3.2. Worldly psychological knowledge about oneself and other people
3.3. Classification of psychological research methods
3.4. The problem of the reliability of the received psychological information
List of recommended literature

3.1. Sources of psychological knowledge

The significance of the data of zoo- and comparative psychology for the development of knowledge about the human psyche.
The role of the analysis of mental anomalies for the study of the human mental sphere.
The value of the data of zoo- and comparative psychology for the development of knowledge about the human psyche
As the Russian philosopher and psychologist Chelpanov Georgy Ivanovich (1862-1936) once said: "Not from observing only himself, but from observing all living beings in general, the psychologist seeks to build the laws of mental life." Psychology draws these observations from a number of other sciences. The material that a psychologist needs to build a system of psychology, we can depict in the following form. The psychologist needs three sets of data:

Comparative Psychology Data:.
this includes the so-called "psychology of peoples" (ethnography, anthropology), as well as history, works of art, etc.;
animal psychology;
child psychology.
abnormal phenomena.
mental illness;
hypnotic phenomena, sleep, dreams;
mental life of the blind, deaf and dumb, etc.
Experimental data.
(See additional illustrative material.)
So, we see that for a modern psychologist, first of all, it is necessary to have data from comparative psychology. This includes the "psychology of peoples" (in German, Volkerpsychologie), which includes the history and development of religious ideas, the history of myths, mores, customs, language, the history of arts, crafts, etc. among uncultured peoples. History, describing the past life of peoples, also describes such moments in their lives as popular movements, etc., this provides rich material for the so-called psychology of the masses. (See additional illustrative material.) The study of the development of language also provides very important material for psychology. Language is the embodiment of human thought. If we follow the development of language, then we can also trace the development of human ideas. Works of art also provide very important material for psychology: for example, to study such a passion as "stinginess", we should turn to its depiction in Pushkin, Gogol and Moliere.
Animal psychology is important because in the mental life of animals the same "faculties" which in man appear in an obscure form, arise in a simple, elementary form, as a result of which they are accessible to easier study; for example, instinct in animals appears in a much clearer form than in man.
The psychology of the child is important because, thanks to it, we can see how higher abilities develop from elementary ones. For example, the development of the ability to speak could be traced in a child from its most rudimentary form.

The role of the analysis of mental anomalies for the study of the human mental sphere
The study of abnormal phenomena, which include mental illness, the so-called hypnotic phenomena, and likewise sleep and dreams, is also necessary for the psychologist. What is vaguely expressed in a normal person is expressed extremely clearly in a mentally ill person. For example, the phenomenon of memory loss is also noticed in a normal person, but it appears especially clearly in mentally ill people.
If, further, we take people with various physical defects who lack, for example, the organ of sight, hearing, etc., then observations on them can provide extremely important material for psychology. A blind person does not have an organ of vision, but has a conception of space, which, of course, differs from the conception of space in a sighted person. The study of the peculiarities of the idea of ​​the space of a blind person gives us the opportunity to determine the nature of the idea of ​​space in general.
Experimental data obtained empirically in the course of observing individual mental facts give us the opportunity to classify the phenomena of mental reality, to establish a regular connection between them that can be verified by experience. The most effective method for obtaining these data is a laboratory experiment. (See additional illustrative material.)
Here is the numerous material on the basis of which the system of psychology is built.

Issues for discussion:
1. The significance of the data of zoo- and comparative psychology for the development of knowledge about the human psyche.
2. The role of the analysis of mental anomalies for the study of the human mental sphere.
3. The role of the experiment in the transformation of psychological knowledge from a branch of philosophy into an independent science.

3.2. Worldly psychological knowledge about oneself and other people
The difference between everyday psychological knowledge and scientific
The position of a scientific psychologist in relation to worldly psychology
The need for everyday psychological knowledge for the development of psychology
Revealing the contents of the first section, we did not name another important source of psychology - worldly psychological knowledge. Any science has as its basis some worldly, empirical experience of people. For example, physics is based on the knowledge we acquire in everyday life about the movement and fall of bodies, about friction and inertia, about light, sound, heat, and much more.
Mathematics also proceeds from ideas about numbers, shapes, quantitative ratios, which begin to form already in preschool age.
But it is different with psychology. Each of us has a store of worldly psychological knowledge. There are even outstanding worldly psychologists. These are, of course, great writers, as well as some (though not all) representatives of professions that involve constant communication with people: teachers, doctors, clergymen, etc. But the average person also has certain psychological knowledge. This can be judged by the fact that each person can understand the other to some extent, influence his behavior, predict his actions, take into account his individual characteristics, help him, etc.

