The attitude towards the personality of the last Russian emperor is so ambiguous that there simply cannot be a consensus on the results of his reign.
When they talk about Nicholas II, two polar points of view are immediately identified: Orthodox-patriotic and liberal-democratic. For the first, Nicholas II and his family are the ideal of morality, the image of martyrdom; his reign is the highest point of Russia's economic development in its entire history. For others, Nicholas II is a weak personality, a weak-willed person who failed to save the country from revolutionary madness, who was completely under the influence of his wife and Rasputin; Russia during his reign is seen as economically backward.

The purpose of this article is not to convince or convince anyone, but let's consider both points of view and draw our own conclusions.

Orthodox-patriotic point of view

In the 1950s, a report by the Russian writer Brazol Boris Lvovich (1885-1963) appeared in the Russian diaspora. During the First World War, he worked in Russian military intelligence.

Brazol's report is titled "The reign of Emperor Nicholas II in figures and facts. Answer to slanderers, dismemberers and Russophobes.

At the beginning of this report, Edmond Teri, a well-known economist of the time, quotes: “If the affairs of the European nations continue from 1912 to 1950 as they did from 1900 to 1912, Russia by the middle of this century will dominate Europe both politically and politically. both economically and financially. (The Economist Europeen, 1913).

Here are some data from this report.

On the eve of the First World War, the population of the Russian Empire was 182 million people, and during the reign of Emperor Nicholas II it increased by 60 million.

Imperial Russia built its budgetary and financial policy not only on deficit-free budgets, but also on the principle of a significant accumulation of gold reserves.

In the reign of Emperor Nicholas II, by law of 1896, a gold currency was introduced in Russia. The stability of monetary circulation was such that even during the Russo-Japanese War, which was accompanied by widespread revolutionary unrest within the country, the exchange of credit notes for gold was not suspended.

Before the First World War, taxes in Russia were the lowest in the whole world. The burden of direct taxes in Russia was almost 4 times less than in France, more than 4 times less than in Germany and 8.5 times less than in England. The burden of indirect taxes in Russia was on average half that in Austria, France, Germany and England.

I. Repin "Emperor Nicholas II"

Between 1890 and 1913 Russian industry quadrupled its productivity. Moreover, it should be noted that the growth in the number of new enterprises was achieved not due to the emergence of one-day firms, as in modern Russia, but due to actually working factories and factories that produced products and created jobs.

In 1914, the State Savings Bank had deposits worth 2,236,000,000 rubles, i.e. 1.9 times more than in 1908.

These indicators are extremely important for understanding that the population of Russia was by no means poor and saved a significant part of its income.

On the eve of the revolution, Russian agriculture was in full bloom. In 1913, in Russia, the harvest of the main cereals was 1/3 higher than that of Argentina, Canada, and the United States of America combined. In particular, the harvest of rye in 1894 yielded 2 billion poods, and in 1913 - 4 billion poods.

During the reign of Emperor Nicholas II, Russia was the main breadwinner of Western Europe. At the same time, the phenomenal growth in the export of agricultural products from Russia to England (grain and flour) attracts special attention. In 1908, 858.3 million pounds were exported, and in 1910, 2.8 million pounds, i.e. 3.3 times.

Russia supplied 50% of world egg imports. In 1908, 2.6 billion pieces worth 54.9 million rubles were exported from Russia, and in 1909 - 2.8 million pieces. worth 62.2 million rubles. The export of rye in 1894 amounted to 2 billion poods, in 1913: 4 billion poods. Sugar consumption in the same period of time increased from 4 to 9 kg per year per person (then sugar was a very expensive product).

On the eve of the First World War, Russia produced 80% of the world's flax production.

Modern Russia is practically dependent on the West for food.

In 1916, that is, at the very height of the war, more than 2,000 miles of railways were built, which connected the Arctic Ocean (the port of Romanovsk) with the center of Russia. The Great Siberian Way (8.536 km) was the longest in the world.

It should be added that the Russian railways, in comparison with others, were the cheapest and most comfortable in the world for passengers.

During the reign of Emperor Nicholas II, public education reached an extraordinary development. Primary education was free by law, and from 1908 it became compulsory. Since this year, about 10,000 schools have been opened annually. In 1913 their number exceeded 130,000. In terms of the number of women studying in higher educational institutions, Russia at the beginning of the 20th century ranked first in Europe, if not in the whole world.

