Synonyms are combined into synonymic series, different in composition - from minimal, two-term, to extended series, sometimes including more than two dozen words.
Binary synonymic rows minimal in composition are of interest for identifying the relationship of identity and difference in the characteristics of synonymic relationships. Due to the minimality of their composition, they turn out to be precisely the type of synonymous series that most often demonstrates the relationship of semantic identity. So, according to the "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" ed. A. P. Evgenieva, the members of the synonymic series completely coincide in meaning: practice-experience, Ivan-tea-fireweed, to be deceived-to make a mistake, rocking-to lull.
Often, members of synonymous pairs differ only in the degree of usage ( strike-strike, corn-maize, address-address).
Binary synonymic series, characterized by maximum semantic similarity, often include a common word, on the one hand, and a word that is predominantly characteristic of special or official speech, on the other. Semantic duplicity is often emphasized by the fact that one of the members of a synonymous pair is a borrowed word: simultaneous-synchronous, export-export, approve-ratify, adapt-adapt etc.
Fundamentally different relationships are observed in polynomial synonymous paradigms. A synonymous series is a group of words consisting of several synonyms ( doctor-doctor-physician-esculapius). Synonymic words can have both one root ( fisherman-fisherman-fisherman) and different ( house-dwelling, overtake-overtake).
Synonyms always consist of one part of speech. The composition of synonymic series may include phraseological units, archaisms, neologisms, dialectisms, professionalisms, clericalisms, etc. Such words perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.
The synonymic series has a dominant - the main word with the most voluminous, neutral meaning, which is a simple name, without emotional connotations. Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values.
In the Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language, the maximum in terms of the number of members are synonymous series with such a dominant as deceive(29 members) die(29 members) kill(24 members) get tired(24 members) get drunk(18 members) abyss(17 members) bump(16 members).
For example, a synonymic series with a dominant die :
Die - to shuffle - to fall asleep forever - to rest - to pass away from life - to fade away - to descend into the grave - to close one's eyes - to hobble - to cut off - to part with one's life - to lose one's life - to stretch out one's legs - to die - to stand before God - to rest - to decide - to get rid of - to get rid of - to give the ends - give your soul to God - turn around - end your life - stab - grunt - die - give the oak - bend over - embed the dubar - throw back the hooves.
Synonym types
By meaning, the following types of synonyms are distinguished: complete (absolute) and incomplete. Absolute (full) synonyms, or doublets that do not reveal any semantic differences, are a rather rare phenomenon in the language: linguistics - linguistics, spelling - spelling, hippopotamus - hippopotamus, throw - throw, everywhere - everywhere.
Usually, synonyms always differ in something: stylistic or expressive coloring (connotations), shades of lexical (denotative) meaning (peripheral seme), compatibility, etc. In this case, we can already talk about incomplete synonymy. Incomplete synonyms, in turn, are divided into subtypes depending on how they differ.
Stylistic synonyms. They differ only in stylistic coloring and are therefore used in different styles of speech. Examples:
wife(common) - spouse(official); young(colloquial) - newlyweds(book); eyes(neutral) - eyes(vyc.); face(neutral) - muzzle(reduced) - face(vyc.)
Stylistic synonymy is widespread among words of all parts of speech, for example: wolf - biryuk, lips - mouth, forehead - forehead, rooster - kochet, crimson - crimson, naked - naked, love - amorous, real - real, sleep - rest, eat - to eat, it's cold - it's cold, this one - this one, than - rather than, so that - so that, etc.
Ideographic synonyms(semantic, semantic). They differ in shades of meaning. Examples:
wet-wet, die-die, youth-youth
Nowadaysyouth can be extended to forty years and older(young, fresh state of the body).
Here it is overyouth my(the period of life between childhood and adulthood).
