Ivan IV the Terrible |
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1st Tsar of All Russia |
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Coronation: |
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Predecessor: |
Vasily III |
Successor: |
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Heir: |
Dmitry (1552-1553), Ivan (1554-1582), after Fedor |
Religion: |
Orthodoxy |
Birth: |
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Buried: |
Archangel Cathedral in Moscow |
Dynasty: |
Rurikovichi |
Vasily III |
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Elena Glinskaya |
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1) Anastasia Romanovna |
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Sons: Dmitry, Ivan, Fedor, Dmitry Uglitsky daughters: Anna, Maria |
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Origin
Biography
Childhood of the Grand Duke
Crowning the kingdom
Domestic politics
Reforms of Ivan IV
Oprichnina
Reasons for the introduction of oprichnina
Oprichnina institution
Foreign policy
Kazan campaigns
Astrakhan campaigns
Wars with the Crimean Khanate
War with Sweden 1554-1557
Livonian War
Causes of the war
cultural activities
Khan on the Moscow throne
Appearance
Family and personal life
Contemporaries
Historiography of the 19th century
Historiography of the XX century.
Tsar Ivan and the Church
The question of canonization
Cinema
Computer games
John Vasilyevich(nickname Ivan (John) the Great, in late historiography Ivan IV the Terrible; August 25, 1530, the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow - March 18, 1584, Moscow) - Grand Duke of Moscow and All Russia (since 1533), Tsar of All Russia (since 1547) (except 1575-1576, when Simeon Bekbulatovich was nominally the king).
Origin
The son of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III and Elena Glinskaya. On the paternal side, he descended from the dynasty of Ivan Kalita, on the maternal side - from Mamai, who was considered the ancestor of the Lithuanian princes Glinsky.
Grandmother, Sophia Paleolog - from the family of Byzantine emperors. He erected himself to the Roman Emperor Augustus, who was supposedly the ancestor of Rurik according to the genealogical legend invented by that time.
Brief description of the board
Came to power at a very early age. After the uprising in Moscow in 1547, he ruled with the participation of a circle of close associates, which Prince Kurbsky called the "Chosen Rada". Under him, the convocation of Zemsky Sobors began, the Sudebnik of 1550 was drawn up. Reforms of the military service, the judiciary and public administration have been carried out, including the introduction of elements of self-government at the local level (Gubnaya, Zemskaya and other reforms). In 1560, the Elected Rada fell, its main figures fell into disgrace, and the tsar's completely independent reign began.
In 1565, after the flight of Prince Kurbsky to Lithuania, the oprichnina was introduced.
Under Ivan IV, the increase in the territory of Russia amounted to almost 100%, from 2.8 million km? up to 5.4 million km ?, the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates were conquered and annexed, thus, by the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the area of \u200b\u200bthe Russian State became larger than the rest of Europe.
In 1558-1583, the Livonian War was fought for access to the Baltic Sea. In 1572, as a result of a stubborn long-term struggle, the invasions of the Crimean Khanate were put to an end (see Russian-Crimean Wars), the annexation of Siberia began (1581).
Trade relations were established with England (1553), as well as with Persia and Central Asia, and the first printing house was established in Moscow.
The domestic policy of Ivan IV, after a streak of setbacks during the Livonian War and as a result of the desire of the tsar himself to establish despotic power, acquires a terrorist character and in the second half of his reign was marked by the establishment of the oprichnina, mass executions and murders, the defeat of Novgorod and a number of other cities (Tver, Klin, Torzhok). Oprichnina was accompanied by thousands of victims, and, according to many historians, its results, combined with the results of long and unsuccessful wars, led the state to ruin and a socio-political crisis, as well as to an increase in the tax burden and the formation of serfdom.
Biography
Childhood of the Grand Duke
According to the right of succession to the throne that existed in Russia, the grand-ducal throne passed to the eldest son of the monarch, but Ivan (“direct name” by his birthday - Titus) was only three years old when his father, Grand Duke Vasily, became seriously ill. The closest contenders for the throne, except for the young Ivan, were Vasily's younger brothers. Of the six sons of Ivan III, two remained - Prince Andrei of Staritsky and Prince Yuri of Dmitrovsky.
Anticipating his imminent death, Vasily III formed a “seventh” boyar commission to govern the state. The guardians were supposed to take care of Ivan until he reaches the age of 15. The Board of Trustees included Prince Andrei Staritsky, the younger brother of Ivan's father, M. L. Glinsky, the uncle of Grand Duchess Elena, and advisers: the Shuisky brothers (Vasily and Ivan), M. Yu. Zakharyin, Mikhail Tuchkov, Mikhail Vorontsov. According to the plan of the Grand Duke, this was to preserve the order of government of the country by trusted people and reduce strife in the aristocratic Boyar Duma. The existence of the regency council is not recognized by all historians, so according to the historian A. A. Zimin, Vasily transferred the conduct of state affairs to the Boyar Duma, and appointed M. L. Glinsky and D. F. Belsky as guardians of the heir.
Vasily III died on December 3, 1533, and after 8 days the boyars got rid of the main contender for the throne - Prince Yuri of Dmitrovsky.
The Board of Trustees ruled the country for less than a year, after which its power began to crumble. In August 1534, a series of reshuffles took place in the ruling circles. On August 3, Prince Semyon Belsky and the experienced military leader Ivan Lyatsky left Serpukhov and left for the service of the Lithuanian prince. On August 5, one of the guardians of the young Ivan, Mikhail Glinsky, was arrested, who then died in prison. For complicity with defectors, Semyon Belsky's brother Ivan and Prince Ivan Vorotynsky with their children were captured. In the same month, another member of the Board of Trustees, Mikhail Vorontsov, was also arrested. Analyzing the events of August 1534, the historian S. M. Solovyov concludes that "all this was the result of the general indignation of the nobles at Elena and her favorite Obolensky."
An attempt by Andrei Staritsky in 1537 to seize power ended in failure: locked in Novgorod from the front and rear, he was forced to surrender and ended his life in prison.
In April 1538, 30-year-old Elena Glinskaya died, and six days later the boyars (princes I.V. Shuisky and V.V. Shuisky with advisers) also got rid of Obolensky. Metropolitan Daniel and clerk Fyodor Mishchurin, staunch supporters of a centralized state and active figures in the government of Vasily III and Elena Glinskaya, were immediately removed from government. Metropolitan Daniel was sent to the Joseph-Volotsky Monastery, and Mishchurin "was executed by the boyars ... not loving the fact that he stood for the Grand Duke of the cause."
« Many among the boyars were enmity about self-interest and about tribes, everyone cares for his own, and not for the sovereign”, this is how the chronicler describes the years of boyar rule, in which “ everyone desires various and highest ranks for himself ... and self-love, and untruth, and the desire to steal someone else's estate, began to exist in them. And having erected great sedition among themselves, and lust for power for the sake of each other, deceitful ... rising up against their friends, and their houses and villages for themselves, and filling their treasures with unrighteous wealth».
In 1545, at the age of 15, Ivan came of age, thus becoming a full-fledged ruler.
Crowning the kingdom
On December 13, 1546, Ivan Vasilievich for the first time expressed his intention to marry Macarius (for more details, see below), and before that, to marry the kingdom "following the example of the grandparents."
A number of historians (N. I. Kostomarov, R. G. Skrynnikov, V. V. Kobrin) believe that the initiative to adopt the royal title could not come from a 16-year-old youth. Most likely, Metropolitan Macarius played an important role in this. Strengthening the power of the king was also beneficial to his relatives on the maternal side. V. O. Klyuchevsky adheres to the opposite point of view, emphasizing the desire for power that was early formed in the sovereign. In his opinion, "the tsar's political thoughts were developed secretly from those around him", the idea of a wedding came as a complete surprise to the boyars.
The ancient Byzantine kingdom with its divinely crowned emperors has always been a model for the Orthodox countries, but it fell under the blows of the infidels. Moscow, in the eyes of the Russian Orthodox people, was to become the heiress of Tsargrad - Constantinople. The triumph of autocracy also personified the triumph of the Orthodox faith for Metropolitan Macarius. Thus intertwined the interests of the royal and spiritual authorities (Philotheus). At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea of the divine origin of the power of the sovereign was becoming more widespread. One of the first to talk about this was Joseph Volotsky. A different understanding of the power of the sovereign by Archpriest Sylvester later led to the exile of the latter. The idea that the autocrat is obliged in everything to obey God and his institutions runs through the entire “Message to the Tsar”.
On January 16, 1547, a solemn wedding ceremony took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the rite of which was drawn up by the Metropolitan himself. The Metropolitan laid on him the signs of royal dignity - the cross of the Life-Giving Tree, barmas and the cap of Monomakh; Ivan Vasilievich was anointed with chrism, and then the metropolitan blessed the tsar.
Later, in 1558, the Patriarch of Constantinople informed Ivan the Terrible that “his royal name is commemorated in the Cathedral Church on all Sundays, as the names of former Byzantine Tsars; this is commanded to be done in all dioceses, where there are only metropolitans and bishops”, “and about your blessed wedding to the kingdom from St. Metropolitan of All Russia, our brother and comrade-in-arms, has been accepted by us for the good and worthy of your kingdom.” " Reveal to us- wrote Joachim, Patriarch of Alexandria, - in modern times, a new nurturer and providence for us, a good champion, the chosen and God-instructed Ktitor of this holy monastery, what was once the divinely crowned and Equal-to-the-Apostles Constantine... formerly kings».
The royal title allowed him to take a significantly different position in diplomatic relations with Western Europe. The grand ducal title was translated as "prince" or even "great duke". The title "king" in the hierarchy was on a par with the title of emperor.
Since 1554, the title has been unconditionally granted to Ivan by England. The question of the title was more difficult in Catholic countries, in which the theory of a single "holy empire" was firmly held. In 1576, Emperor Maximilian II, wishing to bring Ivan the Terrible to an alliance against Turkey, offered him the throne and the title of "Eastern [Eastern] Caesar" in the future. John IV was completely indifferent to the "Greek tsardom", but demanded immediate recognition of himself as the king of "all Russia", and the emperor yielded on this important matter of principle, especially since Maximilian I recognized the royal title for Vasily III, calling the Sovereign "God's grace Caesar and owner of the All-Russian and Grand Duke. The papacy turned out to be much more stubborn, which defended the exclusive right of the popes to grant royal and other titles to sovereigns, and on the other hand, did not allow violations of the principle of a “united empire”. In this irreconcilable position, the papal throne found support from the Polish king, who perfectly understood the significance of the claims of the Moscow Sovereign. Sigismund II August presented a note to the papal throne, in which he warned that the recognition by the papacy of Ivan IV of the title of "Tsar of All Russia" would lead to the exclusion from Poland and Lithuania of the lands inhabited by the "Rusyns" related to the Muscovites, and would attract Moldovans and Vlachs to his side. For his part, John IV attached particular importance to the recognition of his royal title by the Polish-Lithuanian state, but Poland throughout the 16th century did not agree to his demand. Of the successors of Ivan IV, his imaginary son False Dmitry I used the title of "emperor", but Sigismund III, who put him on the throne of Moscow, officially called him simply a prince, not even "great".
As a result of the coronation, the tsar's relatives strengthened their position, having achieved significant benefits, however, after the Moscow uprising of 1547, the Glinsky family lost all its influence, and the young ruler became convinced of the striking discrepancy between his ideas about power and the real state of affairs.
Domestic politics
Reforms of Ivan IV
Since 1549, together with the Chosen Rada (A.F. Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, A.M. Kurbsky, Archpriest Sylvester), Ivan IV carried out a number of reforms aimed at centralizing the state: Zemstvo reform, Lip reform, carried out transformations in the army. In 1550, a new law code was adopted, which tightened the rules for the transition of peasants (the size of the elderly was increased). In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor was convened. In 1555-1556 Ivan IV canceled feeding and adopted the Code of Service.
The Sudebnik and royal charters granted the peasant communities the right to self-government, the distribution of taxes and supervision of order.
As A. V. Chernov wrote, the archers were completely armed with firearms, which put them above the infantry of Western states, where some of the infantrymen (pikemen) had only edged weapons. From the author's point of view, all this indicates that Muscovy, in the person of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, was far ahead of Europe in the formation of infantry. At the same time, it is known that already at the beginning of the 17th century in Russia they began to form the so-called regiments of the "Foreign system" on the model of the Swedish and Dutch infantry, which impressed the Russian military leaders with their effectiveness. The regiments of the "Foreign system" also had at their disposal pikemen (spearmen), who covered the musketeers from the cavalry, as A. V. Chernov himself mentions.
The “verdict on localism” contributed to a significant strengthening of discipline in the army, increased the authority of governors, especially those of non-noble origin, and improved the combat effectiveness of the Russian army, although it met with great resistance from the tribal nobility.
Under Ivan the Terrible, Jewish merchants were banned from entering Russia. When, in 1550, the Polish king Sigismund-August demanded that they be allowed free entry into Russia, John refused such words: “ Do not order the Zhid to go to your states in any way, we don’t want to see anything dashing in our states, but we want God to give my people in my states to be in silence without any embarrassment. And you, our brother, would not write to us about Zhideh"because they are Russian people" they were taken away from Christianity, and poisonous potions were brought to our lands and many dirty tricks were done to our people».
In order to set up a printing house in Moscow, the tsar turned to Christian II with a request to send book printers, and in 1552 he sent to Moscow through Hans Missingheim the Bible in Luther's translation and two Lutheran catechisms, but at the insistence of the Russian hierarchs, the king's plan to distribute translations in several thousand copies was rejected.
In the early 1560s, Ivan Vasilyevich made a landmark reform of state sphragistics. From that moment on, a stable type of state seal appeared in Russia. For the first time, a horseman appears on the chest of the ancient double-headed eagle - the coat of arms of the princes of the Rurik House, previously depicted separately, and always on the front side of the state seal, while the image of the eagle was placed on the back: “ In the same year (1562) of February, on the third day of February, the Tsar and Grand Duke changed the old smaller seal that was under his father Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich, and made a new folding seal: a double-headed eagle, and among it a man on a horse, and on the other side the eagle is double-headed, and among its inrog". The new seal sealed the treaty with the Danish kingdom of April 7, 1562.
According to Soviet historians A. A. Zimin and A. L. Khoroshkevich, the reason for Ivan the Terrible’s break with the Chosen Rada was that the latter’s program had been exhausted. In particular, an "imprudent respite" was given to Livonia, as a result of which several European states were drawn into the war. In addition, the tsar did not agree with the ideas of the leaders of the "Chosen Rada" (especially Adashev) about the priority of the conquest of the Crimea compared to military operations in the West. Finally, "Adashev showed excessive independence in foreign policy relations with Lithuanian representatives in 1559." and eventually retired. It should be noted that not all historians share such opinions about the reasons for Ivan's break with the Chosen Rada. So, N. I. Kostomarov sees the true background of the conflict in the negative features of the character of Ivan the Terrible, and, on the contrary, evaluates the activities of the Chosen One very highly. V. B. Kobrin also believes that the personality of the tsar played a decisive role here, but at the same time he links Ivan’s behavior with his commitment to the program of accelerated centralization of the country, which opposes the ideology of gradual change of the Chosen One.
Oprichnina
Reasons for the introduction of oprichnina
The fall of the Chosen Rada is estimated by historians in different ways. According to V. B. Kobrin, this was a manifestation of the conflict between the two programs of centralization of Russia: through slow structural reforms or rapidly, by force. Historians believe that the choice of the second path is due to the personal nature of Ivan the Terrible, who did not want to listen to people who disagree with his policies. Thus, after 1560, Ivan takes the path of tightening power, which led him to repressive measures.
According to R. G. Skrynnikov, the nobility would easily forgive Grozny for the resignation of his advisers Adashev and Sylvester, but she did not want to put up with an attempt on the prerogatives of the boyar Duma. The ideologist of the boyars, Kurbsky, protested in the strongest possible terms against the infringement of the privileges of the nobility and the transfer of management functions to the hands of the clerks (clerks): “ the great prince strongly believes in Russian clerks, and elects them neither from the gentry family, nor from the noble, but more from the priests or from the simple nation, otherwise the haters create their nobles».
New dissatisfaction of the princes, according to Skrynnikov, was caused by the royal decree of January 15, 1562 on limiting their patrimonial rights, which even more than before equated them with the local nobility. As a result, in the early 1560s. among the nobility there is a desire to escape from Tsar Ivan abroad. So, I. D. Belsky twice tried to escape abroad and twice was forgiven, Prince V. M. Glinsky and Prince I. V. Sheremetev were caught while trying to escape and forgiven. Tension was growing among the encirclement of Grozny: in the winter of 1563, the boyar Kolychev, T. Pukhov-Teterin, and M. Sarokhozin defected to the Poles. He was accused of treason and conspiracy with the Poles, but after that the governor of the city of Starodub, Prince V. Funikov, was pardoned. For an attempt to leave for Lithuania, the Smolensk governor, Prince Dmitry Kurlyatev, was recalled from Smolensk and exiled to a remote monastery on Lake Ladoga. In April 1564, Andrei Kurbsky fled to Poland in fear of disgrace, as Grozny himself later points out in his writings, sending an accusatory letter to Ivan from there.