The difference between everyday psychological knowledge and scientific
(See additional illustrative material.)
Let's think about the question: what is the difference between everyday psychological knowledge and scientific knowledge? Let's highlight five main differences.
Difference 1. Everyday psychological knowledge is concrete; they are timed to specific situations, specific people, specific tasks. They say waiters and taxi drivers are also good psychologists. But in what sense, for what tasks? As we know quite often - pragmatic. Also, the child solves specific pragmatic tasks by behaving in one way with his mother, in another way with his father, and again in a completely different way with his grandmother. In each case, he knows exactly how to behave in order to achieve the desired goal. But we can hardly expect from him the same insight in relation to other people's grandmothers or mothers. So, everyday psychological knowledge is characterized by concreteness, limitedness of tasks, situations and persons to which they apply.
Scientific psychology, like any science, strives for generalizations. To do this, she uses scientific concepts. The development of concepts is one of the most important functions of science. Scientific concepts reflect the most essential properties of objects and phenomena, general connections and correlations. Scientific concepts are clearly defined, correlated with each other, linked into laws.
For example, in physics, thanks to the introduction of the concept of force, I. Newton managed to describe, using the three laws of mechanics, thousands of different specific cases of motion and mechanical interaction of bodies.
The same thing happens in psychology. You can describe a person for a very long time, listing in everyday terms his qualities, character traits, actions, relationships with other people. Scientific psychology, on the other hand, seeks and finds such generalizing concepts that not only economize descriptions, but also allow one to see the general tendencies and patterns of personality development and its individual characteristics behind a conglomerate of particulars. It is necessary to note one feature of scientific psychological concepts: they often coincide with everyday ones in their external form, that is, simply speaking, they are expressed in the same words. However, the inner content, the meanings of these words, as a rule, are different. Everyday terms are usually more vague and ambiguous.
Difference 2. Everyday psychological knowledge is intuitive. This is due to the special way they are obtained: they are acquired through practical trials and adjustments.
This is especially true in children. It is tested in the course of daily and even hourly tests to which they subject adults and which the latter are not always aware of. And so "in the course of these tests, children discover who can be "twisted with ropes" and who cannot be."
Often, teachers and coaches find effective ways of educating, teaching, training, following the same path: experimenting and vigilantly noticing the slightest positive results, i.e. in a certain sense "going to the touch." Often they turn to psychologists with a request to explain the psychological meaning of the techniques they have found.
In contrast, scientific psychological knowledge is rational, fully conscious. The usual way is to put forward verbally formulated hypotheses and test the consequences logically arising from them.
Difference 3. It consists in the ways of transferring knowledge and even in the very possibility of transferring it. In the field of practical psychology, this possibility is very limited. This follows directly from the two previous features of worldly psychological experience - its concrete and intuitive character.
Difference 4. It consists in the methods of obtaining knowledge in the fields of everyday and scientific psychology. In worldly psychology, we are forced to confine ourselves to observations and reflections. In scientific psychology, experiment is added to these methods.
The essence of the experimental method is that the researcher does not wait for a confluence of circumstances, as a result of which a phenomenon of interest arises, but causes this phenomenon himself, creating the appropriate conditions. Then he purposefully varies these conditions in order to reveal the patterns that this phenomenon obeys. With the introduction of the experimental method into psychology (the discovery of the first experimental laboratory at the end of the last century), psychology, as I have already said, took shape as an independent science.
Difference 5. Finally, the fifth difference, and at the same time an advantage, of scientific psychology is that it has at its disposal an extensive, varied and sometimes unique factual material, inaccessible in its entirety to any bearer of everyday psychology. This material is accumulated and comprehended, including in special branches of psychological science, such as developmental psychology, educational psychology, patho- and neuropsychology, labor and engineering psychology, social psychology, zoopsychology, etc. In these areas, dealing with various stages and levels of mental development of animals and humans, with defects and diseases of the psyche, with unusual working conditions - conditions of stress, information overload or, conversely, monotony and information hunger, etc. - the psychologist not only expands the range of his research tasks, but and encounters new unexpected phenomena. After all, consideration of the work of any mechanism in the conditions of development, breakdown or functional overload from different angles highlights its structure and organization.
So, summarizing, we can say that the development of special branches of psychology is the Method (method with a capital letter) of general psychology. Of course, worldly psychology lacks such a method.