During the reign of Sovereign Nicholas II, the government of Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin carried out one of the most significant and most brilliant reforms in Russia - the agrarian reform. This reform is connected with the transition of the form of ownership of land and land production from communal to private land. On November 9, 1906, the so-called "Stolypin Law" was issued, which allowed the peasant to leave the Community and become the individual and hereditary owner of the land he cultivated. This law was a huge success. Immediately, 2.5 million petitions were filed for access to cuts from family peasants. Thus, on the eve of the revolution, Russia was already ready to turn into a country of owners.

For the period 1886-1913. Russia's exports amounted to 23.5 billion rubles, imports - 17.7 billion rubles.

Foreign investments in the period from 1887 to 1913 increased from 177 million rubles. up to 1.9 billion rubles, i.e. increased by 10.7 times. Moreover, these investments were directed to capital-intensive production and created new jobs. However, what is very important, Russian industry was not dependent on foreigners. Enterprises with foreign investment accounted for only 14% of the total capital of Russian enterprises.

The abdication of Nicholas II from the throne was the greatest tragedy in the thousand-year history of Russia. With the fall of the autocracy, the history of Russia rolled along the path of an unprecedented atrocity of regicide, the enslavement of a multi-million people and the death of the world's greatest Russian Empire, the very existence of which was the key to world political balance.

By the decision of the Council of Bishops of March 31 - April 4, 1992, the Synodal Commission for the canonization of saints was instructed "when studying the exploits of the new martyrs of Russia, to begin researching materials related to the martyrdom of the Royal Family."

Excerpts from " GROUNDS FOR THE CANONIZATION OF THE ROYAL FAMILY
FROM THE REPORT OF METROPOLITAN KRUTITSKY AND KOLOMENSKOY YUVENALY,
CHAIRMAN OF THE SYNODAL COMMISSION FOR THE CANONIZATION OF SAINTS.

“As a politician and statesman, the Sovereign acted on the basis of his religious and moral principles. One of the most common arguments against the canonization of Emperor Nicholas II is the events of January 9, 1905 in St. Petersburg. In the historical information of the Commission on this issue, we indicate: having become acquainted on the evening of January 8 with the contents of the Gapon petition, which had the character of a revolutionary ultimatum, which did not allow to enter into constructive negotiations with representatives of the workers, the Sovereign ignored this document, illegal in form and undermining the prestige of the already fluctuating conditions government wars. Throughout January 9, 1905, the Sovereign did not take a single decision that determined the actions of the authorities in St. Petersburg to suppress mass demonstrations of workers. The order to the troops to open fire was given not by the Emperor, but by the Commander of the St. Petersburg Military District. Historical data do not allow us to detect in the actions of the Sovereign in the January days of 1905 a conscious evil will directed against the people and embodied in specific sinful decisions and actions.

With the outbreak of the First World War, the Sovereign regularly travels to Headquarters, visits military units of the army in the field, dressing stations, military hospitals, rear factories, in a word, everything that played a role in the conduct of this war.

From the very beginning of the war, the Empress devoted herself to the wounded. Having completed the courses of sisters of mercy, together with her eldest daughters, the Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatyana, she nursed the wounded in the Tsarskoye Selo infirmary for several hours a day.

The emperor considered his tenure as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief as the fulfillment of a moral and state duty to God and the people, however, always presenting the leading military specialists with a broad initiative in resolving the entire set of military-strategic and operational-tactical issues.

The Commission expresses the opinion that the very fact of the abdication of the Throne of Emperor Nicholas II, which is directly related to his personal qualities, is on the whole an expression of the then historical situation in Russia.

He made this decision only in the hope that those who wanted him removed would still be able to continue the war with honor and not ruin the cause of saving Russia. He was then afraid that his refusal to sign the renunciation would lead to civil war in the sight of the enemy. The tsar did not want even a drop of Russian blood to be shed because of him.

The spiritual motives for which the last Russian Sovereign, who did not want to shed the blood of his subjects, decided to abdicate the Throne in the name of inner peace in Russia, gives his act a truly moral character. It is no coincidence that during the discussion in July 1918 at the Council of the Local Council of the issue of the funeral commemoration of the murdered Sovereign, His Holiness Patriarch Tikhon decided on the universal service of memorial services with the commemoration of Nicholas II as Emperor.

Behind the many sufferings endured by the Royal Family over the last 17 months of their lives, which ended with execution in the basement of the Yekaterinburg Ipatiev House on the night of July 17, 1918, we see people who sincerely sought to embody the commandments of the Gospel in their lives. In the suffering endured by the Royal Family in captivity with meekness, patience and humility, in their martyrdom, the light of Christ's faith conquering evil was revealed, just as it shone in the life and death of millions of Orthodox Christians who suffered persecution for Christ in the 20th century.