In 1563, the clerk of Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky Savluk Ivanov, imprisoned by the prince for something, filed a denunciation of the latter's "great treacherous deeds", which immediately found a lively response from Ivan. The clerk claimed, in particular, that Staritsky warned the Polotsk governors about the tsar's intention to besiege the fortress. The king forgave his brother, but deprived of part of the inheritance, and on August 5, 1563, Princess Efrosinya Staritskaya ordered to be tonsured as a nun at the Resurrection Convent on the river. Sheksna. At the same time, the latter was allowed to keep with her servants, who received several thousand quarters of land in the vicinity of the monastery, and close noblewoman-advisers, and trips to Bogomolye to neighboring cloisters and embroidery were also allowed. Veselovsky and Khoroshkevich put forward a version of the voluntary tonsure of the princess as a nun.
In 1564, the Russian army was defeated on the river. Ole. There is a version that this served as an impetus for the start of the executions of those whom Grozny considered the perpetrators of the defeat: cousins were executed - princes Obolensky, Mikhailo Petrovich Repnin and Yuri Ivanovich Kashin. It is believed that Kashin was executed for refusing to dance at a feast in a buffoon mask, and Dmitry Fedorovich Obolensky-Ovchina - for reproaching Fyodor Basmanov for his homosexual relationship with the tsar, for a quarrel with Basmanov, the famous governor Nikita Vasilyevich Sheremetev was also executed.
In early December 1564, according to Shokarev's research, an attempt was made to carry out an armed rebellion against the tsar, in which Western forces took part: Many noble nobles gathered a considerable party in Lithuania and Poland and wanted to go with weapons against their king.».
Oprichnina institution
In 1565 Grozny announced the introduction of the Oprichnina in the country. The country was divided into two parts: "Sovereign Grace Oprichnin" and Zemstvo. In Oprichnina, mainly the north-eastern Russian lands fell, where there were few boyars-patrimonials. The center of the Oprichnina was Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, the new residence of Ivan the Terrible, from where, on January 3, 1565, the messenger Konstantin Polivanov delivered a letter to the clergy, the boyar Duma and the people about the abdication of the king from the throne. Although Veselovsky believes that Grozny did not announce his renunciation of power, the prospect of the departure of the sovereign and the onset of "stateless time", when the nobles can again force city merchants and artisans to do everything for them for free, could not but excite Moscow citizens.
The decree on the introduction of the Oprichnina was approved by the highest bodies of spiritual and secular power - the Consecrated Cathedral and the Boyar Duma. There is also an opinion that this decree was confirmed by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor. However, according to other sources, the members of the Council of 1566 sharply protested against the oprichnina, filing a petition for the abolition of the oprichnina for 300 signatures; all petitioners were immediately imprisoned, but quickly released (according to R. G. Skrynnikov, thanks to the intervention of Metropolitan Philip); 50 were subjected to commercial execution, several had their tongues cut off, three were beheaded.
The beginning of the formation of the oprichnina army can be considered the same year 1565, when a detachment of 1000 people selected from the "oprichnina" counties was formed. Each oprichnik took an oath of allegiance to the tsar and pledged not to communicate with the zemstvo. In the future, the number of "guardsmen" reached 6,000 people. The Oprichnina army also included detachments of archers from the Oprichnina territories. Since that time, service people began to be divided into two categories: boyar children, from the zemshchina, and boyar children, “yard and city”, that is, those who received the sovereign’s salary directly from the “royal court”. Consequently, the Oprichny army should be considered not only the Sovereign Regiment, but also service people recruited from the oprichny territories and serving under the command of the oprichny (“yard”) governors and heads.
Schlichting, Taube and Kruse mention 500-800 people of the "special oprichnina". These people, if necessary, served as trusted tsar's envoys, performing security, reconnaissance, investigative and punitive functions. The remaining 1200 guardsmen are divided into four orders, namely: Bed, in charge of maintaining the premises of the palace and household items of the royal family; Bronny - weapons; Konyushenny, which was in charge of the huge horse farm of the palace and the royal guard; and Sytny - food.
The chronicler, according to Froyanov, lays the blame for the troubles that befell the state, on the very "Russian land, mired in sins, internecine strife and treason": " And then, according to the sin of the Russians of all the earth, there was a great rebellion and hatred in all people, and internecine strife and misfortune were great, and the sovereign was moved to anger, and for the great treason the tsar initiated an oprichnina».
As an oprichnina "abbot", the king performed a number of monastic duties. So, at midnight everyone got up for the midnight office, at four in the morning - for matins, at eight mass began. The tsar set an example of piety: he himself called for matins, sang in the kliros, prayed fervently, and read the Holy Scripture aloud during the common meal. In general, the service took about 9 hours a day.
At the same time, there is evidence that orders for executions and torture were often given in the church. Historian G.P. Fedotov believes that “ without denying the tsar's repentant mood, one cannot fail to see that he was able, in well-established everyday forms, to combine atrocities with church piety, defiling the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe Orthodox kingdom».
With the help of the guardsmen, who were released from legal liability, John IV forcibly confiscated the boyar and princely estates, transferring them to the noble guardsmen. The boyars and princes themselves were granted estates in other regions of the country, for example, in the Volga region.
For the consecration to the rank of Metropolitan Philip, which took place on July 25, 1566, he prepared and signed a letter, according to which Philip promised "not to intervene in the oprichnina and royal life and, upon order, because of the oprichnina ... not to leave the metropolis."
The introduction of the oprichnina was marked by mass repressions: executions, confiscations, disgrace. In 1566, part of the disgraced was returned, but after the Council of 1566 and the demands for the abolition of the oprichnina, terror resumed. Opposite the Kremlin on Neglinnaya (on the site of the current RSL), a stone Oprichny courtyard was built, where the tsar moved from the Kremlin.
In early September 1567, Ivan the Terrible summoned the English envoy Jenkinson and through him conveyed to Queen Elizabeth I a request for asylum in England. This was due to the news of a conspiracy in the zemstvo, which aimed to overthrow him from the throne in favor of Vladimir Andreevich. The basis was the denunciation of Vladimir Andreevich himself; R. G. Skrynnikov recognizes as fundamentally unresolvable the question of whether the Zemshchina, outraged by the oprichnina, really constituted a conspiracy, or whether it all came down to just careless conversations of the opposition. A number of executions followed in this case, and the equestrian boyar Ivan Fedorov-Chelyadnin, extremely popular among the people for his incorruptibility and judicial conscientiousness, was also exiled to Kolomna (shortly before that, he proved his loyalty to the tsar by issuing a Polish agent sent to him with letters from the king).
Metropolitan Philip's public speech against the tsar is connected with these events: on March 22, 1568, in the Assumption Cathedral, he refused to bless the tsar and demanded that the oprichnina be cancelled. In response, the guardsmen beat the Metropolitan's servants to death with iron sticks, then a trial was initiated against the Metropolitan in the church court. Philip was defrocked and exiled to the Tver Otroch Monastery.
In the summer of the same year, Chelyadnin-Fedorov was accused of allegedly planning to overthrow the tsar with the help of his servants. Fedorov and 30 people identified as his accomplices were executed. In the royal synodic, disgraced on this occasion, it is written: Finished: Ivan Petrovich Fedorov; Mikhail Kolychev and his three sons were finished in Moscow; in the cities - Prince Andrey Katyrev, Prince Fyodor Troekurov, Mikhail Lykov with his nephew". Their estates were destroyed, all the servants were killed: “369 people were finished and in total finished July 6th (1568)”. According to R. G. Skrynnikov, “The repressions were generally disorderly. Chelyadnin's friends and acquaintances, surviving supporters of Adashev, relatives of the nobles who were in exile, etc. were seized indiscriminately. Everyone who dared to protest against the oprichnina was beaten. The vast majority of them were executed without even the appearance of a trial, on denunciations and slander under torture. The tsar personally stabbed Fedorov with a knife, after which the guardsmen cut him with their knives.
In 1569, the tsar committed suicide with his cousin: he was accused of intending to poison the tsar and executed along with his servants, his mother Euphrosyne Staritskaya was drowned with 12 nuns in the Sheksna River.
Campaign to Novgorod and the "search" for the Novgorod treason
In December 1569, suspecting the Novgorod nobility of complicity in the "conspiracy" of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky, who had recently been killed on his orders, and at the same time intending to turn himself over to the Polish king, Ivan, accompanied by a large army of guardsmen, set out on a campaign against Novgorod.
Having moved to Novgorod in the autumn of 1569, the guardsmen staged massacres and robberies in Tver, Klin, Torzhok and other cities they met. In the Tver Otrochy Monastery in December 1569, Malyuta Skuratov personally strangled Metropolitan Philip, who refused to bless the campaign against Novgorod. In Novgorod, many citizens, including women and children, were executed using various tortures.
After the campaign, a “search” for the Novgorod treason began, which was carried out throughout 1570, and many prominent guardsmen were also involved in the case. From this case, only the description in the Census Book of the Ambassadorial Order has been preserved: “ pillar, and in it is an article list from the detective from the treasonous case of 1570 against Bishop Pimen of Novgorod and Novgorod clerks and clerks, as they and the (Moscow) boyars ... wanted to give Novgorod and Pskov to the Lithuanian king. ... and Tsar Ivan Vasilievich ... they wanted, with malicious intent, to lime and put Prince Volodimer Ondreevich on the state ... in that case, with torture, many spoke about that betrayal of the Novgorod Archbishop Pimen and his advisers and themselves, and in that case, many were executed by death, pink executions , and others were sent to prisons ... Yes, there is a list of what to execute by death, and what execution, and what to let go ... ».
In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray invaded Russia. According to V. B. Kobrin, the decomposed oprichnina at the same time demonstrated complete incompetence: the guardsmen, accustomed to robbing the civilian population, simply did not come to the war, so they were recruited for only one regiment (against five Zemstvo regiments). Moscow was burned. As a result, during the new invasion in 1572, the oprichnina army was already united with the zemstvo; in the same year, the tsar abolished the oprichnina altogether and banned its very name, although in fact, under the name of the "sovereign's court", the oprichnina existed until his death.
Foreign policy
Part of the aristocracy and the Pope insistently demanded to fight the Turkish Sultan Suleiman the First, who had 30 kingdoms and 8 thousand miles of coast under his control.
The tsar's artillery was varied and numerous. " At least two thousand guns are always ready for battle with Russian artillerymen ...”- his ambassador John Cobenzl reported to Emperor Maximilian II. Most impressive was the heavy artillery. The Moscow chronicle writes without exaggeration: "... the cores of large cannons are twenty pounds each, while other cannons are a little lighter." The largest howitzer in Europe - the "Kashpir Cannon", weighing 1200 pounds and caliber of 20 pounds - terrified, took part in the siege of Polotsk in 1563. Also, “another feature of Russian artillery of the 16th century should be noted, namely, its durability,” writes modern researcher Alexei Lobin. " Cannons, cast by order of Ivan the Terrible, were in service for several decades and participated in almost all the battles of the 17th century.».
Kazan campaigns
In the first half of the 16th century, mainly during the reign of the khans from the Crimean family of Gireys, the Kazan Khanate waged constant wars with Muscovite Russia. In total, the Kazan khans made about forty trips to Russian lands, mainly to the outskirts of the regions of Nizhny Novgorod, Vyatka, Vladimir, Kostroma, Galich, Murom, Vologda. “From the Crimea and from Kazan to the semi-earth it was empty,” the tsar wrote, describing the consequences of the invasions.
Trying to find a peaceful settlement, Moscow supported the Kasimov ruler Shah Ali, loyal to Russia, who, having become the Kazan khan, approved the project of a union with Moscow. But in 1546, Shah-Ali was expelled by the Kazan nobility, who elevated Khan Safa-Girey to the throne from a dynasty hostile to Russia. After that, it was decided to move on to active actions and eliminate the threat posed by Kazan. " From now on- points out the historian, - Moscow put forward a plan for the final crushing of the Kazan Khanate».
In total, Ivan IV led three campaigns against Kazan.
First hike(winter 1547/1548). The tsar left Moscow on December 20, because of the early thaw, 15 versts from Nizhny Novgorod, siege artillery and part of the army left under the ice on the Volga. It was decided to return the king from the crossing back to Nizhny Novgorod, while the main governors with the part of the army that managed to cross over reached Kazan, where they entered into battle with the Kazan army. As a result, the Kazan army retreated behind the walls of the wooden Kremlin, which the Russian army did not dare to storm without siege artillery and, after standing under the walls for seven days, retreated. On March 7, 1548, the tsar returned to Moscow.
Second hike(autumn 1549 - spring 1550). In March 1549, Safa Giray died suddenly. Having received a Kazan messenger with a request for peace, Ivan IV refused him, and began to gather an army. On November 24, he left Moscow to lead the army. Having united in Nizhny Novgorod, the army moved to Kazan and on February 14 was at its walls. Kazan was not taken; however, when the Russian troops retreated not far from Kazan, at the confluence of the Sviyaga River into the Volga, it was decided to build a fortress. On March 25, the tsar returned to Moscow. In 1551, in just 4 weeks, a fortress was assembled from carefully numbered components, which received the name Sviyazhsk; it served as a stronghold for the Russian troops during the next campaign.
Third campaign(June-October 1552) - ended with the capture of Kazan. The 150,000th Russian army participated in the campaign, the armament included 150 guns. The Kazan Kremlin was taken by storm. Khan Yediger-Magmet was handed over to the Russian governors. The chronicler recorded: On himself, the sovereign did not order to imati not a single coppersmith (that is, not a single penny), nor captivity, only a single king Ediger-Magmet and royal banners and city cannons". I. I. Smirnov believes that “ The Kazan campaign of 1552 and the brilliant victory of Ivan IV over Kazan not only meant a major foreign policy success of the Russian state, but also contributed to the strengthening of the foreign policy positions of the tsar».
In the defeated Kazan, the tsar appointed Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky as Kazan governor, and Prince Vasily Serebryany as his comrade.
After the establishment of the episcopal chair in Kazan, the tsar and the church council by lot elected hegumen Guriy in the rank of archbishop for it. Guriy received an order from the tsar to convert Kazanians to Orthodoxy solely at the request of each person, but “unfortunately, such prudent measures were not followed everywhere: the intolerance of the century took its toll…”.
From the first steps towards the conquest and development of the Volga region, the tsar began to invite to his service all the Kazan nobility, who agreed to swear allegiance to him, sending " in all uluses to black people, yasaks, letters of commendation are dangerous, so that they go to the sovereign without fear of anything; and who famously repaired, God took revenge on him; and their sovereign will grant, and they would pay yasaks, like the former Kazan tsar". This nature of the policy not only did not require the preservation of the main military forces of the Russian state in Kazan, but, on the contrary, made Ivan's solemn return to the capital natural and expedient.
Immediately after the capture of Kazan, in January 1555, the ambassadors of the Siberian Khan Yediger asked the king to " he took all the land of Siberia under his name and from the sides from all interceded (protected) and put his tribute on them and sent his man to whom to collect tribute».
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The conquest of Kazan was of great importance for the life of the people. The Kazan Tatar horde bound under its rule into one strong whole a complex foreign world: Mordovians, Cheremis, Chuvashs, Votyaks, Bashkirs. Cheremisy across the Volga, on the river. Unzhe and Vetluge, and the Mordovians beyond the Oka held back the colonization movement of Russia to the east; and the raids of the Tatars and other “languages” on Russian settlements terribly harmed them, ruining the economy and taking many Russian people into the “full”. Kazan was a chronic ulcer of Moscow life, and therefore its capture became a national celebration, sung by a folk song. After the capture of Kazan, within only 20 years, it was turned into a large Russian city; in different points of the foreign Volga region, fortified cities were set up as a support for Russian power and Russian settlements. The mass of the people reached out, without delay, to the rich lands of the Volga region and to the forest regions of the middle Urals. Huge expanses of valuable land were subdued by the Muscovite authorities and mastered by people's labor. This was the meaning of the "Kazan capture", sensitively guessed by the people's mind. The occupation of the lower Volga and Western Siberia was a natural consequence of the destruction of the barrier that the Kazan kingdom was for Russian colonization. Platonov S.F. Full course of lectures on Russian history. Part 2 |
It should be noted that the history of the Kazan campaigns is often counted from the campaign, which took place in 1545, which "was in the nature of a military demonstration and strengthened the positions of the" Moscow Party "and other opponents of Khan Safa Giray."
Astrakhan campaigns
In the early 1550s, the Astrakhan Khanate was an ally of the Crimean Khan, controlling the lower reaches of the Volga.