Semantic-stylistic synonyms. They differ both in shades of meaning and stylistically. Examples:
go trail(these words mean the same action, only the word go stylistically neutral, word trail- colloquial and, in addition to the general meaning, contains additional shades: trail- is to walk with difficulty, slowly, barely moving the legs).
work-pore(synonyms, only word pore as a vernacular opposed to a stylistically neutral word work and differs from it in shades of meaning: pore- is to work painstakingly and diligently, overcoming difficulties, mainly performing small, laborious work).
The language is dominated by semantic-stylistic synonyms. This is explained by the fact that the functional affiliation and stylistic coloring of the word often complement each other.
The concept of synonyms
Synonyms (gr. synonimos- eponymous) - words of the same part of speech, denoting the same concept, close or identical in meaning, differing (or not having differences) from each other in shades of meaning, or stylistic coloring and scope of use, or both of these features .
The phenomenon of synonymy is closely related to the polysemy of the word (polysemy). In different meanings, the same word can have different synonyms. For example: two - in pairs and together - alone, delay - slow down and detain - arrest.
Synonymic series
Two or more synonyms, correlated with each other when denoting the same objects, signs, actions, etc., form in the language synonymic series (synonymous with the paradigm ). For example: friendship, camaraderie, fellowship(colloquial); decorate, decorate, decorate, decorate etc.
In the synonymic series, one can always single out any one word that is as capacious as possible in semantics, with rare exceptions, neutral in stylistic coloring (that is, without additional stylistic characteristics) and the most free in use. This basic, pivotal, supporting word is called domina´ntoy (from lat. dominants - dominant). In the above synonymous rows, the dominants are, respectively, the words friendship and decorate.
According to the number of members, synonymic series are divided into binary and polynomial. AT binary series (synonymous pair) only two members are included (for example: lexicographer - dictionary(colloquial), architect - architect(high) gunner - gunner(obsolete) etc.), in polylinear – more than two members (for example: hero, strongman, hercules, athlete; argument, argument, motive, reason(colloquial), etc.). There are much fewer binary synonymic series in Russian than polynomial ones.
The synonymic series, in addition to individual words, may include phrases and phraseological units. For example: far away(colloquial), etc.
A characteristic feature of synonymic rows in the Russian language is relative openness. They undergo changes and additions due to the development of the entire lexical system of the Russian language.
Synonym classifications
| By structure | |
| heteroroot | single root |
Different root synonyms are synonyms with different roots. For example: literal, literal, textual(book); loud, sonorous, deafening, resonant etc.
One-root (grammatical, lexico-grammatical) synonyms are synonyms that have the same root. For example: paint, paint, tint; toss, toss, toss etc.
The vocabulary of the Russian language is dominated by synonyms with different roots.
Partial (approximate) synonyms- these are words that do not completely coincide in their meanings and use.
Partial synonyms can be divided into the following subgroups:
1) semantic (conceptual, ideographic) synonyms - synonyms that differ in shades of meaning. For example: to speak, to express, to explain, to explain; company, society, team etc.
2) stylistic synonyms - synonyms that differ in the scope of use and stylistic coloring. For example: to repeat, to repeat, to babble, to repeat; to bring, to drag, to drag etc.
Stylistic synonyms differ in the following ways:
a) by area of use (neutral - bookish - colloquial and vernacular; commonly used - dialect, professional, jargon);
b) by expressive-stylistic coloring (neutral, commonly used - poetic, folk poetic, vernacular);
c) according to the degree of activity of use (active - obsolete, new);
3) semantic-stylistic synonyms - synonyms that differ in lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: find, search, dig(colloquial), acquire(book); catch, catch(colloquial), lasso(simple) etc.
4) a special group includes the so-called contextual (contextual-a´author, situational) synonyms - words that become synonymous only in a certain context. Contextual synonyms, as a rule, are expressively colored, since their task is to characterize the phenomenon, and not to name it. For example: And in everything ... there was some kind of sweet and bitter sadness(I. Bunin).