It is in understanding this feat of the Royal Family that the Commission, in complete unanimity and with the approval of the Holy Synod, finds it possible to glorify in the Cathedral of the New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia in the face of the Passion-Bearers Emperor Nicholas II, Empress Alexandra, Tsarevich Alexy, Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatyana, Maria and Anastasia.

Liberal democratic point of view

When Nicholas II came to power, he had no program, except for the firm intention not to cede his autocratic power, which his father had passed on to him. He always made decisions alone: ​​“How can I do this if it is against my conscience?” - it was the basis on which he made his political decisions or rejected the options offered to him. He continued to pursue the controversial policies of his father: on the one hand, he tried to achieve social and political stabilization from above by preserving the old estate-state structures, on the other hand, the industrialization policy pursued by the Minister of Finance led to enormous social dynamics. The Russian nobility launched a massive offensive against the economic policy of industrialization pursued by the state. Having removed Witte, the tsar did not know where to go. Despite some reformist steps (for example, the abolition of corporal punishment of peasants), the tsar, under the influence of the new Minister of the Interior Plehve, decided in favor of a policy of preserving the social structure of the peasantry in every possible way (preserving the community), although it was easier for the kulak elements, that is, the richer peasants, to leave peasant community. The tsar and the ministers did not consider reforms necessary in other areas either: only a few minor concessions were made on the labor issue; instead of guaranteeing the right to strike, the government continued its repression. With a policy of stagnation and repression, which at the same time continued the economic policy he had begun in a cautious manner, the tsar could not satisfy anyone.

At a meeting of zemstvo representatives on November 20, 1904, the majority demanded a constitutional regime. The forces of the progressive local nobility, rural intelligentsia, urban self-government and wide circles of the urban intelligentsia, united in opposition, began to demand the introduction of a parliament in the state. They were joined by the St. Petersburg workers, who were allowed to form an independent association, headed by the priest Gapon, they wanted to submit a petition to the tsar. The lack of general leadership under the already effectively dismissed Minister of the Interior and the Tsar, who, like most ministers, did not understand the seriousness of the situation, led to the disaster of Bloody Sunday on January 9, 1905. Army officers who were supposed to hold back the crowd, in a panic ordered to shoot at peaceful people. 100 people were killed and more than 1,000 are believed to have been injured. The workers and intelligentsia reacted with strikes and protest demonstrations. Although the workers for the most part made purely economic demands and the revolutionary parties could not play an important role either in the movement led by Gapon or in the strikes that followed Bloody Sunday, a revolution broke out in Russia.
When the revolutionary and opposition movement reached its climax in October 1905 - a general strike that practically paralyzed the country, the tsar was forced to turn again to his former minister of the interior, who, thanks to the very favorable for Russia peace treaty he concluded with the Japanese in Portsmouth ( United States), gained universal respect. Witte explained to the tsar that he must either appoint a dictator who would fight the revolution fiercely, or must guarantee bourgeois freedoms and an elected legislature. Nicholas did not want to drown the revolution in blood. Thus, the fundamental problem of constitutional monarchies - the creation of a balance of power - has become aggravated as a result of the actions of the prime minister. The October Manifesto (October 17, 1905) promised bourgeois freedoms, an elected assembly with legislative powers, an expansion of the electoral right and, indirectly, equality of religions and nationalities, but did not bring the country the appeasement that the tsar expected. Rather, it caused serious riots that broke out as a result of clashes between loyal to the tsar and revolutionary forces, and led to pogroms in many regions of the country, directed not only against the Jewish population, but also against members of the intelligentsia. The development of events since 1905 has become irreversible.

However, in other areas there were positive changes that were not blocked at the political macro level. The pace of economic growth has again almost reached the level of the 1990s. In the countryside, Stolypin's agrarian reforms, which were aimed at creating private property, began to develop independently, despite resistance from the peasants. The state, through a whole package of measures, sought large-scale modernization in agriculture. Science, literature and art have reached a new flowering.

But the scandalous figure of Rasputin decisively contributed to the loss of the prestige of the monarch. The First World War ruthlessly exposed the shortcomings of the system of late tsarism. These were primarily political weaknesses. In the military field, by the summer of 1915, they even managed to seize the situation at the front and arrange supplies. In 1916, thanks to the offensive of Brusilov, the Russian army even owned most of the territorial gains of the allies before the collapse of Germany. Nevertheless, in February 1917 tsarism was approaching its doom. The tsar himself was fully to blame for this development of events. Since he increasingly wanted to be his own prime minister, but did not fit this role, during the war no one could coordinate the actions of the various institutions of the state, primarily civilian with the military.