Before the final subjugation of the Astrakhan Khanate under Ivan IV, two campaigns were made:
Campaign of 1554 was committed under the command of the governor Yu. I. Pronsky-Shemyakin. In the battle near the Black Island, the Russian army defeated the leading Astrakhan detachment. Astrakhan was taken without a fight. As a result, Khan Dervish-Ali was brought to power, promising support for Moscow.
Campaign of 1556 was due to the fact that Khan Dervish-Ali went over to the side of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire. The campaign was led by the governor N. Cheremisinov. First, the Don Cossacks of the ataman L. Filimonov's detachment defeated the khan's army near Astrakhan, after which in July Astrakhan was again taken without a fight. As a result of this campaign, the Astrakhan Khanate was subordinated to Moscow Rus.
Later, the Crimean Khan Devlet I Girey made attempts to recapture Astrakhan.
After the conquest of Astrakhan, Russian influence began to extend to the Caucasus. In 1559, the princes of Pyatigorsk and Cherkassky asked Ivan IV to send them a detachment to defend against the raids of the Crimean Tatars and priests to maintain the faith; the tsar sent them two governors and priests, who renovated the fallen ancient churches, and in Kabarda they showed extensive missionary activity, baptizing many into Orthodoxy.
In the 1550s, the Siberian khan Yediger and Bolshoi Nogai became dependent on the tsar.
Wars with the Crimean Khanate
The troops of the Crimean Khanate staged regular raids on the southern territories of Moscow Rus from the beginning of the 16th century (raids of 1507, 1517, 1521). Their goal was to rob Russian cities and capture the population. In the reign of Ivan IV, the raids continued.
It is known about the campaigns of the Crimean Khanate in 1536, 1537, undertaken jointly with the Kazan Khanate, with the military support of Turkey and Lithuania.
- In 1541, the Crimean Khan Sahib I Girey made a campaign that ended in an unsuccessful siege of Zaraysk. His army was stopped near the Oka River by Russian regiments under the command of Prince Dmitry Belsky.
- In June 1552, Khan Devlet I Girey made a trip to Tula.
- In 1555, Devlet I Giray repeated the campaign against Muscovite Russia, but, before reaching Tula, he hastily turned back, abandoning all his booty. When withdrawing, he entered the battle near the village of Sudbishchi with a Russian detachment inferior to him in terms of numbers. This battle did not affect the result of his campaign.
The tsar gave in to the demands of the opposition aristocracy for a campaign against the Crimea: brave and courageous men advised and stung, let Ivan himself move with his head, with great troops against Perekop Khan».
In 1558, the army of Prince Dmitry Vishnevetsky defeated the Crimean army at Azov, and in 1559 the army under the command of Daniil Adashev made a campaign against the Crimea, ruining the large Crimean port of Gyozlev (now Evpatoria) and freeing many Russian captives.
After the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan khanates by Ivan the Terrible, Devlet I Giray swore to return them. In 1563 and 1569, together with the Turkish troops, he made two unsuccessful campaigns against Astrakhan.
The campaign of 1569 was much more serious than the previous ones - together with the Turkish land army and the Tatar cavalry, the Turkish fleet rose along the Don River, and the Turks began building a shipping channel between the Volga and the Don - their goal was to lead the Turkish fleet into the Caspian Sea for the war against their traditional enemy - Persia. The ten-day siege of Astrakhan without artillery and under the autumn rains ended in nothing, the garrison under the command of Prince P.S. Serebryany repelled all attacks. The attempt to dig a canal also ended unsuccessfully - the Turkish engineers did not yet know the lock systems. Devlet I Giray, not happy with the strengthening of Turkey in this region, also secretly interfered with the campaign.
After that, three more trips to Moscow lands are made:
- 1570 - a devastating raid on Ryazan;
- 1571 - a campaign against Moscow - ended with the burning of Moscow. As a result of the April Crimean Tatar raid, agreed with the Polish king, the southern Russian lands were devastated, tens of thousands of people died, more than 150 thousand Russians were taken into slavery; with the exception of the stone Kremlin, all of Moscow was burned. John, a week before the Khan crossed the Oka, because of conflicting intelligence data, left the army and went deep into the country to collect additional forces; at the news of the invasion, he moved from Serpukhov to Bronnitsy, from there to Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, and from the Sloboda to Rostov, as his predecessors Dmitry Donskoy and Vasily I Dmitrievich did in similar cases. The winner sent him an arrogant letter:
Tsar Ivan answered the humble petition:
He went out to the Tatar ambassadors in a sermyag, saying to them: “Do you see me, what am I wearing? So the king (khan) made me! All de my kingdom cast out and burned the treasury, give me nothing to the king. Karamzin writes that the tsar handed over to Devlet-Girey, at his request, a certain noble Crimean prisoner, who converted to Orthodoxy in Russian captivity. However, Devlet-Girey was not satisfied with Astrakhan, demanding Kazan and 2000 rubles, and in the summer of the following year the invasion was repeated.
- 1572 - the last big campaign of the Crimean Khan in the reign of Ivan IV, ended with the destruction of the Crimean Turkish army. For the decisive defeat of the Russian state, the 120,000-strong Crimean Turkish horde moved. However, in the Battle of Molodi, the enemy was destroyed by a 60,000-strong Russian army under the leadership of the governor M. Vorotynsky and D. Khvorostinin - 5-10 thousand returned to Crimea (see the Russian-Crimean War of 1571-1572). The death of the elite Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the defeat of the Crimean horde near Moscow in 1572 put a limit to the Turkish-Tatar expansion in Eastern Europe.
The winner at Molodi, Vorotynsky, the very next year, at the denunciation of a serf, was accused of intending to bewitch the tsar and died of torture, and during the torture the tsar himself raked coals with his staff.
War with Sweden 1554-1557
The war was caused by the establishment of trade relations between Russia and Britain through the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean, which hit the economic interests of Sweden, which received considerable income from transit Russian-European trade (G. Forsten).
In April 1555, the Swedish flotilla of Admiral Jacob Bagge passed the Neva and landed an army in the area of the Oreshek fortress. The siege of the fortress did not bring results, the Swedish army retreated.
In response, Russian troops invaded Swedish territory and on January 20, 1556 defeated a Swedish detachment near the Swedish city of Kivinebb. Then there was a clash at Vyborg, after which this fortress was besieged. The siege lasted 3 days, Vyborg withstood.
As a result, in March 1557, a truce was signed in Novgorod for a period of 40 years (it entered into force on January 1, 1558). The Russian-Swedish border was restored along the old border, determined by the Orekhov peace treaty of 1323. Under the agreement, Sweden returned all Russian prisoners along with the seized property, while Russia returned Swedish prisoners for ransom.
Livonian War
Causes of the war
In 1547, the king instructed the Saxon Schlitte to bring artisans, artists, healers, pharmacists, printers, people skilled in ancient and new languages, even theologians. However, after the protests of Livonia, the senate of the Hanseatic city of Lübeck arrested Schlitte and his people (see the Schlitte case).
In the spring of 1557, on the banks of the Narva, Tsar Ivan set up a port: “The same year, July, a city was set up from the German Ust-Narova-River Rozsene by the sea for the shelter of a sea ship”, “The same year, April, the Tsar and the Grand Duke sent a roundabout prince Dmitry Semenovich Shastunov and Pyotr Petrovich Golovin and Ivan Vyrodkov to Ivangorod, and ordered to put on the Narova below Ivanyagorod at the mouth of the sea city for a ship shelter ... ". However, the Hanseatic League and Livonia do not allow European merchants to enter the new Russian port, and they continue to go, as before, to Revel, Narva and Riga.
Significant significance in the choice by Ivan IV of the direction of military operations was played by the Posvolsky Treaty on September 15, 1557 of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Order, which created a threat to the establishment of Lithuanian power in Livonia.
The coordinated position of the Hansa and Livonia to prevent Moscow from independent maritime trade leads Tsar Ivan to the decision to start a struggle for a wide outlet to the Baltic.
During the war, the Muslim regions of the Volga region began to supply the Russian army with "a multiplier of 30,000 fighting men", well prepared for the offensive.
The position of Russian spies in the territory of Lithuania and the Livonian Order in 1548-1551. described the Lithuanian publicist Michalon Litvin:
Start of hostilities. Defeat of the Livonian Order
In January 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War for the mastery of the coast of the Baltic Sea. Initially, hostilities developed successfully. Despite the raid on the southern Russian lands by the 100,000-strong Crimean horde in the winter of 1558, the Russian army carried out active offensive operations in the Baltic states, took Narva, Derpt, Neuschloss, Neuhaus, and defeated the order troops near Tirzen near Riga. In the spring and summer of 1558, the Russians captured the entire eastern part of Estonia, and by the spring of 1559 the army of the Livonian Order was finally defeated, and the Order itself actually ceased to exist. At the direction of Alexei Adashev, the Russian governors accepted a truce proposal from Denmark, which lasted from March to November 1559, and began separate negotiations with the Livonian urban circles to pacify Livonia in exchange for some trade concessions from the German cities. At this time, the lands of the Order come under the protection of Poland, Lithuania, Sweden and Denmark.
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The tsar understood that without a navy it was impossible to return the Russian Baltic lands, waging war with Sweden, the Commonwealth and the Hanseatic cities, which had armed forces at sea and dominated the Baltic. In the very first months of the Livonian War, the Sovereign tried to create a privateer fleet, involving the Danes in the Moscow service, turning sea and river vessels into warships. In the late 70s, Ivan Vasilievich in Vologda began to build his navy and tried to transfer it to the Baltic. Alas, the great plan was not destined to come true. But even this attempt caused real hysteria among the maritime powers. N. Parfeniev. Governor of the Russian land. Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible and his military activities. |
Entry into the war of Poland and Lithuania
On August 31, 1559, the master of the Livonian Order, Gotthard Ketteler, and the king of Poland and Lithuania, Sigismund II Augustus, concluded an agreement in Vilna on the entry of Livonia under the protectorate of Poland, which was supplemented on September 15 by an agreement on military assistance to Livonia by Poland and Lithuania. This diplomatic action served as an important milestone in the course and development of the Livonian War: the war between Russia and Livonia turned into a struggle between the states of Eastern Europe for the Livonian inheritance.
In 1560, at the Congress of Imperial Deputies of Germany, Albert of Mecklenburg reported: “ The Moscow tyrant begins to build a fleet on the Baltic Sea: in Narva, he turns merchant ships belonging to the city of Lübeck into warships and transfers control of them to Spanish, English and German commanders". The congress decided to turn to Moscow with a solemn embassy, to which to attract Spain, Denmark and England, to offer the eastern power eternal peace and stop its conquests.
About the reaction of European countries, professor of St. Petersburg University, historian S. F. Platonov writes:
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Grozny's performance in the struggle for the Baltic coast ... struck Central Europe. In Germany, the "Muscovites" were presented as a terrible enemy; the danger of their invasion was indicated not only in the official relations of the authorities, but also in the vast flying literature of leaflets and pamphlets. Measures were taken to prevent either the Muscovites from going to the sea or the Europeans from entering Moscow, and by separating Moscow from the centers of European culture, to prevent its political strengthening. In this agitation against Moscow and Grozny, many unreliable things were concocted about Moscow's morals and Grozny's despotism... Platonov S. F. Lectures on Russian history ... |
In January 1560 Grozny ordered the troops to go on the offensive again. The army under the command of the princes Shuisky, Serebryany and Mstislavsky took the fortress of Marienburg (Aluksne). On August 30, the Russian army under the command of Kurbsky took Fellin. An eyewitness wrote: The oppressed est is more likely to submit to the Russian than to the German". All over Estonia the peasants revolted against the German barons. There was a possibility of a quick end to the war. However, the governors of the king did not go to capture Revel and failed in the siege of Weissenstein. Aleksey Adashev (voivode of a large regiment) was appointed to Fellin, but, being thin-born, he was mired in local disputes with the voivodes who stood above him, fell into disgrace, was soon taken into custody in Dorpat and died there of a fever (there were rumors that he poisoned himself, Ivan the Terrible even sent one of his neighbors to Derpt to investigate the circumstances of Adashev's death). In connection with this, Sylvester left the courtyard and took the vows in the monastery, and with that, their smaller confidants also fell - the Chosen Rada came to an end.
During the siege of Tarvast in 1561, Radziwill convinced the governor Kropotkin, Putyatin and Trusov to surrender the city. When they returned from captivity, they spent about a year in prison, and Grozny forgave them.
In 1562, due to the lack of infantry, Prince Kurbsky was defeated by Lithuanian troops near Nevel. On August 7, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Denmark, according to which the tsar agreed with the annexation of the island of Ezel by the Danes.
On February 15, 1563, the Polish-Lithuanian garrison of Polotsk surrendered. Here, on the orders of the Terrible, Thomas, a preacher of reform ideas and an associate of Theodosius Kosoy, was drowned in the hole. Skrynnikov believes that Leonid, hegumen of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery, who accompanied the tsar, supported the massacre of the Polotsk Jews. Also, on the royal order, the Tatars, who took part in hostilities, killed the Bernardine monks who were in Polotsk. The religious element in the conquest of Polotsk by Ivan the Terrible is also noted by Khoroshkevich.
« The prophecy of the Russian saint, the miracle worker Peter the Metropolitan, about the city of Moscow, that his hands will rise up on the splashes of his enemies, has been fulfilled: God has poured unspeakable mercy on us unworthy, our patrimony, the city of Polotsk, has given us into our hands", - the tsar wrote, pleased that "all the wheels, levers and drives of the mechanism of power debugged by him acted accurately and distinctly and justified the intentions of the organizers."
At the suggestion of the German Emperor Ferdinand to conclude an alliance and join forces in the fight against the Turks, the king said that he was fighting in Livonia practically for his own interests, against the Lutherans. The tsar knew what place the idea of the Catholic counter-reformation occupied in the politics of the Habsburgs. By opposing the "Lutherian teachings," Ivan the Terrible struck a very sensitive chord in Habsburg politics.
As soon as the Lithuanian diplomats left Russia, hostilities resumed. On January 28, 1564, the Polotsk army of P. I. Shuisky, moving towards Minsk and Novogrudok, unexpectedly fell into an ambush and was utterly defeated by the troops of N. Radziwill. Grozny immediately accused the governor M. Repnin and Yu. Kashin (the heroes of the capture of Polotz) of betrayal and ordered them to be killed. In this regard, Kurbsky reproached the tsar that he shed victorious, holy blood" governor "in the churches of God." A few months later, in response to Kurbsky's accusations, Grozny directly wrote about the crime committed by the boyars.
Augustus of Saxony stated in 1565: The Russians are rapidly building up a fleet, recruiting skippers from everywhere; when the Muscovites improve in maritime affairs, it will no longer be possible to cope with them ...».
In September 1568, the king's ally Eric XIV was overthrown. Grozny could only vent his anger at this diplomatic failure by arresting the ambassadors sent by the new Swedish king Johan III by announcing the termination of the treaty of 1567, but this did not help to change the anti-Russian character of Swedish foreign policy. The Great Eastern Program aimed to seize and include in the Kingdom of Sweden not only those lands in the Baltic that were occupied by Russia, but also Karelia and the Kola Peninsula.
In May 1570, the tsar signed a truce with King Sigismund for a period of three years, despite the huge number of mutual claims. The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom as king pleased both the Livonian nobility, who received freedom of religion and a number of other privileges, and the Livonian merchant class, who received the right to free duty-free trade in Russia, and in return allowed foreign merchants, artists and technicians to enter Moscow. On December 13, the Danish king Frederik concluded an alliance with the Swedes, as a result of which the Russian-Danish alliance did not take place.
The main condition for agreeing to his election as the Polish king, the tsar set Poland's concession to Livonia in favor of Russia, and as compensation, he offered to return Polotsk with its suburbs to the Poles. But on November 20, 1572, Maximilian II concluded an agreement with Grozny, according to which all ethnic Polish lands (Great Poland, Mazovia, Kuyavia, Silesia) were ceded to the empire, and Moscow received Livonia and the Principality of Lithuania with all its possessions - that is, Belarus, Podlasie, Ukraine , so the noble nobility hurried with the election of the king and elected Henry of Valois.
On January 1, 1573, Russian troops under the command of Grozny took the Weissenstein fortress, Skuratov died in this battle.
On January 23, 1577, the 50,000-strong Russian army again besieged Revel, but failed to take the fortress. In February 1578, Nuncio Vincent Laureo reported to Rome with alarm: "The Muscovite divided his army into two parts: one is waiting near Riga, the other near Vitebsk." In the same year, having lost cannons during the siege of Wenden, the king immediately ordered to pour out others, with the same names and signs, in even greater numbers against the previous number. As a result, all of Livonia along the Dvin, with the exception of only two cities - Revel and Riga, was in the hands of the Russians.