The position of a scientific psychologist in relation to worldly psychology
What should be the position of a scientific psychologist in relation to the carriers of worldly psychology?
The development of science is reminiscent of moving through a complex labyrinth with many dead-end passages. To choose the right path, one must have, as is often said, good intuition, and it arises only through close contact with life.
Ultimately, the conclusion should be the same: a scientific psychologist must be at the same time a good worldly psychologist. Otherwise, he will not only be of little use to science, but will not find himself in his profession. So, scientific psychology:

relies on everyday psychological experience;
extracts its tasks from it;
at the last stage it is checked. (See additional illustrative material.)
Issues for discussion:
1. The need for everyday psychological knowledge for the development of psychology.
2. Difference between worldly psychological knowledge and scientific knowledge.
3. The position of a scientific psychologist in relation to worldly psychology.

3.3. Classification of psychological research methods
Approaches to the classification of psychological research methods
As we said earlier, the specificity of scientific psychology lies in the fact that it uses a whole arsenal of scientific methods to accumulate its data.
An important role is also played by the way in which this or that knowledge is obtained. Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) expressed this in the following laconic formula: facts obtained with the help of different cognitive principles are different facts. There is a certain conditionality of the facts obtained in an empirical study by its scheme, put forward hypotheses, preliminary knowledge about the reality under study, etc., which existed before this empirical study. And such a relationship of the facts obtained in the study with the researcher's preliminary ideas about the phenomena being studied and, accordingly, with the methods used can be traced in all psychological directions. Therefore, the problem of methodology (means) of psychological knowledge is one of the most significant and discussed problems of psychology.
There are several views on the classification of methods of psychological research. For example, G. Piryov, divided "methods" into:

the actual methods (observation, experiment, modeling, etc.);
methodological techniques;
methodological approaches (genetic, psychophysiological, etc.). (See additional illustrative material.)
Sergei Leonidovich Rubinshtein (1889-1960) in his Fundamentals of General Psychology singled out observation and experiment as the main psychological methods. The first was subdivided into "external" and "internal" (self-observation), the experiment - into laboratory, natural and psychological-pedagogical plus an auxiliary method - a physiological experiment in its main modification (the method of conditioned reflexes). In addition, he singled out methods for studying the products of activity, conversation (in particular, clinical conversation in genetic psychology, Jean Piaget (1896-1980)) and a questionnaire. Naturally, time has determined the peculiarities of this classification. Thus, the "kindred-ideological" ties of psychology with philosophy deprived it of theoretical methods, a similar closeness with pedagogy and physiology was rewarded by the inclusion of the methods of these sciences in the psychological list. (See additional illustrative material.)
We will consider the methods of psychology based on four main positions:

a) non-experimental psychological methods;
b) diagnostic methods;
c) experimental methods;
d) formative methods. (See additional illustrative material.)
A. Non-experimental psychological methods
1. Observation is one of the most frequently used research methods in psychology. Observation can be used as an independent method, but usually it is organically included in other research methods, such as conversation, study of activity products, various types of experiment, etc. (See additional illustrative material.)
Observation is the purposeful, organized perception and registration of an object. Observation, along with self-observation, is the oldest psychological method. As a scientific empirical method, observation has been widely used since the end of the 19th century in clinical psychology, developmental and educational psychology, in social psychology, and since the beginning of the 20th century - in labor psychology, i.e. in those areas where the fixation of the features of a person's natural behavior in his usual conditions is of particular importance, where the intervention of the experimenter disrupts the process of interaction between a person and the environment. Thus, for observation, the preservation of "external" validity is of particular importance.