The provisional government, which replaced the monarchy, immediately placed Nicholas and his family under house arrest, but wanted to allow him to leave for England. However, the British government was in no hurry to respond, and the Provisional Government was no longer strong enough to resist the will of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. In August 1917 the family was moved to Tobolsk. In April 1918, the local Bolsheviks secured their transfer to Yekaterinburg. The king endured this time of humiliation with great calmness and hope in God, which, in the face of death, gave him undeniable dignity, but which, even in the best of times, sometimes prevented him from acting rationally and decisively. On the night of July 16-17, 1918, the imperial family was shot. The liberal historian Yuri Gautier spoke with cold precision upon learning of the assassination of the tsar: "This is the denouement of another of the innumerable secondary knots of our troubled times, and the monarchical principle can only benefit from it."

The paradoxes of the personality and reign of Nicholas II can be explained by the objectively existing contradictions of Russian reality at the beginning of the 20th century, when the world was entering a new phase of its development, and the tsar did not have the will and determination to master the situation. Trying to defend the "autocratic principle", he maneuvered: either he made small concessions, or he refused them. As a result, the regime rotted, pushing the country to the abyss. Rejecting and hindering the reforms, the last king contributed to the beginning of the social revolution. This should be recognized both with absolute sympathy for the fate of the king, and with his categorical rejection. At the critical moment of the February coup, the generals changed their oath and forced the tsar to abdicate.
Nicholas II himself knocked the ground out from under his feet. He stubbornly defended his positions, did not make serious compromises, and thus created the conditions for a revolutionary explosion. He did not support the liberals, who sought to prevent the revolution in the hope of concessions from the tsar. And the revolution happened. 1917 became a fatal milestone in the history of Russia.

To the question What are the most important reforms of Nicholas 2? given by the author Nicholas the best answer is From 1902 to 1905, both statesmen and Russian scientists were involved in the development of new agrarian legislation at the state level: Vl. I. Gurko, S. Yu. Witte, I. L. Goremykin, A. V. Krivoshein, P. A. Stolypin, P. P. Migulin, N. N. Kutler, and A. A. Kaufman. The question of the abolition of the community was raised by life itself. At the height of the revolution, N. N. Kutler even proposed a project for the alienation of part of the landowners' lands.
Since 1907, the so-called "Stolypin" agrarian reform began to be carried out. The main direction of the reform was the consolidation of lands, previously collectively owned by the rural community, to the peasant proprietors. The state also provided extensive assistance in the purchase of landed estates by peasants (through lending to the Peasant Land Bank), subsidized agronomic assistance. During the reform, much attention was paid to the fight against striping (a phenomenon in which the peasant cultivated many small strips of land in different fields), the allocation of plots “to one place” (cut, farm) to peasants was encouraged, which led to a significant increase in the efficiency of the economy. The reform, which required a huge amount of land management work, unfolded rather slowly. Before the February Revolution, no more than 20% of communal lands were assigned to the peasants; so that the results of the reform, obviously noticeable and positive, did not have time to manifest themselves in full.
In 1913, Russia (excluding the Vistula provinces) was in first place in the world in the production of rye, barley and oats, third (after Canada and the USA) in wheat production, fourth (after France, Germany and Austria-Hungary) in the production of potatoes. Russia has become the main exporter of agricultural products, accounting for 2/5 of the world's agricultural exports. Grain yield was 3 times lower than English or German, potato yield was 2 times lower.
Transformations in the military sphere
The military transformations of 1905-1912 were carried out after the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which revealed serious shortcomings in the central administration, organization, recruitment system, combat training and technical equipment of the army.
In the first period of military transformations (1905-1908), the highest military administration was decentralized (the Main Directorate of the General Staff was established, independent of the Military Ministry, the Council of State Defense was created, the inspector generals were directly subordinate to the emperor), the terms of active service were reduced (in the infantry and field artillery from 5 to 3 years, in other branches of the military from 5 to 4 years, in the Navy from 7 to 5 years), the officer corps has been rejuvenated; the life of soldiers and sailors (food and clothing allowance) and the financial situation of officers and conscripts have been improved.
Nicholas II during a visit to Riga (July 3, 1910)
In the second period (1909-1912), the centralization of the higher administration was carried out (the Main Directorate of the General Staff was included in the Ministry of War, the Council of State Defense was abolished, inspector generals were subordinate to the Minister of War); due to the weak reserve and fortress troops in combat, the field troops were strengthened (the number of army corps increased from 31 to 37), a reserve was created at the field units, which, during mobilization, was allocated for the deployment of secondary ones (including field artillery, engineering and railway troops, communications units) , machine-gun teams were created in the regiments and corps squadrons, cadet schools were transformed into military schools that received new programs, new charters and instructions were introduced. In 1910, the Imperial Air Force was created.