The king did not know that already at the beginning of the summer offensive of 1577, Duke Magnus had betrayed his overlord, secretly contacting his enemy, Stefan Batory, and negotiated a separate peace with him. This betrayal became apparent only six months later, when Magnus, having fled from Livonia, finally went over to the side of the Commonwealth. Many European mercenaries gathered in Batory's army; Batory himself hoped that the Russians would take his side against their tyrant, and for this he set up a camp printing house in which he printed leaflets. Despite this numerical advantage, Magmet Pasha reminded Batory: “ The king takes on a difficult task; the strength of the Muscovites is great, and, with the exception of my sovereign, there is no more powerful Sovereign on earth».
In 1578, the Russian army under the command of Prince Dmitry Khvorostinin took the city of Oberpalen, occupied after the flight of King Magnus by a strong Swedish garrison.
In 1579, the royal messenger Wenceslas Lopatinsky brought a letter to the tsar from Bathory declaring war. Already in August, the Polish army surrounded Polotsk. The garrison defended for three weeks, and its courage was noted by Batory himself. In the end, the fortress surrendered (August 30), and the garrison was released. Stefan Batory's secretary Heidenstein writes about the prisoners:
Nevertheless, "many archers and other people of Moscow" went over to the side of Batory and were settled by him in the Grodno region. After Batory moved to Velikiye Luki and took them.
At the same time there were direct negotiations for peace with Poland. Ivan the Terrible offered to give Poland all of Livonia, with the exception of four cities. Batory did not agree to this and demanded all the Livonian cities, in addition to Sebezh, and the payment of 400,000 Hungarian gold for military expenses. This infuriated Grozny, and he responded with a sharp letter.
After that, in the summer of 1581, Stefan Batory invaded deep into Russia and laid siege to Pskov, which, however, could not be taken. Then the Swedes took Narva, where 7,000 Russians fell, then Ivangorod and Koporye. Ivan was forced to negotiate with Poland, hoping to conclude an alliance with her then against Sweden. In the end, the tsar was forced to agree to the conditions under which “the Livonian cities, which are for the sovereign, to cede to the king, and Luke the Great and other cities that the king took, let him cede to the sovereign” - that is, the war that lasted almost a quarter of a century ended in restoration status quo ante bellum, thus becoming barren. A 10-year truce under these conditions was signed on January 15, 1582 in the Yama Zapolsky.
Even before the completion of negotiations in Yama-Zapolsky, the Russian government launched preparations for a military campaign against the Swedes. The collection of troops continued throughout the second half of December and at the turn of 1581-82, when the main disputes between Russia and the Commonwealth had already been settled, and the final decision was made to organize a campaign "against the Sveian Germans." The offensive began on February 7, 1582 under the command of the governor M.P. Katyrev-Rostovsky, and after the victory near the village of Lyalitsy, the situation in the Baltic began to noticeably change in favor of Russia.
The prospect of Russia regaining the lost outlet to the Baltic Sea caused great concern to the king and his entourage. Batory sent his representatives to Baron Delagardie and King Johan with an ultimatum demand that Narva and the rest of Northern Estonia be handed over to the Poles, and in return promised significant monetary compensation and assistance in the war with Russia.
Negotiations between official representatives of Russia and Sweden began very early in 1582 and ended in August 1583 with the signing of a two-year truce in Myza with the cession of the Novgorod fortresses - Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod - to the Swedes. By signing a truce for such a period, Russian politicians hoped that with the outbreak of the Polish-Swedish war they would be able to return the Novgorod suburbs captured by the Swedes and did not want to tie their hands.
England
During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, trade relations with England were established.
In 1553, the expedition of the English navigator Richard Chancellor rounded the Kola Peninsula, entered the White Sea and anchored west of the Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery opposite the village of Nenoksa, where they established that this area was not India, but Muscovy; the next stop of the expedition was near the walls of the monastery. Having received news of the appearance of the British within his country, Ivan IV wished to meet with Chancellor, who, having traveled about 1000 km, arrived in Moscow with honors. Shortly after this expedition, the Moscow Company was founded in London, which later received monopoly trading rights from Tsar Ivan. In the spring of 1556, the first Russian embassy headed by Osip Nepeya was sent to England.
In 1567, through the plenipotentiary English ambassador Anthony Jenkinson, Ivan the Terrible negotiated marriage with the English Queen Elizabeth I, and in 1583, through the nobleman Fyodor Pisemsky, he proposed marriage to a relative of the queen, Maria Hastings.
In 1569, through her ambassador Thomas Randolph, Elizabeth I made it clear to the tsar that she was not going to interfere in the Baltic conflict. In response, the tsar wrote to her that her trade representatives “do not think about our sovereign heads and about the honor and profit of the land, but are only looking for their own trade profits,” and canceled all the privileges previously granted to the Moscow trading company created by the British. The next day after this (September 5, 1569), Maria Temryukovna died. In the Council sentence of 1572, it is written that she was "poisoned by the enemy's malice".
cultural activities
Ivan IV went down in history not only as a conqueror. He was one of the most educated people of his time, had a phenomenal memory, theological erudition. He is the author of numerous letters (including to Kurbsky, Elizabeth I, Stefan Batory, Yukhan III, Vasily Gryazny, Yan Khodkevich, Yan Rokita, Prince Polubensky, to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery), stichera for the Presentation of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, the canon to the Archangel Michael (under the pseudonym Parthenius the Ugly). Ivan IV was a good orator.
By order of the king, a unique literary monument was created - the Front Chronicle.
The tsar contributed to the organization of book printing in Moscow and the construction of St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square. According to contemporaries, Ivan IV was " a man of wonderful reasoning, in the science of book teaching is pleased and eloquently very". He loved to travel to monasteries, was interested in describing the life of the great kings of the past. It is assumed that Ivan inherited from his grandmother Sophia Paleolog the most valuable library of the Morean despots, which included ancient Greek manuscripts; what he did with it is unknown: according to some versions, the library of Ivan the Terrible died in one of the Moscow fires, according to others, it was hidden by the tsar. In the 20th century, the search for the library of Ivan the Terrible supposedly hidden in the dungeons of Moscow, undertaken by individual enthusiasts, became a plot that constantly attracted the attention of journalists.
Khan on the Moscow throne
In 1575, at the request of Ivan the Terrible, the baptized Tatar and Khan of Kasimov Simeon Bekbulatovich was crowned king as the Tsar "the Grand Duke of All Russia", and Ivan the Terrible himself called himself Ivan of Moscow, left the Kremlin and began to live on Petrovka. After 11 months, Simeon, retaining the title of Grand Duke, went to Tver, where he was given an inheritance, and Ivan Vasilyevich again began to be called the Grand Duke of All Russia.
In 1576, Staden proposed to Emperor Rudolf: " Your Roman Caesarian Majesty must appoint one of Your Majesty's brothers as a sovereign who would take this country and rule it ... Monasteries and churches must be closed, cities and villages must become the prey of military people»
At the same time, with the direct support of the Nogai murzas of Prince Urus, an unrest broke out among the Volga Cheremis: cavalry numbering up to 25,000 people, attacking from Astrakhan, devastated the Belevsky, Kolomna and Alatyr lands. In conditions of insufficient number of three royal regiments to suppress the rebellion, the breakthrough of the Crimean horde could lead to very dangerous consequences for Russia. Obviously, wanting to avoid such a danger, the Russian government decided to transfer troops, temporarily refusing to attack Sweden.
On January 15, 1580, a church council was convened in Moscow. Addressing the higher hierarchs, the tsar directly said how difficult his situation was: “countless enemies rose up against the Russian state,” which is why he asks for help from the Church.
In 1580, the tsar defeated the German settlement. Frenchman Jacques Margeret, who lived in Russia for many years, writes: The Livonians, who were taken prisoner and brought to Moscow, professing the Lutheran faith, having received two churches inside the city of Moscow, sent a public service there; but in the end, because of their pride and vanity, the said temples ... were destroyed and all their houses were ruined. And, although they were driven out naked in winter, and than their mother gave birth, they could not blame anyone but themselves for this, for ... they behaved so arrogantly, their manners were so arrogant, and their clothes were so luxurious that they could all be take for princes and princesses ... The main profit was given to them by the right to sell vodka, honey and other drinks, on which they make not 10%, but a hundred, which seems incredible, but it's true».
In 1581, the Jesuit A. Possevin went to Russia, acting as an intermediary between Ivan and Poland, and at the same time hoping to persuade the Russian Church to unite with the Catholic. Its failure was predicted by the Polish hetman Zamolski: He is ready to swear that the Grand Duke is disposed towards him and, to please him, will adopt the Latin faith, and I am sure that these negotiations will end with the prince hitting him with a crutch and driving him away.". M. V. Tolstoy writes in the History of the Russian Church: But the hopes of the pope and the efforts of Possevin were not crowned with success. John showed all the natural flexibility of his mind, dexterity and prudence, to which the Jesuit himself had to do justice, rejected harassment for permission to build Latin churches in Russia, rejected disputes about faith and the unification of the Churches on the basis of the rules of the Florentine Council and was not carried away by the dreamy promise of acquiring all the Byzantine empire, lost by the Greeks as if for the retreat from Rome". The ambassador himself notes that "the Russian Sovereign stubbornly evaded, avoided talking on this topic." Thus, the papacy did not receive any privileges; the possibility of Moscow's entry into the bosom of the Catholic Church remained as vague as before, and meanwhile the papal ambassador had to begin his mediating role.
The conquest of Siberia by Yermak Timofeevich and his Cossacks in 1583 and the capture of the capital of Siberia - Isker - marked the beginning of the conversion of the local foreigners to Orthodoxy: Yermak's troops were accompanied by two priests and a hieromonk.
Death
A study of the remains of Ivan the Terrible showed that in the last six years of his life he developed osteophytes (salt deposits on the spine), and to such an extent that he could no longer walk - he was carried on a stretcher. M. M. Gerasimov, who examined the remains, noted that he had not seen such powerful deposits even among the deepest old people. Forced immobility, combined with a general unhealthy lifestyle, nervous shocks, etc., led to the fact that in his 50s, the tsar looked like a decrepit old man.
In August 1582, A. Possevin, in the report of the Venetian Signoria, stated that “ the Moscow sovereign will not live long". In February and early March 1584, the tsar was still engaged in state affairs. By March 10, the first mention of the disease dates back (when the Lithuanian ambassador was stopped on the way to Moscow “due to the sovereign’s illness”). On March 16, deterioration began, the king fell into unconsciousness, however, on March 17 and 18, he felt relief from hot baths. But in the afternoon of March 18, the king died. The body of the sovereign was swollen and smelled bad "due to the decomposition of the blood"
Vifliofika preserved the Tsar's dying order to Boris Godunov: Whenever the Great Sovereign of the last path was honored, the most pure body and blood of the Lord, then as a witness presenting his confessor Archimandrite Theodosius, filling his eyes with tears, saying to Boris Feodorovich: I command you my soul and my son Feodor Ivanovich and my daughter Irina ...". Also, before his death, according to the chronicles, the tsar bequeathed to his youngest son Dmitry Uglich with all the districts.
It is difficult to reliably find out whether the death of the king was caused by natural causes or was violent.
There were persistent rumors about the violent death of Ivan the Terrible. A 17th-century chronicler reported that " the king was poisoned by neighbors". According to the deacon Ivan Timofeev, Boris Godunov and Bogdan Belsky " prematurely ended the life of the king". Crown Hetman Zholkiewski also accused Godunov: He took the life of Tsar Ivan by bribing the doctor who treated Ivan, for the case was such that if he had not warned him (not ahead of him), he himself would have been executed along with many other noble nobles". The Dutchman Isaac Massa wrote that Belsky put poison in the royal medicine. Horsey also wrote about the secret plans of the Godunovs against the tsar and put forward a version of the suffocation of the tsar, with which V. I. Koretsky agrees: “ Apparently, the king was first given poison, and then, to be sure, in the confusion that arose after he suddenly fell, they also strangled". The historian Valishevsky wrote: Bogdan Belsky (with) his advisers exhausted Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, and now he wants to beat the boyars and wants to find the kingdom of Moscow under Tsar Fedor Ivanovich for his adviser (Godunov)».
The version of the poisoning of Grozny was tested during the opening of the royal tombs in 1963: studies showed the normal content of arsenic in the remains and an increased content of mercury, which, however, was present in many medicines of the 16th century and which was treated for syphilis, which the tsar was supposedly ill with. The version of the murder was considered not confirmed, but not refuted either.
The character of the king according to contemporaries
Ivan grew up in an atmosphere of palace coups, the struggle for power between the boyar families of the Shuiskys and Belskys, who were at war with each other. Therefore, it was believed that the murders, intrigues and violence that surrounded him contributed to the development of suspicion, revenge and cruelty in him. S. Solovyov, analyzing the influence of the mores of the era on the character of Ivan IV, notes that he “did not realize the moral, spiritual means for establishing the truth and attire, or, even worse, having realized, forgot about them; instead of healing, he intensified the disease, accustomed him even more to torture, bonfires and chopping blocks.
However, in the era of the Chosen Rada, the tsar was characterized enthusiastically. One of his contemporaries writes about the 30-year-old Grozny: “The custom of the Johns is to keep oneself pure before God. And in the temple, and in a solitary prayer, and in the council of the boyars, and among the people, he has one feeling: “Yes, I rule, as the Almighty ordered his true Anointed Ones to rule!” The court is impartial, the security of each and the general, the integrity of the states entrusted to him, the triumph of faith , the freedom of Christians is his everlasting thought. Burdened with business, he knows no other pleasures, except for a peaceful conscience, except for the pleasure of fulfilling his duty; does not want ordinary royal coolness ... Affectionate to the nobles and the people - loving, rewarding everyone according to their dignity - eradicating poverty with generosity, and evil - an example of goodness, this God-born King wants to hear the voice of mercy on the day of the Last Judgment: “You are the King of truth!”
“He is so prone to anger that, being in it, he emits foam, like a horse, and comes, as it were, into madness; in this state, he also rages at those he meets. - Writes Ambassador Daniil Prince from Bukhov. - The cruelty which he often commits to his own, whether it has its origin in his nature, or in the meanness (malitia) of his subjects, I cannot say. When he is at the table, the eldest son sits on his right hand. He himself is of coarse morals; for he rests his elbows on the table, and since he does not use any plates, he eats food, taking it with his hands, and sometimes he puts the half-eaten food back into the cup (in patinam). Before drinking or eating anything offered, he usually marks himself with a large cross and looks at the hung images of the Virgin Mary and St. Nicholas.
Prince Katyrev-Rostovsky gives the Terrible the following famous characterization:
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Tsar Ivan in an absurd manner, having gray eyes, a protracted nose and a curse; he is big with age, having a dry body, having high splashes, broad chests, thick muscles, a man of wonderful reasoning, in the science of book teaching he is pleased and eloquently eloquent, bold in the militia and standing up for his fatherland. On his servants, from God given to him, the cruel-hearted velmi, and on the shedding of blood for the murder is impudent and implacable; Destroy many people from small to large in your kingdom, and captivate many cities of yours, and imprison many hierarchal ranks and destroy them with a merciless death, and many other deeds over your servants, wives and maidens desecrate fornication. The same Tsar Ivan did many good things, he loved the army very much and demanded them from his treasure generously. Such is Tsar Ivan. N.V. Vodovozov. History of Old Russian Literature |
The historian Solovyov believes that it is necessary to consider the personality and character of the king in the context of his environment in his youth:
Appearance
The evidence of contemporaries about the appearance of Ivan the Terrible is very scarce. All available portraits of him, according to K. Valishevsky, are of dubious authenticity. According to contemporaries, he was lean, had a tall stature and a good physique. Ivan's eyes were blue with a penetrating gaze, although in the second half of his reign a gloomy and gloomy face is noted. The king shaved his head, wore a large mustache and a thick reddish beard, which turned very gray towards the end of his reign.
The Venetian ambassador Marco Foscarino writes about the appearance of the 27-year-old Ivan Vasilyevich: "handsome in appearance."
The German ambassador Daniil Prince, who twice visited Ivan the Terrible in Moscow, described the 46-year-old tsar: “He is very tall. The body is full of strength and rather thick, large eyes that constantly run around and observe everything in the most careful way. His beard is red (rufa), with a slight shade of black, rather long and thick, but, like most Russians, he shaves his hair with a razor.
In 1963, the tomb of Ivan the Terrible was opened in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The king was buried in the garb of a schemamonk. According to the remains, it was established that the growth of Ivan the Terrible was about 179-180 centimeters. In the last years of his life, his weight was 85-90 kg. The Soviet scientist M. M. Gerasimov used the technique he developed to restore the appearance of Ivan the Terrible from the preserved skull and skeleton. According to the results of the study, it can be said that “by the age of 54, the king was already an old man, his face was covered with deep wrinkles, there were huge bags under his eyes. A clearly pronounced asymmetry (the left eye, collarbone and scapula were much larger than the right ones), the heavy nose of a descendant of the Paleologs, and the squeamishly sensual mouth gave him an unattractive appearance.