Distinguish between non-systematic and systematic observation: (see additional illustrative material):
non-systematic observation is carried out in the course of field research and is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology. For a researcher conducting non-systematic observation, it is important not to fix causal dependencies and a strict description of the phenomenon, but to create some generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions; (See additional illustrative material);
systematic observation is carried out according to a specific plan. The researcher singles out the registered features of behavior (variables) and classifies the environmental conditions. The systematic observation plan corresponds to the scheme of a quasi-experiment or a correlation study (they will be discussed later) (see additional illustrative material).
Distinguish between "continuous" and selective observation:
in the first case, the researcher (or a group of researchers) captures all the features of behavior that are available for the most detailed observation;
in the second case, he pays attention only to certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral acts, for example, he fixes only the frequency of manifestation of aggression or the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, etc. (See additional illustrative material.)
Observation can be carried out directly or with the use of observation instruments and means of fixing the results. These include: audio, photo and video equipment, special surveillance cards, etc. (See additional illustrative material.)
Fixation of the results of observation can be carried out in the process of observation or delayed. In the latter case, the value of the observer's memory increases, the completeness and reliability of registration of behavior "suffers", and, consequently, the reliability of the results obtained. Of particular importance is the problem of the observer. The behavior of a person or a group of people changes if they know that they are being watched from the side. This effect is increased if the observer is unknown to the group or individual, is significant, and can competently assess the behavior. The observer effect is especially strong when teaching complex skills, performing new and complex tasks, for example, when studying "closed groups" (gangs, military groups, teenage groups, etc.), external observation is excluded. Participant observation assumes that the observer is himself a member of the group whose behavior he is investigating. In the study of an individual, such as a child, the observer is in constant, natural communication with him. (See additional illustrative material.)
There are two options for included monitoring:

the observed know that their behavior is recorded by the researcher (for example, when studying the dynamics of behavior in a group of climbers or a submarine crew);
the observed do not know that their behavior is being recorded (for example, children playing in a room, one wall of which is a Gesell mirror; a group of prisoners in a common cell, etc.). (See additional illustrative material.)
In any case, the most important role is played by the personality of the psychologist - his professionally important qualities. With open observation, after a certain time, people get used to the psychologist and begin to behave naturally, if he himself does not provoke a "special" attitude towards himself. In the case where covert surveillance is used, "exposing" the researcher can have the most serious consequences not only for the success, but also for the health and life of the observer himself. (See additional illustrative material.)
In addition, participant observation, in which the researcher is disguised and the objectives of the observation are hidden, raises serious ethical problems. Many psychologists consider it unacceptable to conduct research as a "method of deception" when its goals are hidden from the people being studied and / or when the subjects do not know that they are the objects of observation or experimental manipulations.
A modification of the participant observation method, combining observation with self-observation, is the "labor method", which was very often used by foreign and domestic psychologists in the 20-30s of our century.
The purpose of observation is determined by the general objectives and hypotheses of the study. This goal, in turn, determines the type of observation used, i.e. whether it will be continuous or discrete, frontal or selective, etc.
As for the methods of recording the data obtained, it seems that in the process of initial observations it is better to use not pre-compiled protocols, but expanded and more or less ordered diary entries. As these records are systematized, it is possible to develop a completely adequate to the objectives of the study and at the same time a more concise and strict form of protocol records.
The results of observations are usually systematized in the form of individual (or group) characteristics. Such characteristics are detailed descriptions of the most significant features of the subject of research. Thus, the results of observations are at the same time the source material for subsequent psychological analysis. The transition from observational data to an explanation of the observed, which is an expression of more general laws of cognition, is also characteristic of other non-experimental (clinical) methods: questioning, conversation, and the study of activity products. (See additional illustrative material.)
What specific shortcomings of the method of observation cannot be ruled out in principle? First of all, all the mistakes made by the observer. The distortion of the perception of events is the greater, the stronger the observer seeks to confirm his hypothesis. He gets tired, adapts to the situation and stops noticing important changes, makes mistakes when writing, etc. etc. A.A. Ershov (1977) identifies the following typical observational errors.