Full (absolute) synonyms are words that do not differ either semantically or stylistically. For example: ending, flexion; linguistics, linguistics, linguistics etc. This group in the Russian language is not numerous, and, as a rule, in the process of language development, such synonyms pass into the group of ideographic synonyms.
Partial synonyms predominate in Russian.
should be distinguished from synonyms. quasi-synonyms (imaginary synonyms) - words that have a common component of meaning (the seme), but are not interchangeable in contexts (unlike synonyms).
There are the following types of quasi-synonyms: ro´do-species´e (For example: aluminum - metal) and vi´do-species´e (For example: aluminum - iron). Common Value Element − metal.
Some linguists, as one of the varieties of synonyms, also consider euphemisms (gr. euphemia- "Glory") - words (or expressions) that in certain situations replace unwanted, harsh, in the opinion of the speaker or writer, designations. For example: to die instead of to die, evade the truth instead of lie etc.
8. Synonymy. Synonym types. Synonymic series
Synonyms- these are words that are different in sound, design, but identical or close in meaning.
Table 1 - Types of synonyms
According to the fixation in the language, linguistic, or usual (from lat. usus- custom), and contextual, or occasional (from lat. occasionalis- random) synonyms.
Language synonyms can be divided into:
1. Full (absolute, doublet)- completely matchedyut in their meanings and characteristic compatibility. Greatestthe number of such words falls on the share of scientific terminologygee. Most often, these are native Russian and borrowed terms:
alphabet - alphabet, linguistics - linguistics, fricative-slotted, spelling - spelling; goalkeeper - goalkeeper, hippopotam - hippopotamus, alligator - crocodile.
Differences, however, can be between them. Wed: Morse code, but not Morse alphabet.
2. Partial (relative)- words that are partiallymatch in meaning and usage. The quality of the differencespartial synonyms are divided into:
- semantic (ideographic, conceptual)- express a common concept, but at the same time differ in certain elements of their meanings:
narrow("small in width": a narrow strip) - tight ("insufficient, small in space": a cramped apartment) -thin ("small in girth, in thickness": a thin layer);
key("source from which water comes out with pressure, force") -spring ("source from which water seeps to the surface of the earth");
- stylistic- differ in stylistic coloring: eyes, eyes, zenki;steal, snatch, take away, drag, drag, slyamzit, steal;run away, run away, drape, wash off;
- semantic-stylistic- differ both in shades of meanings and stylistic coloring:
speak (neutr.) - chatter ("talk quickly", colloquial); quarrel - skirmish, squabble ("noisy quarrel over a trifle", colloquial).
Contextual synonyms are used in the author's speech, individual, characteristic of literary texts, there are no such synonyms in dictionaries. For example: in the sentence A ruddy girl came out and knocked a samovar (Bitter) on the table, the word knocked is a synonym for the word set, although in general literary language these words are not synonyms.
A synonymic series is a historically formed group of words, united by systemic synonymic relations. The synonymic series can include not only the words of the literary language, but also vernacular, colloquial and dialect vocabulary. Words in a row are arranged in ascending or descending order. The stylistically colored word follows the neutral one. The main place in the synonymic row is occupied by dominant. The dominant opens the synonymic series, it contains the most important meaning of the entire group. The dominant is stylistically neutral, has no emotional overtones. For example:
Easy- simple, simple, elementary, simple, simple, trifling, empty, trifling.
The emergence of synonyms in the language is due to a number of reasons:
The desire of a person to find some new features in an object or phenomenon of reality and designate them with a new word;
Borrowing;
In different styles of speech, the same object, the same phenomenon can be called differently.
One of the origins of synonymy is taboo. Taboo - originally, in a primitive society, a system of prohibitions on the performance of certain actions, the use of any objects, the pronunciation of words, the violation of which is punishable by supernatural forces. For example, when going hunting, they did not name the animal they would hunt, so that evil spirits would not overhear and deprive of luck (instead of an elk they said elk, instead of a bear - clubfoot, etc.). They did not utter the word brownie, they said: the owner. This is how synonyms for words were born, and this is how riddles appeared.