Family and personal life
On December 13, 1546, 16-year-old Ivan consulted with Metropolitan Macarius about his desire to marry. Immediately after the wedding in January, noble dignitaries, devious and clerks began to travel around the country, looking for a bride for the king. A review of the brides was arranged. The choice of the king fell on Anastasia, the daughter of the widow Zakharyina. At the same time, Karamzin says that the tsar was guided not by the nobility of the family, but by the personal merits of Anastasia. The wedding took place on February 13, 1547 in the Church of Our Lady.
The tsar's marriage lasted 13 years, until the sudden death of Anastasia in the summer of 1560. The death of his wife greatly influenced the 30-year-old king, after this event, historians note a turning point in the nature of his reign.
A year after the death of his wife, the tsar entered into a second marriage, combined with Maria, who came from a family of Kabardian princes.
The number of wives of Ivan the Terrible has not been precisely established; historians mention the names of seven women who were considered the wives of Ivan IV. Of these, only the first four are “married”, that is, legal from the point of view of church law (for the fourth marriage, prohibited by the canons, Ivan received a conciliar decision on its admissibility). Moreover, according to the 50th rule of Basil the Great, even a third marriage is already a violation of the canons: “ there is no law on three marriages; therefore the third marriage is not legally constituted. We look at such deeds as impurity in the Church, but we do not subject them to public condemnation, as better than wanton fornication.". The justification for the need for a fourth marriage was the sudden death of the third wife of the king. Ivan IV swore to the clergy that she did not have time to become his wife. The 3rd and 4th wives of the king were also chosen based on the results of the brides review.
A possible explanation for the large number of marriages, which was not typical for that time, is the assumption of K. Waliszewski that John was a great lover of women, but at the same time he was a great pedant in observing religious rites and sought to possess a woman only as a lawful husband.
In addition, the country needed an adequate heir.
On the other hand, according to John Horsey, who knew him personally, "he himself boasted that he had corrupted a thousand virgins and that thousands of his children had been deprived of their lives" According to V. B. Kobrin, this statement, although it contains an explicit exaggeration, vividly characterizes the depravity of the king. The Terrible himself in his spiritual literacy recognized both “fornication” simply and “supernatural wanderings” in particular:
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From Adam to this day, all those who sinned in the iniquities, for this reason I hate everyone, Cain's murder passed, Lamech was like the first murderer, Esau was followed by bad intemperance, Reuben was likened, who defiled the father's bed, insatiability and many other things with the rage and anger of intemperance. And if the mind was in vain of God and the king with passion, I was corrupted by the mind, and bestial in mind and understanding, because the very head of the unsimilar deeds defiled by desire and thought, the mouth of reasoning of murder, and fornication, and all evil deeds, the language of slander, and foul language, and anger, and rage, and intemperance of every incomprehensible deed, exposing and persuading pride and aspirations of a highly verbal mind, the hand of the incomparable touch, and insatiable robbery, and perseverance, and internal murder, her thoughts with all sorts of filthy and incomparable desecrations, gluttony and drunkenness, loins transcendental wandering, and incomparable abstinence and explanation for every evil deed, but with the fastest flow to every evil deed, and foul deeds, and murder, and the robbery of insatiable wealth, and other incomparable mockeries. (Spiritual letter of Ivan the Terrible, June-August 1572) |
The burials of the four wives of Ivan the Terrible, legal for the church, were until 1929 in the Ascension Monastery, the traditional burial place of the grand duchesses and Russian queens: „ Next to Grozny's mother are four of his wives“.
Priority |
Years of life |
wedding date |
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Anastasia Romanovna, died during her husband's lifetime |
Anna (died at 11 months of age), Maria, Evdokia, Dmitry (died in infancy), Ivan and Fedor |
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Maria Temryukovna ( Kuchenei) |
Son Vasily (b. 2 / old style / March - † 6 / old style / May 1563. He was buried in the royal tomb of the Archangel Cathedral. |
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Marfa Sobakina (died (poisoned) two weeks after the wedding) |
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Anna Koltovskaya (forcibly tonsured a nun under the name Daria) |
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Maria Dolgorukaya (died for unknown reasons, according to some sources she was killed (drowned) after the wedding night by Ivan) |
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Anna Vasilchikova (forcibly tonsured a nun, died a violent death) |
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Vasilisa Melentievna (referred to in the sources as „ woman“; forcibly tonsured a nun in 1577, according to legendary sources, she was killed by Ivan) |
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Maria Nagaya |
Dmitry Ivanovich (died in 1591 in Uglich) |
Children
sons
- Dmitry Ivanovich (1552-1553), heir to his father during a fatal illness in 1553; in the same year, the baby was accidentally dropped by the nurse while being loaded onto the ship, he fell into the river and drowned.
- Ivan Ivanovich (1554-1581), according to one version, who died during a quarrel with his father, according to another version, died as a result of an illness on November 19. Married three times, left no offspring.
- Fedor I Ioannovich, no male children. Upon the birth of his son, Ivan the Terrible ordered to build a church in the Feodorovsky Monastery in the city of Pereslavl-Zalessky. This temple in honor of Theodore Stratilates became the main cathedral of the monastery and has been preserved to this day.
- Tsarevich Dmitry, died in childhood
The results of the activities of Ivan the Terrible through the eyes of contemporaries and historians
The dispute about the results of the reign of Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich has been going on for five centuries. It began during Grozny's lifetime. It should be noted that in Soviet times, the ideas about the reign of Ivan the Terrible that prevailed in official historiography were directly dependent on the current “general line of the party”.
Contemporaries
Assessing the results of the tsar's activities in creating Russian artillery, J. Fletcher wrote in 1588:
The same J. Fletcher pointed to the strengthening of the lack of rights of commoners, which negatively affected their motivation to work:
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I often saw how, having laid out their goods (such as furs, etc.), they all looked around and looked at the doors, like people who are afraid that some enemy will overtake them and capture them. When I asked them why they were doing this, I learned that they doubted whether among the visitors there was any of the royal nobles or some boyar son, and that they would not come with their accomplices and take by force all product. That is why the people (although in general capable of enduring all sorts of labors) indulge in laziness and drunkenness, not caring about anything more than daily food. It also comes from the fact that products characteristic of Russia (as was said above, such as: wax, lard, leather, flax, hemp, etc.) are mined and exported abroad in quantities much smaller than before, for the people, being constrained and deprive of everything that he gains, he loses all desire to work. |
Assessing the results of the tsar's activities to strengthen the autocracy and eradicate heresies, the German guardsman Staden wrote:
Historiography of the 19th century
Karamzin describes Grozny as a great and wise sovereign in the first half of his reign, a merciless tyrant in the second:
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Between other hard experiences of Fate, beyond the disasters of the specific system, beyond the yoke of the Mongols, Russia had to experience the storm of the autocrat-tormentor: she withstood with love for autocracy, for she believed that God sends both an ulcer and an earthquake and tyrants; she did not break the iron scepter in the hands of the Johns, and for twenty-four years she endured the destroyer, armed only with prayer and patience (...) In magnanimous humility, the sufferers died at the place of execution, like the Greeks in Thermopylae for the fatherland, for Faith and Loyalty, having no thought of rebellion. In vain, some foreign historians, excusing the cruelty of Ioannov, wrote about conspiracies, supposedly destroyed by her: these conspiracies existed only in the vague mind of the Tsar, according to all the evidence of our annals and state papers. The clergy, Boyars, famous citizens would not have called the beast out of the den of Sloboda Alexandrovskaya if they were plotting treason, which was brought on them as absurdly as sorcery. No, the tiger reveled in the blood of the lambs - and the victims, dying in innocence, demanded justice, touching memories from contemporaries and posterity with their last look at the poor land! |
From the point of view of N. I. Kostomarov, almost all the achievements during the reign of Ivan the Terrible fall on the initial period of his reign, when the young tsar was not yet an independent figure and was under the close tutelage of the leaders of the Chosen Rada. The subsequent period of Ivan's reign was marked by numerous foreign and domestic political failures. N. I. Kostomarov also draws the reader's attention to the contents of the "Spiritual Testament", compiled by Ivan the Terrible around 1572, according to which the country was supposed to be divided among the sons of the king into semi-independent destinies. The historian argues that this path would lead to the actual collapse of a single state according to a well-known scheme in Russia.
S. M. Solovyov saw the main pattern of Grozny's activity in the transition from "tribal" relations to "state" ones.
V. O. Klyuchevsky considered Ivan’s domestic policy to be aimless: “The question of state order turned for him into a question of personal security, and he, like an excessively frightened person, began to beat right and left, not making out friends and enemies”; The oprichnina, from his point of view, prepared a "real sedition" - the Time of Troubles.
Historiography of the XX century.
S.F. Platonov saw the strengthening of Russian statehood in the activities of Ivan the Terrible, but he condemned him for the fact that “a complex political matter was even more complicated by unnecessary torture and gross debauchery”, that the reforms “took the character of general terror”.
In the early 1920s, R. Yu. Vipper considered Ivan the Terrible as a brilliant organizer and creator of the largest power, in particular, he wrote about him: “Ivan the Terrible, a contemporary of Elizabeth of England, Philip II of Spain and William of Orange, the leader of the solve military, administrative and international tasks similar to the goals of the creators of the new European powers, but in a much more difficult environment. Perhaps he surpasses all of them with the talents of a diplomat and organizer. Vipper justified harsh measures in domestic policy by the seriousness of the international situation in which Russia was: “In the division of the reign of Ivan the Terrible into two different eras, at the same time, an assessment of the personality and activities of Ivan the Terrible was concluded: it served as the main basis for belittling his historical role, for entering him among the greatest tyrants. Unfortunately, when analyzing this issue, most historians focused their attention on changes in the internal life of the Muscovite state and took little account of the international situation in which (it) was during ... the reign of Ivan IV. Severe critics seemed to have forgotten that the entire second half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible passed under the sign of continuous war, and, moreover, the most difficult war that the Great Russian state had ever waged.
At that time, Wipper's views were rejected by Soviet science (in the 1920s and 1930s, which saw Grozny as an oppressor of the people who prepared serfdom), but were subsequently supported at a time when the personality and activities of Ivan the Terrible received official approval from Stalin. During this period, the terror of Grozny was justified by the fact that the oprichnina “finally and forever broke the boyars, made it impossible to restore the order of feudal fragmentation and consolidated the foundations of the state system of the Russian national state”; this approach continued the concept of Solovyov-Platonov, but was complemented by the idealization of the image of Ivan.
In the 1940s-1950s, Academician S. B. Veselovsky, who did not have the opportunity, due to the position prevailing at that time, to publish his main works during his lifetime, did a lot of work on Ivan the Terrible; he abandoned the idealization of Ivan the Terrible and the oprichnina and introduced a large number of new materials into scientific circulation. Veselovsky saw the roots of terror in the conflict between the monarch and the administration (the Tsar's court as a whole), and not specifically with the big feudal boyars; he believed that in practice Ivan did not change the status of the boyars and the general order of governing the country, but limited himself to the destruction of specific real and imaginary opponents (Klyuchevsky already pointed out that Ivan "beat not only the boyars and not even the boyars predominantly").
At first, A. A. Zimin also supported the concept of Ivan’s “statist” domestic policy, speaking of justified terror against the feudal lords who had betrayed national interests. Subsequently, Zimin accepted Veselovsky's concept of the absence of a systematic struggle against the boyars; in his opinion, the oprichnina terror had the most detrimental effect on the Russian peasantry. Zimin acknowledged both the crimes and state merits of Grozny:
V. B. Kobrin evaluates the results of the oprichnina extremely negatively:
Tsar Ivan and the Church
Rapprochement with the West under John IV could not remain without the fact that foreigners who came to Russia did not talk with Russians and did not bring in the spirit of religious reasoning and debate that then prevailed in the West.
In the autumn of 1553, a cathedral was opened in the case of Matvey Bashkin and his accomplices. A number of accusations were brought against heretics: the denial of the holy catholic apostolic church, the rejection of the worship of icons, the denial of the power of repentance, the neglect of the decisions of the ecumenical councils, etc. The Chronicle reports: “ And the king and the metropolitan ordered him, seized, to torture them; he confesses himself to be a Christian, hides in himself the enemy’s charm, satanic heresy, I think he’s insane from the All-Seeing Eye to hide».
The most significant are the tsar's relations with Metropolitan Macarius and his reforms, Metropolitan Philip, Archpriest Sylvester, as well as the councils that took place at that time - they were reflected in the activities of the Stoglavy Cathedral.
One of the manifestations of the deep religiosity of Ivan IV was his significant contributions to various monasteries. Numerous donations for the commemoration of the souls of people killed by decree of the sovereign himself have no analogues not only in Russian, but also in European history.
The question of canonization
At the end of the 20th century, part of church and near-church circles discussed the issue of the canonization of Grozny. This idea was categorically condemned by the church authorities and the patriarch, who pointed to the historical failure of the rehabilitation of Grozny, to his crimes before the church (the murder of saints), as well as those who rejected the claims of his popular veneration.
Ivan the Terrible in popular culture
Cinema
- Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible (1915) - Fyodor Chaliapin
- Wax Cabinet (1924) - Conrad Veidt
- Serf's Wings (1924) - Leonid Leonidov
- Pioneer Ivan Fedorov (1941) - Pavel Springfeld
- Ivan the Terrible (1944) - Nikolay Cherkasov
- The Tsar's Bride (1965) - Petr Glebov
- Ivan Vasilievich changes profession (1973) - Yuri Yakovlev
- Tsar Ivan the Terrible (1991) - Kakhi Kavsadze
- Kremlin secrets of the sixteenth century (1991) - Alexey Zharkov
- Revelation of John the Printer (1991) - Innokenty Smoktunovsky
- Thunderstorm over Russia (1992) - Oleg Borisov
- Ermak (1996) - Evgeny Evstigneev
- Tsar (2009) - Peter Mamonov.
- Ivan the Terrible (TV series 2009) - Alexander Demidov.
- Night at the Museum 2 (2009) - Christopher Guest
Computer games
- Age of Empires III introduces Ivan the Terrible as the leader of the playable Russian civilization
- Imran Zakhaev was created from the skull of Ivan the Terrible in Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare
Crowning the kingdom
On January 16, 1547, the wedding ceremony for the kingdom of Ivan IV took place. The adoption of the royal title, of course, was a very important step both for Ivan himself and for the country. In Russia, the emperors of Byzantium and the khans of the Golden Horde were called tsars. And now their own monarch appeared with a title equal to the titles of foreign rulers. The “king”, in contrast to the “grand prince”, was perceived not as the first among equals, but as standing on a higher level, above all. And in international relations, the title of king corresponded to the titles of king and emperor.
KING (from lat. caesar - Caesar, the title of Roman emperors) - the official title of the head of state in Russia since 1547.
For the first time in Russia, the term "king" occurs in the 11th century. in the record of the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054) on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. As scientists have found out, in the 11-13 centuries. the title "king" did not necessarily designate the oldest of the princes, and was not opposed to the title "prince". It was used in the glorification of the prince, using Byzantine examples of eloquence in order to emphasize the political weight of the prince.
During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the "kings" in Russia were considered the rulers of the Golden Horde, and the Russian princes treated them like serfs to their master. But with the strengthening of the Moscow Grand Duchy in the 14th century. the situation has changed. In con. 14th c. Temnik Mamai appropriated a royal title that did not belong to him, which gave Dmitry Ivanovich legal grounds to oppose the usurper in 1380.
All R. In the 15th century, after the collapse of the Golden Horde and the death of the Byzantine Empire (1453), the Russian state remained the only Orthodox power that retained its independence. Therefore, Russian sovereigns began to include the title "Tsar" in their titles. From con. 15th century, under Ivan III, the title "tsar" appears in some Russian foreign policy documents. The question of the royal title and the reign of Ivan's son, Vasily III, was raised. On a golden seal attached to a letter with the text of a peace treaty with Denmark (1516), Vasily Ivanovich is referred to as "king and sovereign." The same title can be found in the message of Basil III to the Pope (1526).
Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible, who was crowned king in 1547, was the first official in Russia to accept the royal title.
In 1721, Tsar Peter I assumed the title of emperor. The term "king" was retained as part of the full imperial title. E. G.
IVA N IV VASI LEVICH GROZNY (August 25, 1530 - March 18, 1584) - Grand Duke of Moscow and All Russia from 1533, the first Russian Tsar from 1547
The son of Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich and his second wife, Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya. In 1533, Vasily III died, and the three-year-old Ivan Vasilievich became the Grand Duke of Moscow.
In the early childhood of the Grand Duke, the state was ruled by his mother Elena Glinskaya. In 1538, she died suddenly, and power actually passed to the Boyar Duma. Constant intrigues and a fierce struggle for power between various boyar groups had a significant impact on the formation of the character of the young sovereign. From the age of twelve, Ivan IV began to make independent decisions. In 1543, he ordered the boyar Andrey Shuisky to be sent to the kennels for desecration. Shuisky was killed on the way to prison. Many boyars Ivan sent some into exile, some into prison, and some ordered to cut out the tongue.