In historical science, and in the public mind as well, the transformations and reforms carried out in monarchical states are usually associated with the personality of the monarch reigning at that time. It never occurs to anyone to call the transformations of Peter the Great, Catherine II or Alexander II the reforms of Menshikov, Potemkin or Milyutin. There are historical concepts: "Peter's transformations", "Catherine's age", "Great reforms of Alexander II". No one would dare to call the famous Code Napoléon (Napoleon's Code) the "Francois Tronchet Code" or the "Jean Portalis Code", although it was these people who were the direct executors of the will of the First Consul to draw up a legislative act. This is as true as the fact that Peter the Great founded Petersburg and Louis XIV built Versailles.

But as soon as it comes to the era of the last Sovereign, for some reason they operate with terms: “Witte's reform” or “Stolypin's reform”. Meanwhile, Witte and Stolypin themselves invariably called these transformations the reforms of Emperor Nicholas II. S.Yu. Witte spoke of the monetary reform of 1897: " Russia owes its metallic gold circulation exclusively to Emperor Nicholas II". P.A. Stolypin on March 6, 1907, speaking in the State Duma, said: “The government set itself one goal - to preserve those covenants, those foundations, those principles that were the basis for the reforms of Emperor Nicholas II”. Witte and Stolypin knew well that all their reform activities would have been impossible without the approval and guidance of the Autocrat.

Serious modern researchers come to an unequivocal conclusion about Emperor Nicholas II as an outstanding reformer. Historian D.B. Strukov notes: “By nature, Nicholas II was very disposed to the search for new solutions and improvisation. His state thought did not stand still, he was not a dogmatist".

A detailed and unbiased study of the course of reforms in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century irrefutably proves that Emperor Nicholas II was their main initiator and staunch supporter. He did not refuse to reform even in the conditions of the revolution of 1905-1907. At the same time, Nicholas II was well versed in the issues of that side of the life of the country, which he was going to reform. In 1909, Deputy Minister of the Interior S.E. Kryzhanovsky reported to Nicholas II his thoughts on the project of decentralization of the Empire. He later recalled: “I was struck by the ease with which the Sovereign, who had no special training, understood the complex issues of the electoral procedure both in our country and in Western countries, and the curiosity that he showed at the same time”.

Moreover, there is no doubt that the reforms were never born in the head of the Sovereign spontaneously, he hatched many of them even before accession to the throne. Under Nicholas II, a total of more transformations were carried out than under Peter the Great and under Alexander II. It is enough just to list the main ones to be convinced of this: 1) the introduction of a wine monopoly;

2) monetary reform;

3) education reform;

4) the abolition of peasant "mutual responsibility";

5) judicial reform;

6) public administration reform (establishment of the State Duma, the Council of Ministers, etc.);

7) the law on religious tolerance;

8) the introduction of civil liberties;

9) agrarian reform of 1906;

10) military reform;

11) healthcare reform.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that these reforms were practically painless for the majority of the population of the Russian Empire, precisely because the Sovereign did not put the transformation itself at the forefront, but the people in whose name it was carried out.

The example of Emperor Nicholas II convincingly proves that it is possible to carry out the most ambitious, most grandiose reforms and transformations without the death and impoverishment of millions of people, as will be the case with the Bolshevik "transformations". But it was under Emperor Nicholas II that all the “great construction projects of communism” were programmed, started or implemented, which the Bolsheviks took credit for: electrification of the entire country, BAM, development of the Far East, construction of the largest railways, construction of the largest hydroelectric power station at that time, foundation of an ice-free port beyond the polar circle.

The most vivid reformatory activity of Emperor Nicholas II manifested itself during the implementation of the famous Agrarian Reform of 1906.

He always looked the truth in the face and did not evade responsibility for the decisions made ...

Research by leading Western scientists over the past 70 years has proven that the management of both small enterprises and large states is not just the distribution of decrees dictated by personal ego. The high level of consciousness of the ruler and motives based on love and mutual support can evoke in people a hidden motivating force that can work wonders for each person and for the whole society.

Nicholas II knew about this power. The pace of development of the Russian Empire during his reign is amazing even today.

Military journalist, retired colonel Vladislav Mayorov is the author of the calendar "Russia in the era of the reign of Emperor Nicholas II."

We present the abstracts of the report "The Moral Foundations of the Reforms of Emperor Nicholas II", with which V.N. Mayorov performed in August 2017 in Yekaterinburg. The article is illustrated with some pages of calendars for 2017-2018.