The role of synonyms in speech is exceptionally great: they help to avoid unnecessary repetitions of the same word (tautology), more accurately convey thoughts.
euphemisms(substitute words) - a phenomenon associated with the use of synonymy. Euphemisms are used instead of direct names that are unpleasant or indecent in a given speech situation: full in a fat place, to make mistakes instead of lying, to linger instead of being late, at a venerable age instead of an old one, a fool instead of a fool, to use a handkerchief instead of blowing your nose, and also in order to avoid direct names, a censorship ban: vault No. 1(on radioactive waste).
Synonyms- words belonging, as a rule, to the same ch.r. different in sound and spelling, but having a similar lexical meaning. For example: brave-brave, walk-walk.
In modern Russian, the following groups of synonyms are distinguished:
1) Semantic (ideographic) synonyms that differ in shade of meaning:
Youth - youth (youth - the first stage of youth);
Red - scarlet - crimson (the general meaning of these words is the same, but red is the color of blood, scarlet is lighter, crimson is darker).
2) Stylistic synonyms that have a different scope of use or different stylistic coloring, but denote the same phenomenon of reality:
Forehead (neutral) - brow (sublimely poetic);
Fragment (neutral) - fragment (book);
Cut off (neutral) - chop off, chop off (colloquial).
3) Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: angry (neutral), angry (colloquial, that is, angry to a large extent), furious (colloquial, angry to a very strong degree), angry (colloquial, angry slightly).
4) A special group consists of the so-called absolute synonyms(doublets). These are words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences:
During = in continuation (prepositions);
Linguistics = linguistics = linguistics (nouns).
There are few doublet words in Russian. As a rule, in the process of historical development, such words either begin to differ in meaning, that is, they become semantic synonyms, or their stylistic coloring and scope of use change. For example:
ABC = alphabet; strike = strike; Plane = airplane.
It is necessary to distinguish from common linguistic synonyms contextual synonyms(sometimes they are called individually-author's). Contextual synonyms- these are words, the convergence of which in meaning occurs only in a certain context, and outside of this context they are not synonyms. Contextual synonyms, as a rule, are expressively colored, since their main task is not to name the phenomenon, but to characterize it. For example, the verb to speak (to say) is very rich in contextual synonyms: Marya Kirillovna poured out about loved ones, he was silent. Nobody believed my grandfather. Even angry old women mumbled that devils never had beaks (Paust.)
Words with similar meanings are synonymous series. Synonymic series not just a set of words close in meaning, not just their totality, but a microsystem in which all units are in a certain relationship, they do not deny, do not exclude each other, but clarify and correspond to compatible concepts. The word that most fully expresses the concept common to all words of the SR is called the dominant (Latin dominans - “dominant”), or the pivot word.
Synonyms- words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling (cf. homonyms), but having the same or very close lexical meaning (cf. antonyms). brave - brave
Classification 1.depending on the functions of the cat they perform in the text 1) Semanticsynonyms, which differ in a shade of meaning: Youthfulness-youth a) the mode of action (repay - blow out) b) the degree of manifestation of the sign (smell - aroma, old - ancient)
2) Stylisticsynonyms, have a different emotionally expressive color, give a different assessment and belong to different functional styles (mug - muzzle - face - face) Forehead (neutral) - forehead (sublimely poetic); Fragment (neit) - fragment (book); Cut off (neit ) - chop off, chop off (colloquial). 3) Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: angry (neit), angry (colloquial, that is, angry to a large extent), rage (colloquial, angry to a very strong degree), angry (colloquial, angry slightly). 4) A special group consists of the so-called absolute synonyms(doublets). These are words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences: During = in continuation (prepositions); Linguistics = linguistics = linguistics (nouns).
