which lasted more than three hundred years.