Gallo effect. The generalized impression of the observer leads to a rough perception of behavior, ignoring subtle differences.
condescension effect. The tendency to always give a positive assessment of what is happening.
Central tendency error. The observer tends to make a diligent assessment of observed behavior.
Correlation error. The assessment of one trait of behavior is given on the basis of another observed trait (intelligence is assessed by fluency).
contrast error. The tendency of the observer to distinguish features in the observed that are opposite to their own.
First impression mistake. The first impression of an individual determines the perception and evaluation of his future behavior. (See additional illustrative material.)
However, observation is an indispensable method if it is necessary to investigate natural behavior without outside interference in a situation where you need to get a holistic picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in its entirety. Observation can act as an independent procedure and be considered as a method included in the process of experimentation. The results of observing the subjects in the course of their performance of the experimental task are the most important additional information for the researcher. It is no coincidence that the greatest naturalists such as Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882), Wilhelm Humboldt (1767-1835), Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), Konrad Lorenz (1903), and many others considered the method of observation to be the main source of scientific facts. .
2. Questioning, like observation, is one of the most common research methods in psychology. Questionnaires are usually conducted using observational data, which (along with data obtained using other research methods) are used in the design of questionnaires.
There are three main types of questionnaires used in psychology:

these are questionnaires made up of direct questions and aimed at identifying the perceived qualities of the subjects. For example, in a questionnaire aimed at identifying the emotional attitude of schoolchildren to their age, the following question was used: "Do you prefer to become an adult now, immediately, or do you want to remain a child and why?";
these are questionnaires of a selective type, where the subjects are offered several ready-made answers for each question of the questionnaire; The task of the subjects is to choose the most appropriate answer. For example, to determine the student's attitude to various subjects, you can use the following question: "Which of the subjects is the most interesting?". And as possible answers, we can offer a list of subjects: "algebra", "chemistry", "geography", "physics", etc.;
these are questionnaires - scales; when answering the questions of questionnaires-scales, the subject must not only choose the most correct of the ready-made answers, but scale (evaluate in points) the correctness of the proposed answers. So, for example, instead of answering "yes" or "no", subjects can be offered a five-point scale of answers:
(See additional illustrative material.)
5 - confidently yes;
4 - more yes than no;
3 - not sure, don't know;
2 - no more than yes;
1 - definitely not.
There are no fundamental differences between these three types of questionnaires; they are all just different modifications of the questionnaire method. However, if the use of questionnaires containing direct (and even more so indirect) questions requires a preliminary qualitative analysis of the answers, which greatly complicates the use of quantitative methods for processing and analyzing the data obtained, then scale questionnaires are the most formalized type of questionnaires, since they allow more accurate quantitative analysis of survey data.
The indisputable advantage of the questionnaire method is the rapid receipt of mass material, which makes it possible to trace a number of general changes depending on the nature of the educational process, etc. The disadvantage of the questionnaire method is that it allows, as a rule, to reveal only the topmost layer of factors: materials, using questionnaires and questionnaires (composed of direct questions to the subjects), cannot give the researcher an idea of ​​many patterns and causal dependencies related to psychology. (See additional illustrative material.) Questioning is a means of first orientation, a means of preliminary intelligence. To compensate for the noted shortcomings of the survey, the use of this method should be combined with the use of more meaningful research methods, as well as repeated surveys, masking the true objectives of the surveys from the subjects, etc.