On January 16, 1547, in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, Ivan IV Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom and was the first of the Moscow sovereigns to officially be called the king. This act meant that the Russian state placed itself on a par with the most powerful powers in Europe.
The first Russian tsar surrounded himself with new advisers, whose opinion on how to manage state affairs, he greatly valued. At that time, his confessor, the priest of the Kremlin Annunciation Cathedral Sylvester, the nobleman Alexei Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, enjoyed a special influence on the tsar at that time. These people headed a new, near council under the sovereign ("The Chosen Rada"), pushing the Boyar Duma. The Chosen Rada pursued a policy of state centralization, sought to reconcile the interests of the boyars, nobles, and clergy and subordinate them to national tasks. The reforms carried out by the Rada with the personal and very active participation of the tsar made it possible to significantly strengthen the Russian state and expand its borders.
In 1551, on the initiative of Ivan IV, the Stoglavy Cathedral took place, which made the most important decisions on the organization of church life. In May-October 1552, the tsar took part in the campaign against Kazan, which ended with the annexation of the Kazan Khanate. In 1556 the Astrakhan Khanate was conquered. In 1558, at the initiative of the tsar, the Livonian War began, the purpose of which was the return of Russian lands in the Baltic states.
In March 1553, Ivan IV fell seriously ill and was close to death. Boyars and princes had to swear allegiance to the prince, baby Dmitry. Dissensions arose among the boyars, in which Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky, the tsar's cousin, also took part. The boyars were not opposed to swearing allegiance to Dmitry, but did not want to increase the power of the Zakharyin family, relatives of the prince. But in the end, the oath was taken. Ivan IV, who later recovered, viewed these disputes as a boyar conspiracy in favor of Vladimir Staritsky and treason.
Ivan IV was burdened by the fact that his actions were discussed by members of the "Chosen Rada" and the boyars. In con. 1550s Sylvester and Adashev were removed from Moscow. Later, many other boyars and nobles were subjected to persecution and executions. Metropolitan Macarius died in 1563.
In the winter of 1564–1565 Ivan IV unexpectedly left Moscow and moved to Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. At his request, the entire state was divided into two parts - the oprichnina and the zemshchina. Oprichnina became a special inheritance, which was ruled by the tsar himself - it included many districts in different regions of the country, including part of the territory of Moscow. The oprichnina had its own army, its own thought, its own orders and the royal oprichnina court.
Life in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda was organized according to the example and likeness of monasteries. The king's associates were considered monks, and the king himself was the abbot of this peculiar monastery.
With the help of the oprichnina troops, Ivan IV began the persecution of his subjects, for which he received his nickname Terrible. Over 4,000 people were executed during the oprichnina. Executions acquired a special scope in 1568–1570, when Novgorod and Pskov were defeated, Metropolitan Philip was secretly strangled, and several princely and boyar families were destroyed. Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky was also executed with the whole family. The king personally took part in many executions.
In 1572, the oprichnina was abolished, Ivan returned to Moscow, but the repressions continued for several more years. During the time of the oprichnina, the autocratic power of the tsar was significantly strengthened, but the state was subjected to terrible ruin.
In 1573 Ivan the Terrible set out to take the Polish throne. For two years, he negotiated this issue. In October 1575, Ivan IV unexpectedly renounced the royal throne and installed the baptized Tatar, Khan of Kasimov, Simeon Bekbulatovich, as Grand Duke in Moscow. He himself called himself the Prince of Moscow and left the Kremlin. And Ivan Vasilyevich wrote loyal petitions to Grand Duke Simeon: “To the Sovereign Grand Duke Simeon Bekbulatovich of All Russia, Ivanets Vasilyev with his children, with Ivanets and Fedorets, beats with his brow.” In the same year, new repressions began, which were now primarily subjected to former guardsmen. Only in August 1576 did Ivan IV return to the royal throne.
In 1579-1580. Russian troops suffered several serious defeats in the Livonian War. Ivan the Terrible decided to start peace negotiations and turned to the mediation of Pope Gregory XIII. In 1582–1583 peace agreements were signed with Poland and Sweden. The Livonian War ended with the defeat of Russia.
In 1582, Ivan the Terrible revised his attitude towards those executed during the years of the oprichnina. By his decree, the “Synodik” was compiled - a memorial list of the executed, for the repose of whose souls it was necessary to pray in all churches and monasteries.
Ivan the Terrible was married several times. In his first marriage to Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina-Yuryeva, he had three sons and three daughters. The first son, Dmitry, died in 1553 in infancy - he drowned in the lake during the pilgrimage of the royal family to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery. The second son, Ivan Ivanovich, died in 1581 at the hands of his father during a quarrel. The third son, Fyodor Ivanovich (1557–1598), succeeded to the throne after the death of his father. Daughters died in childhood.
After the death of Anastasia Romanovna in 1560, Ivan the Terrible had six more wives. In 1561 he married Maria Temryukovna Cherkasskaya. In this marriage, they had a son, Vasily, who died in childhood. In 1571 the tsar married Martha Sobakina, but she died 15 days later. The fourth wife of Ivan the Terrible was Anna Koltovskaya, but already in 1572 she was forcibly tonsured a nun. In con. 1570s the fifth wife of the tsar, Anna Vasilchikova, ended up in the monastery. Then Ivan IV took his sixth wife - a certain Vasilisa Melentievna. But this marriage was not church. The last tsarina in 1580 was Maria Feodorovna Nagaya, married to whom another son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry Ivanovich (1582–1591), was born.
In the last years of his life, Ivan IV was seriously ill for a long time. Various rumors circulated about the cause of his death. It was said that death happened "by the will of the stars." Later, a version spread that the tsar was poisoned not without the participation of Boris Godunov. It is only known that Ivan Vasilyevich died suddenly while playing chess.
Ivan IV the Terrible was the author of several epistles. Outstanding work ser. 16th century are his letters to Prince A. M. Kurbsky, in which he formulated his religious, historical and political views. According to modern researchers, Ivan the Terrible was the author of several church hymns (stichera) and hymns. S. P.
WEDDING? NIE TO THE TSAR? RSTVO - a solemn rite of acceptance by the Russian monarch of power.
The crowning of the kingdom was accompanied by a number of indispensable actions. The most important of them is the sacrament of chrismation, the communion of the new sovereign with the Holy Mysteries, revealed only to prophets and kings. Thus, the king became the only person in the state who was awarded the second chrismation (over all the rest, the sacrament of chrismation is performed once - at baptism). That is why the Russian sovereigns were called "God's anointed".
The form of the wedding ceremony in the Russian state was borrowed from Byzantium. The ceremony was performed by the head of the Russian Orthodox Church: until 1598 - the metropolitan, then - the patriarch. In the course of the ceremony, barmas, a wedding cap (“Monomakh's cap”) were placed on the new sovereign in a certain order, a scepter and an orb were handed over, and the sovereign ascended the royal throne. In some cases, the sovereign gave a "cross-kissing record" or an oath.
The first "marriage" to the throne was held on February 4, 1498. On this day, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III elevated his grandson Dmitry Ivanovich as his co-ruler to the great reign of Moscow, Vladimir and Novgorod. A special “order of appointment” of Dmitry was drawn up, which later became the basis for all subsequent ranks of “crowning the kingdom”.
During the reign of the successor of Ivan III - Vasily III, the wedding ceremony was not held. The new sovereign limited himself to the traditional "placement on the throne", although it was on this day, April 14, 1502, that Vasily III was officially titled "autocrat" for the first time.
"The rite of the wedding to the kingdom" of Ivan IV, which took place on January 16, 1547, was compiled by Metropolitan Macarius on the basis of the ceremony performed at the wedding of Dmitry Vnuk. The number of royal regalia, in addition to those used earlier, was added to the "Arabian" gold chain. For the first time, the Monomakh's hat was mentioned as a wedding cap.
At the coronation of Fyodor Ivanovich (May 31, 1584), a number of changes were also made, borrowed from the Byzantine coronation ritual. The ceremony was supplemented by the "great exit" of the tsar and his retinue to the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In addition to other regalia, a power (“golden apple”, “sovereign apple”) was used - a golden ball with a pommel in the form of a cross.
At the wedding ceremony, Boris Fyodorovich Godunov (September 3, 1598) used an unconventional oath, promising to share his last shirt with his subjects if he failed to end the poverty that reigned in the state. The son of Boris Godunov, Fedor Borisovich, did not have time to get married to the kingdom, because he was killed by supporters of False Dmitry I.
False Dmitry I himself was crowned king on July 22, 1605. Patriarch Ignatius laid the royal crown on him and handed him the scepter and orb. At the same time, False Dmitry ascended the golden throne, which was sent by the Persian Shah Abbas I to Fyodor Borisovich Godunov. On May 8, 1606, in spite of the protests of a part of the Russian clergy, the wife of False Dmitry, Marina Mnishek, was married to the kingdom, refusing Orthodox baptism and communion.
Vasily IV Ivanovich Shuisky, who was crowned king by Metropolitan Isidore of Novgorod on June 1, 1606, gave a special “cross-kissing note”, in which he promised to rule the Russian land according to the law and not condemn anyone without advice from the boyars.
At the wedding of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (July 11, 1613), which was performed by Metropolitan Ephraim of Kazan, a new “golden throne” was used, replacing the throne of Shah Abbas defiled by False Dmitry I.
For the solemn proclamation of Alexei Mikhailovich as the new tsar, which took place on September 28, 1645, some new regalia were made in Constantinople: a golden scepter, a new orb and a diadem. The wedding ceremony was performed by Patriarch Joseph.
The wedding rite of Fyodor Alekseevich (June 16, 1676) determined a clear division of the color of ceremonial clothes: for the sovereign - gold (yellow), for the prince - red.
After the Streltsy rebellion of 1682, it was decided to raise two half-brothers to the kingdom - Peter Alekseevich and Ivan Alekseevich. A special double silver throne was made, as well as the second "Monomakh's hat" - "Monomakh's hat of the second outfit". The wedding of the brothers to the kingdom took place on June 25, 1682.
With the adoption of the imperial title by Peter I, the ceremony of crowning the kingdom was replaced by a coronation. V.V.
MAKA?RIY (in the world - Michael) (1482 - 12/30/1563) - Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia since 1542, Orthodox saint.
Born in Moscow. The spiritual upbringing of the future metropolitan was greatly influenced by Archimandrite Cassian, rector of the Simonovsky Monastery. In con. 15th c. young Mikhail entered the Pafnutiev-Borovsk monastery. In 1523 Macarius was elevated to the rank of archimandrite and appointed rector of the Mozhaisk Luzhitsky Monastery. In March 1526 he became Archbishop of Novgorod and Pskov. When Macarius was sent to the place of his archpastoral service, Grand Duke Vasily III handed him the "treasury" of the Novgorod saints, taken by Ivan III in 1478.
The Novgorod archbishop contributed to the spread of Christianity among the population of the northern outskirts of Russia, as well as the construction of monasteries there. Macarius' stay in Novgorod was accompanied by great cultural undertakings. Under him, many Novgorod icons and churches were restored, a large bell was cast for St. Sophia Cathedral, its frescoes and iconostasis were renovated. On his instructions, an archbishop's palace was built in Pskov, in which scribes and scribes worked. The writers and church leaders who were part of the circle of Macarius were engaged in the creation of the lives of the saints, translated Greek and Latin works, and compiled chronicles. With his participation, 60 new lives were compiled. The result of the collection of spiritual treasures was the first edition of the "Great Reading Mena", completed in 1541. Under his leadership, two other editions of them were prepared.
In 1542 Macarius became Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia. Macarius compiled the “Chinese for the Crowning of the Tsardom”, according to which the wedding ceremony for the Tsardom of Ivan IV the Terrible took place in January 1547. In 1547 and 1549. on the initiative of Macarius, church councils were convened to resolve issues of the canonization of Russian saints. Being one of the closest advisers to the tsar, Macarius defended the idea of autocracy as the main and necessary stronghold of Orthodoxy.
The biggest merit of Metropolitan Macarius was the support of book printing in Moscow.
In recent years, Macarius has been compiling the Book of Powers.
He was buried in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The canonization of Macarius took place in 1988. Memorial Day: December 30 (January 12). G. A.
REGA?LII (from lat. regalis - royal) - signs of supreme (royal) power. The same as insignia - (from lat. insignere - mark, highlight).
Information about the ancient symbols of supreme power - objects that distinguished the sovereign from his subjects, brought to us coins, seals, miniatures and other images. Detailed descriptions of the various attributes of supreme power are contained in the "ranks" (charters) of crowning or crowning the kingdom. Impressions about the use of regalia by Russian sovereigns were recorded by foreigners in their reports and notes.
Over the centuries, the regalia of Russian sovereigns have changed. The first evidence of "installation to reign" or the proclamation of a new prince is contained in the annals. One of the oldest princely regalia is the “table”. About the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, the chronicle reports: "their father and grandfather sit on the table." The Grand Duke of Kyiv "put on the table" the princes-governors. The "table" was a flat seat without a back, with supporting walls at the ends. On the seat lay pillows with oval ends.
After the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the Russian princes could not freely inherit their own "tables" and dispose of them. In order to receive a label - a khan's letter for the right to occupy the "table" - they had to go to the headquarters of the Golden Horde khan. From the 14th century Horde ambassadors themselves came to Russia to put the prince - their "serf" on the "table", while a procedure was performed that was supposed to symbolize the subordinate position of Russia: the Grand Duke on foot led the horse into the city by the bridle, on which the Khan's ambassador sat. So, "Prince Vasily Dmitrievich sat down on the Grand Duchy of Volodimersk on the table of his father, and grandfather, and great-grandfather, and was planted by the tsarist Taktamyshev ambassador Shiakhmat."
The functions of the crown in Russia were performed by a princely cap. On ancient Russian miniatures, the cap was depicted as a soft headdress of a spherical shape, with a fur trim. In the five-toothed "crown", similar to the crown of the Byzantine emperors, only Vladimir Svyatoslavich and sometimes Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise were depicted on the oldest Russian coins. The only prince in Russia crowned according to the Western European model was Daniil Romanovich Galitsky.
The sword was considered a symbol of princely power and was passed down from generation to generation. On Russian miniatures, the sword is present in the scenes of Vsevolod Olgovich planting Svyatoslav Olgovich in Novgorod in 1136 and the reign of Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky in Kyiv in 1155. E.K.
"SHA? PKA MONOMA? HA" is one of the regalia of the grand ducal and royal power.
The name "Monomakh's hat" is first found in the will of Ivan IV the Terrible (2nd half of the 16th century).
According to legend, the "cap of Monomakh" was part of the gifts of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, sent to the Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh: the emperor removed the life-giving cross from his neck, the "royal crown" from his head and, putting them on a "golden dish", sent to Kyiv.
Not all historians share the version about the Byzantine origin of the gifts. According to art historians and historians, the "cap of Monomakh" was made in the late 13th - early 19th century. 14th century Its crown is made up of eight gold plates (hence its other name "golden"), covered with a thin openwork pattern, and crowned with a gold cross. The hat trimmed with sable fur was later adorned with precious stones: rubies, emeralds, sapphires, tourmalines and pearls. From the 17th century the cap was crowned with a double-headed eagle made of gold and adorned with diamonds.
Later, another hat was made - "Kazanskaya". In its design, oriental motifs are clearly traced, combined with the traditions of Russian applied art. Like the "Monomakh's hat", the "Kazan hat" is decorated with stones - pearls, blue turquoise, pink almandines and trimmed with sable. In addition to "Monomakhova" and "Kazan", three more later hats are known - "Astrakhan", "Siberian" and "hat with ashes", i.e. with decorations made of pearls, gold and precious stones.
Another hat - a copy of the “Monomakh's hat” was made in 1682, when two tsars, Peter and Ivan, needed two hats at the same time during the wedding ceremony for the kingdom. N.P.
EMBLEM OF THE STATE? Polish herby) is a symbolic identification mark of the state, compiled and approved according to certain rules. Depicted on seals, coins, may be an integral part of the national flag.
In the 16th and 17th centuries the image of a rider on a horse was clearly interpreted as an "image" of a grand duke, king or heir. St. George was revered as the patron of the Kievan (then Vladimir and Moscow) princes, therefore the Moscow princes were sometimes depicted on coins as a horseman (without a halo, characteristic of the images of saints), striking a serpent with a spear.
To clarify that the rider symbolizes the Grand Duke, the image was accompanied by the letters "K", "K-N".
Already in the 16th century. the image of a rider with a spear was taken by foreigners for the coat of arms of the Russian state. In Western European books, next to the portrait of Vasily III sitting on the throne, there was a coat of arms depicting a horseman slaying a dragon with a spear. In the 18th century the image of the horseman and the image of the revered saint - George the Serpent Fighter united into one whole and the "rider" began to be called George the Victorious.