Find out the answers:

• What determined the success of all the reforms of Nicholas II?
• How many institutions in the Russian Empire were maintained at the personal expense of members of the Imperial family?
• Why was the statistics of the Russian Empire considered the most accurate in the world?
• Due to what, during the reign of Nicholas II, the frequency of epidemics of serious infectious diseases sharply decreased?
• What rights did Nicholas II give to the State Council of the Russian Empire?
• What unique conditions were created for ordinary workers by the new laws of the Emperor?

The outstanding results of the reforms carried out by the Sovereign in a short historical period were not the result of extreme tension and depletion of the vital forces of the people, repressions, strengthening of the state due to the restriction of political freedoms, total impoverishment of people. Their enormous vitality was nourished by the moral foundations of the Christian faith, reliance on the creative talent of the Russian people, and thoughtful measures of state support for transformations.

At the same time, we must not forget that the reforms were carried out in the conditions of the growth of revolutionary terror in Russia. In 1905-1917 alone, more than twenty thousand civil servants, prominent military leaders and heads of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, high-ranking officials of various ministries and departments died at the hands of terrorists. Active opposition to Emperor Nicholas II was provided by many representatives of the ruling circles, the State Duma, and even individual members of the government. The radical trends in Russian literature, the weakening of religious feeling among the Russian people, also prepared the spiritual collapse that led to the catastrophe of 1917.

Under these conditions, the moral courage of the Sovereign, his ability for long-term, consistent work for the good of Russia and the people became decisive. As the heir to the Russian throne, Nikolai Alexandrovich received deep knowledge in the field of economics, finance, and government. His knowledge of military affairs was at the level of the best graduates of the elite Academy of the General Staff. He was a brilliant connoisseur of Russian history and the history of international relations. The teachers and mentors of the future Emperor were world-class scientists, outstanding statesmen of the era. This largely predetermined the thoughtfulness and consistency of all transformations. Emperor Nicholas II was not only the initiator of the reforms, but also steadily carried out their organizational, legislative, financial, and personnel support.

At the same time, the government of Emperor Nicholas II never allowed pompous rhetoric and self-praise in his address. On the contrary, it critically assessed the shortcomings in the implementation of reforms and transformations. Russian statistics was one of the most advanced in the world. The data of statistical and documentary reference books of Imperial Russia reflected the real picture of the country's economic life, shortcomings in the social sphere, education, and health care. This was a fundamental and unswerving demand of the Sovereign, who always looked the truth in the face and did not evade responsibility for the decisions made, shortcomings and miscalculations. Let us briefly outline the results of the reforms and transformations of Emperor Nicholas II in 1894-1917.

Russia in the era of the reign of Emperor Nicholas II came out on top in the world in terms of economic growth.

The result of the monetary reform carried out in 1895-1897 was a convertible currency that took a leading position in the world foreign exchange market. A stable banking system was created. Russia's gold reserves increased by 2.5 times. The state budget has grown by almost 300 percent.

The agrarian reform, initiated by Emperor Nicholas II, brought the country to the first place in the world in the production and export of grain, flour, sugar, flax, eggs, and livestock products. The sovereign equalized the peasants in civil rights with persons of other classes. In a short historical period, about 2 million strong farm and cut-off farms were created on allotment lands. In Siberia, 37 million 441 acres were delimited for allotments, to which 3.8 million migrants voluntarily arrived. In the Altai Territory, roads, public schools, and hospitals were built for the settlers at the personal expense of the Sovereign. The population of Siberia has doubled. Siberian butter and eggs were exported to Europe. Large-scale mechanization of rural labor began. The state allocated huge funds for the provision of agronomic assistance to the population.

In the reign of Nicholas II, the creation of the fuel industry and mechanical engineering with the development of the mining and metallurgical industry completed the formation of the sectoral structure of Russian industry. Russia has taken one of the leading positions in the world in the extraction of oil, coal, platinum, and asbestos. The smelting of steel, pig iron, and copper increased fivefold. Labor productivity has quadrupled. In the Russian Empire, such new industries as the automotive, aviation, chemical, electrical and power industries were created. Metallurgy and shipbuilding experienced a rebirth. By 1914, there were 27,566 industrial enterprises in the country. In steam locomotive building, thermal ship building and aircraft building, production of diesel engines, Russia has taken the first place in the world in the application of scientific and technical innovations to mass production. In 1913, 5.3% of the industrial output of the world was produced in Russia.