3. Conversation is a method of studying human behavior that is specific to psychology, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of research is impossible. A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called the method of conversation. Psychologists of various schools and trends widely use it in their research. Suffice it to name Piaget and the representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of "depth" psychology, and so on.
The conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview. Researchers distinguish between a clinical conversation, an integral part of the "clinical method", and a purposeful face-to-face interview - an interview. (See additional illustrative material.)
The content of the conversations can be recorded completely or selectively, depending on the specific objectives of the study. When compiling full minutes of conversations, it is convenient to use a tape recorder.
Compliance with all the necessary conditions for conducting a conversation, including the collection of preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method a very effective means of psychological research. Therefore, it is desirable that the interview be conducted taking into account the data obtained using methods such as observation and questionnaires. In this case, its purpose may include checking the preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained using these methods of primary orientation in the study of the products of activity and the psychological characteristics of the subjects.
4. "Archival method" or the study of products of activity. In the American scientific literature, the term "archival method" is adopted for such studies, in which the psychologist does not measure and does not observe the actual behavior of the subject, but analyzes diary entries and notes, archival materials, products of labor, educational or creative activity, etc. Domestic psychologists use a different term to refer to this method. Most often it is referred to as the "analysis of products of activity", or the praximetric method. (See additional illustrative material.)
When using the method of studying products of activity, a wide variety of products of the subjects' creativity (poems, drawings, various crafts, diary entries, school essays, objects as a result of a certain type of labor activity, etc.) can serve as an object of study when using the method of studying products of activity. Using this method, one can analyze not only the content, but also the formal characteristics of the object of study.
For example, the most common method of studying the products of students' activities in school is the study of school essays. This method (as well as the method of individual conversation) provides rich psychological material on the individual and age characteristics of students. Thanks to the use of this method, changing only the topics of essays, the teacher in a relatively short time can collect massive high-quality material on the most diverse characteristics of students. The results of using this method (along with the results of observation and interviews) can provide valuable material for the compilation of questions in various questionnaires.
Analysis of the products of activity is a method widely used in historical psychology, as well as in anthropopsychology and the psychology of creativity. (See additional illustrative material.) For the psychology of creativity, it is one of the main ones, since the peculiarity of a creative product lies precisely in its uniqueness.
The analysis of activity products provides important material for clinical psychologists: in certain diseases (schizophrenia, manic-depressive psychosis, etc.), the nature of productivity changes dramatically, which is manifested in the characteristics of texts, drawings, handicrafts of patients.
The biographical method is widely used in the psychology of personality, the psychology of creativity and historical psychology, during which the features of the life path of one person or group of people are studied. (See additional illustrative material.)
5. Content analysis. The content analysis technique also belongs to the varieties of the "archival method". Content analysis is one of the most developed and rigorous document analysis methods. The researcher identifies content units and quantifies the data obtained. This method is widespread not only in psychology, but also in other social sciences. Especially often it is used in practical psychology, psychology of advertising and communication. (See additional illustrative material.) The development of the content analysis method is associated with the names of G. Lasswell, C. Osgood and B. Berelson, the author of the fundamental monograph "Content Analysis in Communication Research". The standard units for text analysis in content analysis are:

word (term, symbol);
judgment or complete thought;
topic;
character;
author;
complete message. (See additional illustrative material.)
Each unit is considered in the context of a more general structure.
Content analysis is used in the analysis of the results of applying projective tests, materials and conversations, etc. Despite the cumbersome procedure, content analysis has a lot of advantages: there is no effect of the researcher's influence on the behavior of the subjects; the data is checked for reliability; this method can be recommended for the analysis of historical documents, etc. (See additional illustrative material.)
Content analysis in recent years has acquired a "second wind" in connection with the development of psychosemantics, methods of multidimensional data analysis and the use of computers to study large amounts of information.

6. Monographic method. This research method cannot be embodied in any single technique. It is a synthetic method and is concretized in the aggregate of a wide variety of non-experimental (and sometimes experimental) methods. The monographic method is used, as a rule, for a deep, thorough, longitudinal study of the age and individual characteristics of individual subjects with the fixation of their behavior, activities and relationships with others in all major areas of life. At the same time, researchers seek, based on the study of specific cases, to identify the general patterns of the structure and development of certain mental formations. (See additional illustrative material.)
Usually, in psychological research, not one method is used, but a whole set of different methods that mutually control and complement each other.

B. Diagnostic methods
Diagnostic research methods include various tests, i.e. methods that allow the researcher to give a quantitative qualification to the phenomenon under study, as well as various methods of qualitative diagnostics, with the help of which, for example, various levels of development of the psychological properties and characteristics of the subjects are revealed. (See additional illustrative material.)
1. Test (from the English test - test, test) - a standardized task, the result of which allows you to measure the psychological characteristics of the subject. Thus, the purpose of a test study is to test, diagnose certain psychological characteristics of a person, and its result is a quantitative indicator that is correlated with previously established relevant norms and standards.
The use of certain and specific tests in psychology most clearly reveals the general theoretical attitudes of the researcher and the entire study. Thus, in foreign psychology, test studies are usually understood as a means of identifying and measuring the innate intellectual and characterological characteristics of the subjects. In domestic psychology, various diagnostic methods are considered as a means of determining the current level of development of these psychological characteristics. Precisely because the results of any testing characterize the actual and comparative level of a person’s mental development, due to the influence of many factors that are usually uncontrolled in a test test, the results of a diagnostic test cannot and should not be correlated with a person’s capabilities, with the features of his further development, i.e. these results are not predictive. (See additional illustrative material.) These results cannot serve as a basis for the adoption of certain psychological and pedagogical measures.
The need for absolutely precise compliance with the instructions and the use of the same type of diagnostic examination materials imposes another significant limitation on the widespread use of diagnostic methods in most applied areas of psychological science. Due to this limitation, a sufficiently qualified diagnostic examination requires the researcher to have special (psychological) training, knowledge of not only the material and instructions for the test methodology used, but also the methods of scientific analysis of the data obtained. (See additional illustrative material.)
The main disadvantage of most diagnostic methods is that the subjects become aware of the artificial situation of the examination, which often leads to the actualization of motives not controlled by the method in the subjects (sometimes the desire of the subjects to guess what the experimenter wants from them begins to act, sometimes the desire to raise their prestige in the eyes of the experimenter or other subjects and etc.), which distorts the results of the experiment. This lack of diagnostic techniques requires careful selection of experimental material that is significant for the subjects and their combination with a conversation, including direct and indirect questions to the subject, and with psychological observation of the behavior of the subjects during the experiment.
The advantage of diagnostic methods (along with accuracy and portability) lies in a very wide range of research tasks that can be solved using these methods, from studying the degree of mastery of preschoolers in various perceptual and mental actions and some prerequisites for the formation of the operational and technical side of educational activity and identifying personal characteristics of the subjects before studying the specifics of intra-collective relations. (See additional illustrative material.)
So, the difference between diagnostic methods and non-experimental methods is that they not only describe the phenomenon under study, but also give this phenomenon a quantitative or qualitative qualification, measure it. A common feature of these two classes of research methods is that they do not allow the researcher to penetrate the phenomenon under study, do not reveal the patterns of its change and development, do not explain it. The task of explaining the phenomena under study can be solved only through the use of experimental research methods. (See additional illustrative material.)
The most complete collection of objective tests can be found in the Compendium of Objective Tests of Personality and Motivation compiled by R.B. Cattell and F.W. Warburton. This handbook contains more than 400 different tests, which can be classified into the following 12 groups of personality tests:

Ability tests. Some tests, originally designed for the study of intellectual functions, knowledge and highly correlated with personality factors, such as indicators: fluency of speech, motor rigidity, etc.
Tests of skills and abilities. This group includes tests for visual-motor coordination, coordination of hand movements, accuracy of passing the maze, etc. (See additional illustrative material.)
Perception tests. This group covers a wide range of tests, from visual perception (completion of incomplete images) to olfactory (odor preference).
Questionnaires. This is a group of tests built in the form of questionnaires about behavior, tastes, habits, etc., for example, questionnaires for a survey on health status, compliance with hygiene requirements, etc.
Opinions. This group includes tests to identify the relationship of the subject to other people, norms of behavior and morality, political views, etc. (See additional illustrative material.)
aesthetic tests. This is a group of preference tests for music, paintings, drawings, poets, artists, etc.
Projective tests. A group of techniques designed to diagnose personality, in which the subjects are asked to respond to an uncertain (meaningful) situation, for example, to interpret the content of a plot picture. The answers to the tasks of these tests (unlike intellectual tests) cannot be alternative (correct - incorrect).
situational tests. They involve the creation of a certain social situation. For example, the same task is performed alone and in front of the whole class, for an individual test and for a team test, in a situation of competition or cooperation, etc.
Games. These are game situations where the individual characteristics of the subject's personality are well manifested. Therefore, many games are included in the objective tests.
Physiological tests. These include tests in which indicators are recorded: GSR, ECG, EEG, tremor, etc. (See additional illustrative material.)
Physical tests. They are not always easy to distinguish from physiological ones. The size of the chest, specific gravity, muscle turgor, the size of the fat fold and other indicators should be attributed to physical tests. (See additional illustrative material.)
Random observations. This may be, for example, the number of uncertain answers, the number of marks on the test form, the accuracy of the letter, fidgeting, restlessness during the examination, and other manifestations. (See additional illustrative material.)
Objective tests of personality study are a truly experimental approach, completely freed from subjective assessments. According to most experts, this area in the study of personality in psychology is the most promising.