A new seal was introduced in 1561 by Tsar Ivan IV - “he made a new folding seal: a double-headed eagle, and among it a man on a horse, and on the other side a double-headed eagle, and in the middle of it an inrog [unicorn].” Since that time, the seal with a double-headed eagle has become predominant. "Rider" - a symbol of the Moscow Grand Duchy, became the emblem of a subordinate. The new emblem - the unicorn (an ancient symbol of strength and power) until that time was almost never used in Russia. The legends about the unicorn came to the Russian lands along with the collection of Christian zoomythology "Physiologist" ca. 14th c. But the images of the unicorn appeared only in con. 15th c. - on the seal of Prince Mikhail Andreevich of Vereya, married to the niece of Sophia Paleolog. As a symbol of supreme power, the unicorn did not establish itself. All R. 16th century the unicorn was interpreted as a symbol of Christianity, a “rod of power” raised over enemies with the blessing of Christ by the Russian sovereign: “The Lord will give a fortress to our prince and exalt the horn of his Christ, the rod of power will send the Lord from Zion.”
On the credentials of 1578, the so-called. Great State Seal of Ivan IV: a double-headed eagle with a horseman located in the central shield on the chest of the eagle (on the reverse side - a unicorn), surrounded by 24 emblems of the lands of the Russian state (12 on each side). Around the emblems are the inscriptions: “The seal of the kingdom of Kazan, the seal of Pskov, the seal of the Grand Duchy of Tver, the seal of Perm, the seal of Bulgaria, the seal of Chernigov, the seal of Novgorod Nizovsky land, the seal of Vyatka, the seal of Yugra, the seal of the Grand Duchy of Smolensk, the seal of the kingdom of Ostorokhansky, the seal of the Viceroy of the Great Novgorod"; on the reverse side: "Polotsk seal, Yaroslavl seal, Udora seal, Kondinsky seal, seal of the archbishop of Riga, seal of the city of Kesi, seal of the master of the Liflyan land, Siberian seal, Obdorsk seal, Beloozersky seal, Rostov seal, Ryazan seal." The seal of the Grand Duchy of Smolensk depicts an emblem - a princely place with a hat lying on it. A bear is depicted on the Tver seal, a fish on the Yaroslavl one, a horse on the Ryazan one, a dog on the Astrakhan one, a wolf in a crown, on the Rostov one - a bird, on the Vyatka one - a bow with an arrow, on the Nizhny Novgorod one - a deer, an elk, on the Perm one - a fox, on Siberian - an arrow, Kazan - a dragon in a crown. The diameter of the imprint of the Great Sovereign Seal is 11.7 cm.
The large state seal of Ivan IV served as a model for the seals of subsequent sovereigns: Fyodor Ivanovich (in 1585 and 1589), Boris Godunov (in 1598 and 1602), False Dmitry I and Vasily IV Shuisky (in 1606), Mikhail Fedorovich ( 1618). E.K.
From the book Secrets of the Romanov House author From the book Russia of the time of Ivan the Terrible author Zimin Alexander AlexandrovichWEDDING TO THE KINGDOM A bell ringing floated over Moscow. They called in all the Kremlin cathedrals - at the Savior on Smolenskaya Square, at St. Nicholas the Wonderworker at the Stone Bridge across the Moscow River. They were echoed by outlying churches and monasteries - Novinsky, Simonov, Androniev and others. In From the book The Last Emperor author Balyazin Voldemar Nikolaevich
The crowning of the kingdom The beginning of the reign of Nicholas II caused no worries and fears in anyone: the situation in Russia was calmer and more stable than ever. Healthy financial system; the largest army in the world, however, has not fought for a long time and is resting on its laurels
From the book Alexei Mikhailovich author Andreev Igor LvovichCrowning the Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich was not distinguished by excellent health. He often complained about "bodily sorrow" and especially about pain in his legs, which is why during the king's trips "to and from the cart in an armchair" they wore. Later, the sons of the king “mourned with their legs” and bodily weakness
From the book of the Romanovs. Family secrets of Russian emperors author Balyazin Voldemar NikolaevichThe crowning of the kingdom The beginning of the reign of Nicholas II caused no worries and fears in anyone: the situation in Russia was calmer and more stable than ever. Healthy financial system; the largest army in the world, however, has not fought for a long time and is resting on its laurels
author Istomin Sergey Vitalievich From the book Time of Ivan the Terrible. 16th century author Team of authorsThe wedding to the kingdom On January 16, 1547, the wedding ceremony to the kingdom of Ivan IV took place. The adoption of the royal title, of course, was a very important step both for Ivan himself and for the country. In Russia, the emperors of Byzantium and the khans of the Golden Horde were called tsars. And now he appeared
From the book Daily Life of Moscow Sovereigns in the 17th century author Chernaya Lyudmila Alekseevna author From the book History of Russia. Time of Troubles author Morozova Lyudmila EvgenievnaThe wedding of Godunov to the kingdom The erection of a new sovereign to the royal throne was scheduled for September 1. It was on this day that the new year began. In later sources, however, there were other dates: September 2 or 3. According to an established custom, the ceremony was held at
From the book History of Russia. Time of Troubles author Morozova Lyudmila EvgenievnaFalse Dmitry was in Tula until the end of May, and from there he sent letters of his victories throughout the country. In them, he assured the Russian people that he was the true son of Ivan the Terrible. However, not in all cities his messengers were greeted with joy. There have been cases
From the book I know the world. History of Russian tsars author Istomin Sergey VitalievichThe crowning of the kingdom In June 1547, a terrible Moscow fire caused a popular revolt against the relatives of Ivan's mother, the Glinskys, to whose charms the crowd attributed the disaster. The rebellion was pacified, but the impressions from it, according to Grozny, let “fear” into his “soul and trembling into
From the book Native Antiquity author Sipovsky V. D.Accession and coronation to the kingdom The great and joyful day for the Russian people was February 21, 1613: on this day the “stateless” time ended in Russia! It lasted three years; for three years, the best Russian people struggled with all their might to get rid of enemies, save the church,
From the book Life and customs of tsarist Russia author Anishkin V. G.He received his nickname "Terrible" not from the day of his reign. At first, when he ruled under the regency of his mother, and then the boyars, no one thought that this boy would terrify many. Father died when he was only three years old.
Under the young sovereign, his mother, Elena Glinskaya, began to rule. But five years later she died, there is a version that the boyars poisoned her. So he remained in the care of the boyar clans. They waged a constant struggle for power, so the little sovereign had to see intrigues and reprisals. When the young man was 17 years old, it was decided to hold a wedding in the kingdom.
The life of Ivan 4 before the wedding
Before going through the wedding procedure, he had a hard time. His life as a child was not so joyful. As mentioned above, very cruel things happened before his eyes. was born in 1530. The boy was healthy and good-looking. Three years later, not long before his death, Vasily III appointed a special Board of Trustees for the boy. This body was supposed to govern the state until the young man came of age. That is, when he turned 17 years old and there was a wedding to the kingdom, the young man received full power.
Before the wedding, the boy was not particularly favored, he later wrote more than once in his correspondence about his childhood. spoke of the boyars' mistreatment of him and his brother Yuri. They did not receive human warmth, they were poorly fed and clothed. And sometimes they were forced to do things beyond their years by adults. Thus learned a cruel lesson. From childhood he became suspicious, in the future this feeling grew with age. And by the last decade of life, it has become simply menacing. The king suspected of treason and infidelity of everyone around.
Everything was different when the state receptions were held. There, in front of the little sovereign, everyone showed their respect and humility. But then coldness set in again. I have mentioned this many times in my adult life. In addition, in 1542 he experienced a very strong fright. Then the boyar clan decided to deal with Metropolitan Iosaph. The Metropolitan took refuge in the little house. But the boyars broke the glass there and broke into the sovereign's bedroom, thereby frightening him. This greatly crippled his psychological state.
That cruelty, among which Ivan 4 grew up, by the time of the wedding, gave rise to a great sense of fear in him. From an early age, he began to think that no one should be trusted. This made him constantly look back and suspect many. He constantly waited and tried to prevent the attack of enemies. This feeling soon became commonplace for him. And in his old age he became completely paranoid. It is clear that the constant feeling of fear forced Ivan to commit cruel acts.
The procedure for the wedding of Ivan the Terrible 4
So, at the age of 16, I decided to get married. A bride was chosen for him. Then the sovereign wanted to take a new title, which the rulers of Russia had not previously worn - the king. There are several points of view here. No one can say with complete certainty who initiated the crowning of the kingdom. One point of view gives the palm. Allegedly from childhood, enduring a bad attitude from the boyars, he zealously strove for power. The second point of view attributes the initiative to Metropolitan Macarius. They say that he, giving a blessing for marriage, advised him to marry the kingdom.
The wedding took place in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. The ceremony took place on January 16, 1547. In order to take the title of king, the metropolitan had to conduct a special detachment - chrismation. That is, the king is the anointed of God, his vicegerent on earth, endowed with power. During the wedding, the future tsar was entrusted with special regalia - Monomakh's hat, a life-giving cross and a golden chain. The order of the wedding was determined by a special document - "The rite of the wedding to the kingdom."
The twenty-year marriage of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III with Solomonia Saburova was fruitless. There is no good reason to blame Solomon alone for this. The well-known opponent of Ivan the Terrible, the traitor Prince Andrei Kurbsky, wrote that the father of his enemy Vasily III was looking for healers and sorcerers who would help him acquire male power. In the end, with the help of Metropolitan Daniel and a submissive part of the clergy, the Grand Duke managed to send his lawful wife to a monastery against her will and marry the young charming Lithuanian princess Elena Glinskaya.
The wedding took place in 1526. Ivan IV, later nicknamed the Terrible, was born in 1530, when his father, Vasily III, was already over fifty. He was a very desirable child, and the whole country expected his birth. However, contrary to expectations, she did not have children for another 3 years.
This interval gave the aging prince a lot of trouble. And finally, Elena was pregnant. Some holy fool Domitian announced to her that she would be the mother of Titus, a broad mind, and on August 25, 1530, at 7 o'clock in the morning, a son was indeed born, then named Ivan. They write that at that very moment the earth and sky shook from unheard-of thunder strikes. But it was taken as a good sign. All cities sent ambassadors to Moscow with congratulations. But the king did not live long after the birth of his son. He died in 1534, and the power passed to Elena Glinskaya. In 1538, she died, poisoned, as is commonly believed, by seditious boyars. The power was seized by the boyars led by the Shuiskys. Ivan was brought up by the great and proud boyars for their misfortune and for their children, trying to please him in every pleasure.
Ivan grew up as a homeless but sharp-sighted orphan in an atmosphere of court intrigues, struggle and violence that penetrated his childhood bedchamber even at night. Childhood remained in Ivan's memory as a time of insults and humiliation, a concrete picture of which he gave 20 years later in his letters to Prince Kurbsky. Princes Shuisky, who seized power after the death of Grand Duchess Elena, were especially hated by John. The princes Ivan Fedorovich Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky, who enjoyed influence under Elena, his sister, Ivan's mother, Chelyadnina, Prince Ivan Fedorovich Belsky, were eliminated, Metropolitan Daniel, an opponent of the coup, was removed from the chair. The uncontrolled disposal of state property, an extremely inattentive and insulting attitude towards the little grand dukes Ivan and Yuri characterize the two-year rule of the Shuiskys.
In 1540, at the initiative of Metropolitan Joasaph, Prince Belsky, who took the place of Prince Ivan Shuisky, who had been removed to the voivodeship, and the appanage prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky with his mother, were released. In 1542 - a new coup in favor of the Shuiskys, in which Belsky died, Metropolitan Joasaph, who was replaced by the Archbishop of Novgorod Macarius, paid the price. The head of the circle, Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Shuisky, eliminated possible influence on Ivan from persons who did not belong to the circle in extremely rude forms (reprisal against Semyon Vorontsov in the palace in front of Ivan). In 1543, the tsar showed his character for the first time, ordering to seize the chief of the Shuiskys, Andrei. In 1543, 13-year-old Ivan rebelled against the boyars, handed over Prince Andrey Shuisky to the dogs, and since then the boyars began to fear Ivan. Power passed to the Glinskys - Mikhail and Yuri, Ivan's uncles, who eliminated rivals with exile and executions and involved the young Grand Duke in their measures, playing on cruel instincts, and even encouraging them in Ivan. Not knowing family affection, suffering to a fright from violence in the environment in everyday life, Ivan from the age of 5 acted as a powerful monarch in ceremonies and court holidays: the transformation of his own posture was accompanied by the same transformation of the hated environment - the first visual and unforgettable lessons of autocracy. Directing thought, they brought up literary tastes and reader's impatience. In the palace and metropolitan libraries, Ivan did not read the book, but read from the book everything that could substantiate his power and the greatness of his born dignity, as opposed to personal impotence before the boyars seized power. He was easily and abundantly given quotations, not always accurate, with which he was full of his writings; behind him is the reputation of the most well-read person of the 16th century and the richest memory.
The wedding of Ivan IV the Terrible.
In the seventeenth year of his life, Ivan announced to Metropolitan Macarius that he wanted to marry and he also made a speech that he wanted to take the title of king. On January 16, 1547, a solemn wedding ceremony for the reign of Grand Duke Ivan IV took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Signs of royal dignity were laid on him: the cross of the Life-Giving Tree, barmas and the cap of Monomakh. After the communion of the Holy Mysteries, Ivan Vasilyevich was anointed with the world. The royal title allowed him to take a significantly different position in diplomatic relations with Western Europe. The grand ducal title was translated as "prince" or even "great duke". The title "king" was either not translated at all, or translated as "emperor". The Russian autocrat thus stood on a par with the only emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in Europe. And on February 3, they played a wedding with Anastasia Zakharyina-Romanova. An alliance with such a woman, if not immediately softened the violent character of the king, then prepared his further transformation. For thirteen years of marriage, the queen had a softening influence on Ivan, bore him sons. But a series of major fires in Moscow in the spring and summer of 1547 interrupted the reign of Ivan IV, which had begun so solemnly.
Rebellion against the Glinskys.
The murders, intrigues and violence that surrounded him contributed to the development of suspicion, revenge and cruelty in him. The tendency to torment living beings manifested itself in Ivan already in childhood, and those close to him approved of it. One of the strong impressions of the tsar in his youth was the "great fire" and the Moscow uprising of 1547. The greatest devastation was caused by a fire on June 21, 1547, which lasted 10 hours. The main territory of Moscow burned out, 25 thousand houses burned down, about 3 thousand people died. The Glinskys in power were blamed for the disasters. A rumor spread around the city that the tsar’s grandmother Anna Glinskaya, turning into a bird, flew around the city, “wrote human hearts and put them in water, that water, driving around Moscow, and sprinkled it,” from which there was a fire.
Another rumor that stirred up passions is about the Crimean Khan's campaign against Russia. The tsar with the court was forced to leave for the village of Vorobyevo near Moscow, the Glinskys - Mikhail and Anna - to flee to the monasteries near Moscow. The open uprising began on 26 June. After a veche gathering, the townspeople moved to the Kremlin and demanded the extradition of the Glinskys. Their courtyards were destroyed, one of the Glinskys, Yuri, was killed.
On June 27-28, Moscow was in fact in the hands of the townspeople, who, perhaps, "even tried to create some kind of their own management of the city" (N.E. Nosov). On June 29, after the murder of one of the Glinskys, a relative of the tsar, the rebels came to the village of Vorobyevo, where the Grand Duke had taken refuge, and demanded the extradition of the rest of the Glinskys. “There was fear in my soul and trembling in my bones, and my spirit was humbled,” the tsar later recalled. It cost him a lot of work to convince the people to disperse. A number of speeches at the same time occurred in some other cities - the reason was a crop failure, higher taxes and abuses of the administration.
As soon as the danger passed, the king ordered the arrest of the main conspirators and their execution. The favorite idea of the king, realized already in his youth, was the idea of unlimited autocratic power. However, the speeches of 1547 did not disturb the objective course of events in recent decades. They only emphasized the need for further changes. After a number of new beginnings at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries and their continuation in the 30s-40s of the 16th century, the country was prepared for more ambitious reforms.
Chosen Rada.