By the decision of Nicholas II, by 1915, the Strategy for the Electrification of Russia was formulated, which later became the basis of the well-known GOELRO plan. But by 1914, 220 power plants and hydroelectric power stations had been built in the country, and the world's first energy system had been created in the North Caucasus. Electricity production grew annually by 20-25%. Russia became an innovator in the creation of oil pipelines, a tanker fleet, the transportation of petroleum products in railway tanks, and was a leading exporter of lubricating oils in Europe.

During the reign of Emperor Nicholas II, 35 thousand kilometers of railways were built in the country. Under the leadership of the Sovereign, the construction of the world's largest Trans-Siberian Railway with a length of 7416 km was carried out. By his decision, the world's northernmost Murmansk railway was built, which was of strategic importance during the two world wars. Passenger fares in Russia remained the lowest in the world. During the reign of Nicholas II, a large-scale development of the northern and Far Eastern waterways began. Russia created the world's first icebreaker fleet. The sovereign paid great attention to the development of all types of communications. The number of postal institutions increased by 4.5 times, telephone subscribers by more than 200 times. The total length of telegraph lines was about 230 thousand km.

By 1917, Russia firmly entered the top five most developed countries in the world.

The consistent reforms of Emperor Nicholas II in the field of public education, healthcare, the development of the sports movement, support for charity and patronage led to a real improvement in people's lives.

It was in Russia that for the first time in the world practice, medical care for the population became available and free of charge. Emperor Nicholas II supported the introduction of territorial divisions. The medical site has become a unique form of organizing medical care for the rural population. In Russia, a system of Duma doctors has developed, which became the first experience in Europe in providing public assistance to the urban population. Emperor Nicholas II, through measures of state support and improvement of legislation, contributed to the development of factory medicine in Russia, which was the best in the world. By 1913, 1 million 762 thousand Russian workers were covered by affordable medical care. During the reign of Nicholas II, a sharp decrease in the frequency of epidemics of serious infectious diseases was achieved. The leadership of the Russian scientific school in the field of psychiatry, surgery, and physiology was recognized all over the world.

Emperor Nicholas II carried out a large-scale and outstanding reform of public education. Expenditure on public education increased by 8 times. From 1904, initial education was free of charge by law, and from 1908 it became compulsory. About 10 public schools opened annually in Russia. By 1914 there were more than 11 million students in Russia. By 1917, 86 percent of Russian youth could read and write. During the reign of Nicholas II, the number of higher educational institutions in Russia increased by 2.5 times, 4 new universities, 16 technical universities were opened, a system of agricultural and commercial education was created. In terms of the number of girls and girls studying in gymnasiums and universities, Russia ranked first in Europe. By 1914, 49.7% of university students were children of petty bourgeois, merchants, peasants, and Cossacks. The social status of the teacher was worthy.

It was during the reign of Nicholas II that the sports movement was born in Russia, 1235 sports societies and clubs arose. In 1894-1914, the first Russian championships in cycling, gymnastics, boxing, weightlifting, shooting, motorsport, rowing, chess, hockey and speed skating took place. By decrees of Nicholas II, in 1911, the Russian Olympic Committee was formed, in 1913 - the Office of the Chief Supervisor of the Physical Development of the Population of the Russian Empire. The sovereign became the initiator of the first Olympiads in Russia, which were held in 1913-1914 in Kyiv and Riga. By the decision of Nicholas II, gymnastics was introduced as an academic discipline in 1566 gymnasiums.

During the reign of Emperor Nicholas II, charity and patronage became the most important instrument of social policy. Donations from members of the Imperial family accounted for a third of all expenses - the only example in world history. Representatives of the House of Romanov maintained 903 orphanages, 145 overnight homes, 213 charitable institutions, 234 educational institutions, 199 hospitals and first-aid posts. The sovereign annually sent 2 million rubles to support Russian art. During the First World War, Nicholas II and members of his family donated more than 250 million rubles of personal funds to the needs of the wounded and to help the families of the fallen soldiers.

Emperor Nicholas II carried out a reform of the state-political system of Russia, laid the foundations of a legal state.

The Sovereign approved on October 17, 1905 the highest Manifesto "On the improvement of the state order." The right to legislate was distributed between the monarch and the legislature - the State Duma. The manifesto for the first time in the history of Russia proclaimed and provided political rights and freedoms. The Manifesto of February 24, 1906 established the basic principles of the new legislative system. In the pre-revolutionary State Duma of the first four convocations, 65 percent of the deputies were from the middle and lower classes.

Emperor Nicholas II, by decree of 1906, endowed the State Council with legislative functions. The jurisdiction of the State Council included the consideration of bills adopted by the State Duma, as well as issues of internal management, domestic and foreign policy in emergency circumstances, and consideration of the country's budget.