2. According to the degree of synonymy- proximity of meanings and the ability to replace each other in the context.a) full- identity of meanings and contexts (doublets, variants) (tomato - tomato)b) partial- coincide only in part of the meanings and differ in stylistic coloring and compatibility (cold - frost)
3. Structural classification
a)one-root- common root and various affixes (scold - scold - scold)
b)heterogeneous(ceremonial - magnificent - pompous - solemn)
4. By source
1) between native Russian words - come up with - invent
2) between Russian and borrowed words - antipathy - hostility
3) between borrowed words - alphabet - alphabet
4) between folk-poetic, obsolete and modern - azure - blue
5) between Old Slavonic and Russian - young - young.
synonymous row: A group of words consisting of several synonyms is called a synonymous row (or nest): doctor - doctor - physician - doctor.
Synonymous series can consist of both heterogeneous and single-root synonyms: face - face, overtake - overtake; fisherman - angler, fisherman.In the first place in the synonymic series is usually placed a common meaning and stylistically neutral word - dominant (lat. dominants- dominant) (it is also called the pivotal, main, supporting word). Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values. For example, brave -fearless, daring, dashing, brave, courageous, fearless, fearless. So, in the last example row dominant is the word brave, it most capaciously conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms, - "fearless" and free from expressive stylistic shades. The rest of the synonyms are distinguished in the semantic-stylistic sense and in the peculiarities of their use in speech. For example, intrepid- a book word, interpreted as "very brave"; daring- folk-poetic, means "full of daring"; dashing- colloquial - "bold, risk-taking"; synonyms brave, courageous, fearless, fearless differ not only in semantic nuances, but also in the possibilities of lexical compatibility (they are combined only with nouns that name people; one cannot say “brave project”, “fearless decision”, etc.).
Members of the synonymic series can be not only individual words, but also stable phrases (phraseological units), as well as prepositional case forms: a lot - over the edge, without counting, chickens do not peck. All of them, as a rule, perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.
28 Neologism(from Greek. neos- new and logos - word) - a new word formation caused by the absence in the language of a word corresponding to a new phenomenon, concept, sensation. Many words that at one time had the character of a neologism entered the vocabulary of the Russian language, for example: atmosphere, crystallization, matter, viscosity(M.V. Lomonosov), voluptuousness, Slavophile(K.I. Batyushkov), phenomenon, industry(N.M. Karamzin) and others.
New words appear in the following ways, depending on the nature of the novelty: 1. LEXICAL NEOLOGISMS 1) Education according to models that already exist in the language, from elements existing in the language: mobile shop, snowmobile, microdistrict, etc. 2) Borrowed from another language in the process of interstate and international contacts (primarily these are sports and political terms ): outsider, dribbling (dribbling in basketball), stopper (goal guard), etc .; pluralism, ratification, etc. 2 SEMANTIC NEOLOGISMS Semantic transformations occur and new meanings of words appear, which are the result of using the word in a figurative sense, which leads to the further development of polysemy and the expansion of the scope of the word's use. For example: The course is “the general line, the main direction in the activities of the state” (a course has been taken for restructuring); Palette - “diversity, a diverse manifestation of something (a palette of feelings).
Depending on the reasons that caused the appearance of neologism: 1. Nologism denoting a new reality in the life of society (video clip, video clip, fax)2. Neologisms denoting existing realities (narrative case - prepositional) It is necessary to distinguish contextual neologisms, or individual author's neologisms, from linguistic neologisms. Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms)- these are words that are formed by word artists, publicists, poets in order to enhance the expressiveness of the text. Unlike linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms perform not a nominative (nominative), but an expressive function. Occasionalisms relatively rarely pass into the literary language and are used by the people. Like linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms are formed according to the laws of the language, according to the established word-formation models from the morphemes available in the language, therefore, even out of context, they are understandable, for example: cone-finned (Es.); Leadership, cold snake, lucky, unarmed, loveless (Evtush.); Kyuchelbekers (Push.);
16. Lexical meaning of the word. Lexical value types- a historically formed connection between the sound of a word and the display of an object or phenomenon in our minds, designated by this word.