Plans for the reorganization of Russia were hatched by a small group of people who surrounded Ivan IV at that time. One of them was Metropolitan Macarius, the most educated person of that time, who actively participated in state activities in the 1940s and 1950s. Another close associate was the priest of the court of the Annunciation Cathedral Sylvester. The nobleman Aleksei Fedorovich Adashev, who was not noble by birth, was also surrounded by Ivan IV. By the beginning of 1549, the influence of Sylvester and Adashev on Tsar Sylvester and Adashev had increased significantly, and the latter became, in fact, the head of the government, later named by Andrey Kurbsky "The Chosen Rada". Sylvester, with "children's scarecrows" in the words of Ivan, pushed him onto the path of repentance and attempts to cleanse himself and the country from all evil with the help of new advisers, who were selected according to Sylvester's instructions and made up the "chosen council", which overshadowed the boyar thought in the current administration and legislation . Its significance is indisputable for the 50s, but not unlimited, as it was complicated and weakened by the influence of the Zakharyins and Metropolitan Macarius. The surviving news completely conceals that great preparatory work that began from that time, from 1550 made it possible to carry out a number of major state events and captured not only Ivan himself and his employees, but also in non-governmental circles of society, causing him to discuss the main issues of internal and foreign policy of the renewing Muscovy. Questions about the significance of the secular aristocracy, large landownership, clergy, monasteries, the local class, autocracy, the Zemsky Sobor, etc. were touched upon and contradictorily resolved. king, which was estimated as a time of state disorder and people's suffering. All subsequent reforms, as well as the successes of Russia's foreign policy in the middle of the 16th century, are associated with the name of Alexei Adashev. Kurbsky.
Reforms of central and local authorities under Ivan the Terrible.
By February 1549, the beginning of the activity in Russia of the Zemsky Sobors - class-representative bodies. “Zemsky Sobors,” wrote L.V. Cherepnin, “is the body that replaced the veche,” which adopted the ancient Russian “traditions of the participation of public groups in solving government issues,” but replaced “elements of democracy with the principles of class representation.”
The first council is usually considered to be a meeting called by the king on February 27th. At first, he spoke to the boyars, courtiers, butlers and treasurers in the presence of the church "consecrated cathedral", and on the same day he spoke to the governors, princes and nobles.
The next step was the direct liquidation in 1551-1552 of the governorship in certain areas. And in 1555-1556, by the tsar's verdict "on feeding," the governorship was canceled on a nationwide scale. His place was occupied by local government, which has come a long and difficult way.
Local government did not represent uniformity, but took various forms depending on the social composition of a particular locality.
In the central districts, where private landownership was developed, provincial administration was introduced, and the nobles chose from among their midst the provincial elders. Together with also elected city clerks, they headed the county administration. This meant the completion of the lip reform.
Elected authorities began to appear in those counties where there was no private land ownership. Here, Zemstvo elders were selected from the well-to-do strata of the black-haired population. However, the black-eared communities had their own elected secular authorities in the person of the elders, sots, fifties, ten, and so on. These volost administrators were genetically descended from the representatives of the ancient hundreds of communal organizations of Kievan Rus. They traditionally oversaw the common lands, distributed and collected taxes, resolved minor court cases, and resolved other issues affecting the interests of the community as a whole. Even earlier, secular authorities consisted of representatives of the most prosperous peasantry: the "best" and "average" people. By the way, black volosts, even becoming privately owned lands, retained the structure of secular government.
The zemstvo reform, along with the chernososhnye lands, also affected the cities, where zemstvo elders were also elected (but from the prosperous townspeople). The labial and zemstvo elders, in contrast to the feeders - alien people - acted in the interests and benefit of their counties, cities and communities. In fairness, it should be noted that fully local reforms were carried out only in the North.
It is believed that the lip and zemstvo reforms are a step towards centralization. However, this does not take into account the fact that local authorities became elected, and, consequently, local self-government developed. The institutions of self-government of the 16th century seem to be a continuation of the democratic veche traditions of Ancient Russia in the new conditions for the formation of a single state. These traditions turned out to be effective and then - in the Time of Troubles.
By the time of the Chosen Rada, the importance of orders as functional governing bodies was strengthened. It was in the middle of the XVI century. there are important orders. These include Petitions, in which complaints addressed to the king were received and an investigation was carried out on them. At the head of this, in fact, the supreme body of control, was A. Adashev. The embassy order was headed by the clerk Ivan Viskovaty. The local order was in charge of the affairs of the local land tenure, and Razboyny searched for and judged "dashing people." The first order of the military department - Discharge - ensured the collection of the noble militia and appointed the governor, and the other - Streltsy - was in charge of the army of archers created in 1550. For some time, the discharge order was led by the clerk I.G. Vyrodkov, under whom he became, as it were, the general staff of the Russian army. Financial matters were the responsibility of the Grand Parish and the Quarters (Chetei). With the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, an order of the Kazan Palace was created. The final completion of the formation of the order system falls on the 17th century.
Reforms in the socio-economic sphere under Ivan the Terrible.
Already in the Sudebnik of 1550, significant issues of land ownership are raised. In particular, resolutions are being adopted that impede the continued existence of patrimonial lands.
A special place is occupied by articles on the privately owned population. In general, the right of transition of peasants on St. George's Day under Art. 88 remained, but the payment for the "elderly" increased slightly. Art. 78 determined the position of another significant group of the population - bonded serfs. It was forbidden, for example, to turn servants who became debtors into slaves.
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However, the main changes in the socio-economic sphere were aimed at providing land for service people - nobles. In 1551, at the Stoglavy Cathedral, Ivan IV declared the need to redistribute (“re-allocate”) land between landowners: “whoever has a surplus, sometimes not enough.” Under "insufficient" were meant service people. To carry out the ordering of the lands, their general census is being undertaken. In the process of its implementation, the former household taxation was replaced by land taxation. In the main territories, a new unit of taxation was introduced - the "big plow". Its size fluctuated depending on the social status of the landowner: the plow of the black-mowed peasant had less land, but more taxes. The interests of the church were also infringed, but the landowners found themselves in a privileged position.
The size of land holdings also determined the former services of the nobles. The Code of Service (1555) established the legal basis for landownership. Each serviceman had the right to demand an estate of at least 100 quarters of land (150 acres, or approximately 170 hectares), since it was from such a land area that "a man on a horse and in full armor" had to go to work. Thus, from the first 100 quarters, the landowner himself came out, and from the next - his armed serfs. According to the "Code"; votchinas in relation to service were equated with estates, and votchinniks had to serve on the same grounds as landlords.
Changes in the position of service people are also closely related to the abolition of governorship (feeding). Instead of "feeding income", which went mainly into the hands of governors and volosts, a nationwide tax "farmed farming" was introduced. This tax went to the state treasury, from where it was distributed to service people as a salary - "help." Monetary "help" was given to those who brought out more people than they were supposed to, or had less property than the norm. But the one who brought out fewer people paid a fine, and failure to appear could lead to confiscation of possessions and corporal punishment.
Military reforms under Ivan the Terrible.
The basis of the armed forces was now the cavalry militia of the landowners. The landowner or votchinnik had to go to the service "horse, crowded and armed." In addition to them, there were service people "according to the instrument" (set): city guards, artillerymen, archers. The militia of peasants and townspeople was also preserved - a staff, which carried out auxiliary service.
In 1550, an attempt was made to organize a three-thousand-strong corps of "elected archers from the squeaker" near Moscow, who were obliged to be always ready to carry out responsible assignments. It included representatives of the most noble families and the top of the Sovereign's Court. The archers were already regular - an army armed with the latest weapons and supported by the treasury. The organizational structure of the Streltsy troops was later extended to all troops.
The management of the noble army was extremely complicated by the custom of localism. Before each campaign (and sometimes during the campaign) there were protracted disputes. "With whomever they send anyone to any business, otherwise everyone is accommodated," Ivan IV noted in 1550. Therefore, parochialism in the army was forbidden and military service "without places" was prescribed. The principle of holding high positions in the army by noble princes and boyars was thus violated.
Accession of the Astrakhan and Kazan Khanates.
The primary task in the middle of the 16th century was the fight against the Kazan Khanate, which directly bordered on Russian lands and held the Volga trade route in its hands. Initially, they tried to resolve the Kazan issue through diplomacy, placing a Moscow protege on the throne. However, this ended in failure, as did the first campaigns (1547-1548; 1549-1550).
In 1551, preparations began for a new campaign. In the spring, 30 km west of Kazan, at the confluence of the Sviyagi River with the Volga, a wooden fortress, Sviyazhsk, was built in the shortest possible time. I.G.Vyrodkov. In August, a large Russian army (150 thousand) besieged Kazan. The siege lasted almost a month and a half. And again, Vyrodkov distinguished himself, bringing the mobile siege towers of the "walk-city" to the walls, and also carrying out a number of digs under the walls.
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As a result of explosions of barrels of gunpowder laid in tunnels, a large section of the wall was destroyed, and on October 2 Kazan was taken by storm.
The fall of the Kazan Khanate predetermined the fate of another - Astrakhan, which had an important strategic and commercial significance. In August 1556 Astrakhan was annexed. At the same time, the Nogai Horde also recognized vassal dependence on Russia (it roamed between the middle reaches of the Volga and Yaik). In 1557, the annexation of Bashkiria was completed.
Thus, the lands of the Volga region and the trade route along the Volga were part of Russia.
Successful military operations in the eastern and southeastern directions significantly limited the possibility of an attack by the Tatars of the Crimean Khanate, the actual head of the foreign policy of that time, A. Adashev, insisted on active actions against the Crimea, but met with resistance from Ivan IV, who persistently sought to resolve the Baltic issue. Therefore, in order to defend against the Crimeans, in the 50s, the construction of the Zasechnaya Line began - a defensive line of forest fences, fortresses and natural barriers, which ran south of the Oka, not far from Tula and Ryazan. The construction of the Zasechnaya line justified itself already in 1572, when the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey with a 120,000-strong army was utterly defeated 50 km from Moscow.
Exploration of Siberia.
The accession of the Volga region also created the prerequisites for the further development of lands in the east. Now the path lay in Siberia, which attracted huge supplies of furs. In the 50s of the 16th century, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized himself as a vassal of Russia, but Khan Kuchum, who then came to power, severed these relations. The merchants and industrialists Stroganovs, who received extensive possessions along the Kama and Chusovaya rivers, played an important role in advancing to Siberia. To protect their possessions, they built a number of fortress cities, created military garrisons inhabited by "eager people" - Cossacks. Around 1581-1582 (there is disagreement about this date) the Stroganovs equipped a military expedition of Cossacks and military men from the cities beyond the Urals. Ataman Ermak Timofeevich became the head of this detachment (about 600 people).
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Having crossed the Ural Mountains, he reached the Irtysh, and a decisive battle took place near the capital of Kuchum - Kashlyk. The multi-tribal Khan's army could not withstand the Cossack onslaught and fled. Yermak entered Kashlyk and began to collect yasak (tribute) from the Siberian inhabitants. However, the victory of the Cossacks turned out to be fragile, besides, Yermak died a few years later. His campaign did not lead to the direct annexation of Siberia, but the beginning was laid. Since the second half of the 80s, cities and fortresses have been built in the western part of Siberia: Tyumen, Tobolsk prison, Surgut, Tomsk. Tobolsk became the administrative center of Siberia, where the voivode was appointed. He was in charge of the collection of yasak, oversaw trade and crafts, he had archers, Cossacks, and other service people at his disposal. The colonization flows of the Russian peasantry also moved to Siberia, bringing with them the traditions of Russian zemstvo self-government.
Sudebnik of 1550.
At the first Zemsky Sobor, Ivan IV the Terrible decided to create a new legal code - the Sudebnik. It was based on the previous Sudebnik of 1497.
In the Sudebnik of 1550, out of 100 articles, most of it is devoted to management and court issues. In general, the old governing bodies (central and local) have been preserved so far, but significant changes have been made to their activities. Thus, their evolutionary transformation continued within the framework of the emerging class-representative state. So, the governors were now deprived of the right of the final court in the highest criminal cases, it was transferred to the center. Sudebnik, at the same time, expanded the activities of city clerks and labial elders: the most important branches of local government completely departed to them. And their assistants - the elders and the "best people" - according to the decree of the Code of Law, they were required to participate in the governor's court, which meant control by the elected representatives of the population over the activities of the governors. The importance of service people - the nobles - was also raised by the fact that they were not subject to the jurisdiction of the governors' court.
Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551.
The process of strengthening state power inevitably again raised the question of the position of the church in the state. The royal power, whose sources of income were few and whose expenses were high, looked with envy at the wealth of churches and monasteries.
At a meeting of the young tsar with Metropolitan Macarius in September 1550, an agreement was reached: the monasteries were forbidden to establish new settlements in the city, and to establish new courtyards in the old settlements. Posad people who fled from the tax to the monastery settlements, in addition, were "brought" back. This was dictated by the needs of the state treasury.
However, such compromise measures did not satisfy the government. In January-February 1551, a church council was convened, at which royal questions were read, drawn up by Sylvester and imbued with a non-possessive spirit. The answers to them amounted to one hundred chapters of the verdict of the cathedral, which received the name Stoglavy, or Stoglav. The king and his entourage were worried about whether it was worthy for monasteries to acquire land, to receive various preferential letters.
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By decision of the council, royal assistance to monasteries with villages and other possessions ceased. Stoglav forbade giving money from the monastery treasury in "growth" and bread in "nasp", i.e. - at interest, which deprived the monasteries of a permanent income.
A number of participants in the Stoglavy Council (Josephites) met the program outlined in the royal questions with fierce resistance.
The program of tsarist reforms outlined by the Elected Rada was rejected in the most significant points by the Stoglavy Cathedral. The wrath of Ivan IV the Terrible fell upon the most prominent representatives of the Josephites. On May 11, 1551 (that is, a few days after the completion of the cathedral), the purchase of patrimonial lands by monasteries "without a report" to the tsar was prohibited. From the monasteries, all the lands of the boyars were taken away, transferred by them there in the early childhood of Ivan (since 1533). Thus, the control of the royal power over the movement of church land funds was established, although the possessions themselves remained in the hands of the church. The church retained its possessions after 1551.
At the same time, transformations were carried out in the inner life of the church. The previously created pantheon of all-Russian saints was approved, a number of church rites were unified. Measures were also taken to eradicate the immorality of the clergy.
In the seventeenth year of his life, Ivan announced to Metropolitan Macarius that he wanted to marry and he also made a speech that he wanted to take the title of king. On January 16, 1547, a solemn wedding ceremony for the reign of Grand Duke Ivan IV took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Signs of royal dignity were laid on him: the cross of the Life-Giving Tree, barmas and the cap of Monomakh. After the communion of the Holy Mysteries, Ivan Vasilyevich was anointed with the world. The royal title allowed him to take a significantly different position in diplomatic relations with Western Europe. The grand ducal title was translated as "prince" or even "great duke". The title "king" was either not translated at all, or translated as "emperor". The Russian autocrat thus stood on a par with the only emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in Europe. And on February 3, they played a wedding with Anastasia Zakharyina-Romanova. An alliance with such a woman, if not immediately softened the violent character of the king, then prepared his further transformation. For thirteen years of marriage, the queen had a softening influence on Ivan, bore him sons. But a series of major fires in Moscow in the spring and summer of 1547 interrupted the reign of Ivan IV, which had begun so solemnly.
Rebellion against the Glinskys
The murders, intrigues and violence that surrounded him contributed to the development of suspicion, revenge and cruelty in him. The tendency to torment living beings manifested itself in Ivan already in childhood, and those close to him approved of it. One of the strong impressions of the tsar in his youth was the "great fire" and the Moscow uprising of 1547. The greatest devastation was caused by a fire on June 21, 1547, which lasted 10 hours. The main territory of Moscow burned out, 25 thousand houses burned down, about 3 thousand people died. The Glinskys in power were blamed for the disasters. A rumor spread around the city that the tsar’s grandmother Anna Glinskaya, turning into a bird, flew around the city, “wrote human hearts and put them in water, that water, driving around Moscow, and sprinkled it,” from which there was a fire.
Another rumor that stirred up passions is about the Crimean Khan's campaign against Russia. The tsar with the court was forced to leave for the village of Vorobyevo near Moscow, the Glinskys - Mikhail and Anna - to flee to the monasteries near Moscow. The open uprising began on 26 June. After a veche gathering, the townspeople moved to the Kremlin and demanded the extradition of the Glinskys. Their courtyards were destroyed, one of the Glinskys, Yuri, was killed.
On June 27-28, Moscow was in fact in the hands of the townspeople, who, perhaps, "even tried to create some kind of their own management of the city" (N.E. Nosov). On June 29, after the murder of one of the Glinskys, a relative of the tsar, the rebels came to the village of Vorobyevo, where the Grand Duke had taken refuge, and demanded the extradition of the rest of the Glinskys. “There was fear in my soul and trembling in my bones, and my spirit was humbled,” the tsar later recalled. It cost him a lot of work to convince the people to disperse. A number of speeches at the same time occurred in some other cities - the reason was a crop failure, higher taxes and abuses of the administration.
As soon as the danger passed, the king ordered the arrest of the main conspirators and their execution. The favorite idea of the king, realized already in his youth, was the idea of unlimited autocratic power. However, the speeches of 1547 did not disturb the objective course of events in recent decades. They only emphasized the need for further changes. After a number of new beginnings at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries and their continuation in the 30s-40s of the 16th century, the country was prepared for more ambitious reforms.