On April 26, 1906, Emperor Nicholas II approved the "Code of Fundamental State Laws of the Russian Empire" - a fundamental legislative act that strengthened the foundations of the renewed state system.

The reform of the Senate was carried out, the result of which was a significant influence of the ministries concerned on the decisions of cases, a competitive principle was introduced into the Senate proceedings.

Emperor Nicholas II transformed the factory inspection, established the responsibility of entrepreneurs for accidents at work - treatment, payment of benefits and pensions. The law of June 2, 1897 limited the duration of working hours at enterprises, protected children's and women's labor. A package of laws approved by Nicholas II in 1912 completed the creation of the world's best workers' insurance system.

The sovereign significantly expanded the rights of local governments, approved laws on the creation of the Kamchatka region and the Sakhalin governorate, on the introduction of zemstvo self-government in 9 provinces of Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine, in the Orenburg, Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces, city self-government in Novocherkassk.

Nicholas II successfully carried out the reform of the Ministry of Justice. In 1894-1897, the specialists of this department developed draft laws on changing the procedure for initiating questions about the responsibility of governors, probation, a disciplinary charter regulating punishment for official deeds, and other bills.

A progressive judicial system was created in Russia. On May 13, 1896, Emperor Nicholas II approved the law on the introduction of "Judicial Charters" in additional 21 provinces of the Russian Empire. Since 1899, the mandatory appointment of a defense lawyer has been introduced in the judicial chambers. In 1909, the institution of parole was introduced. On June 15, 1912, Nicholas II approved the "Law on the Transformation of the Local Court", which restored the elective world court. A new phenomenon has become administrative justice - the prototype of the current arbitration.

In 1984-1916, more than 4,000 laws were adopted in the Russian Empire, which determined the new legal field.

Emperor Nicholas II carried out one of the most effective military reforms in Russian history. The strengthening of defense capabilities with the pursuit of a peaceful foreign policy allowed the Russian Empire to take its rightful place among the most influential world powers.

Emperor Nicholas II in 1905-1908 completely reorganized the management of the Armed Forces. The Council of State Defense, the Naval General Staff, the Higher Attestation Commission were formed, new charters and instructions were adopted, the reserve and fortress troops that were weak in combat terms were abolished, and corps and field heavy artillery were formed. By decrees of the Emperor, new types of troops are created - the submarine forces of the fleet, the Air Force, automobile units, the engineering and railway troops, and the communications troops are significantly strengthened. In 1913, the Armed Forces included 13 military districts, 2 fleets, 3 flotillas. During the reign of Nicholas II, much attention was paid to the social security of soldiers and officers, the system of officer training was changed. The Chief of the General Staff of the German Empire, General von Moltke, in 1914 assessed the military reform as follows: "The combat readiness of Russia since the Russo-Japanese has made absolutely exceptional progress and is now at a height never reached before."

Emperor Nicholas II assumed supreme command of the Russian Armed Forces in August 1915, when the Russian army was retreating. Under his leadership, 13 new armies were deployed, the Vilna-Molodechenskaya, Sarykamysh, Carpathian, Erzurum strategic offensive operations were successfully carried out. On the South-Western Front in 1916, for the first time in the world, a breakthrough of a positional defense in depth was carried out. Nicholas II ensured the mobilization of the military industry, which in 1914-1917 produced 3.3 million rifles, 11.7 thousand guns, 28 thousand machine guns, 4.6 thousand mortars, 27 million shells, 13.5 billion cartridges, 5565 aircraft. Winston Churchill assessed these achievements as follows: "There are few episodes of the Great War more striking than the resurrection, rearmament and renewed gigantic effort of Russia in 1916."

Emperor Nicholas II was directly in charge of Russia's foreign policy. The sovereign restored diplomatic relations with Bulgaria and Afghanistan, contributed to the return of France to the bosom of the great powers, and consistently advocated a peaceful resolution of the Balkan conflict. “Russia will grow with Asia,” these words of the Sovereign determined the direction of Russian geopolitics. Nicholas II began to develop the "Great Asian Program" - the development of Siberia and the Far East, economic cooperation with neighbors in Asia. The patronage of Russia helped to survive China as a state. The firm position of the Sovereign forced Japan to refuse to seize the Liaodong Peninsula, deprived her of control over the Pechili Gulf.

On the initiative of Emperor Nicholas II, in 1899 and 1907, the I and II Hague Peace Conferences were convened, which laid the foundation for a new system of international relations. The Hague International Court of Justice was established. The Russian tsar for the first time in the world came up with an initiative to limit armaments and to peacefully settle international disputes. The peacekeeping ideas of Nicholas II still form the basis of the normative provisions of the UN Charter.