B. Experimental methods
Unlike non-experimental and diagnostic methods, "a psychological experiment implies the possibility of the researcher's active intervention in the subject's activity in order to create conditions that clearly reveal a psychological fact ..." [Petrovsky Artur Vladimirovich (1924)]. The specificity of experimental methods is, therefore, that they assume:
a) organization of special conditions of activity that affect the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects;
b) changes in these conditions during the study. (See additional illustrative material.)
At the same time, experimental methods involve the use of non-experimental and diagnostic methods, directly include them as their natural moments.
In psychology, there are three types of actually experimental (in the classical, natural science sense of the term "experiment") method:

natural (field) experiment;
modeling experiment;
laboratory experiment. (See additional illustrative material.)
Natural (field) experiment, as the very name of this method says, is closest to non-experimental research methods. The conditions used in conducting a natural experiment are organized not by the experimenter, but by life itself (in a higher educational institution, for example, they are organically included in the educational process). The experimenter in this case uses only a combination of different (usually contrasting) conditions of the subjects' activity and fixes, using non-experimental or diagnostic methods, the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects. (See additional illustrative material.)
The advantages of a natural (field) experiment (relative disguise of research objectives, rather informal environment for conducting research, etc.) are a consequence of its organic involvement in the living conditions and activities of the subjects. The disadvantages of this method include the difficulty of selecting contrasting natural conditions and, in particular, all the shortcomings of those non-experimental and diagnostic methods that are used as part of a natural experiment and serve to select experimental data. (See additional illustrative material.)
Modeling experiment. When conducting a simulation experiment, the subject acts according to the experimenter's instructions and knows that he is participating in the experiment as a subject. A characteristic feature of this type of experiment is that the behavior of the subjects in the experimental situation models (reproduces) at different levels of abstraction quite typical actions or activities for life situations: memorizing various information, choosing or setting goals, performing various intellectual and practical actions, etc. . A modeling experiment allows solving a wide variety of research problems.
Laboratory experiment - a special type of experimental method - involves conducting research in a psychological laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices. This type of experiment, which is also distinguished by the most artificial experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, choice reactions, differences in sensory thresholds, etc.) and much less frequently in the study of more complex mental phenomena (thinking processes, speech functions, etc.). A laboratory experiment is more consistent with the subject of psychological research.

D. Formative Methods
All the research methods described above (non-experimental, diagnostic and experimental) are distinguished by their ascertaining character: empirical, spontaneously formed (or, in extreme cases, modeled in the narrow and artificial framework of a laboratory experiment) features and levels of mental development are subject to description, measurement and explanation.
The use of all these methods does not imply the task of a significant change in the existing subject of research, the task of formation. Such a fundamentally new research goal requires the use of special, formative methods.
Formative research methods in psychology include various varieties of the so-called social experiment, the object of which is a certain group of people:

transformative experiment;
psychological and pedagogical experiment;
formative experiment;
experimental genetic method;
step-by-step formation method, etc. (see additional illustrative material).
The main and main feature of all these methods is, according to the definition of Vasily Vasilyevich Davydov (1930), "... not a simple statement of the features of certain empirical forms of the psyche, but their active modeling, reproduction in special conditions, which allows revealing their essence."
The use of formative research methods is associated with the restructuring of certain characteristics of the educational process and the identification of the influence of this restructuring on the age, intellectual and characterological characteristics of the subjects. In essence, this research method acts as a means of creating a broad experimental context for the use of all other methods of psychology.
A formative experiment is often used to compare the impact of different training programs on the mental development of the subjects.
A formative experiment is:

mass experiment, i.e. statistically significant (this means that its area is at least a school, a teaching staff);
long, prolonged experiment;
experiment not for the sake of experiment, but for the sake of implementing one or another general theoretical concept in a certain area of ​​psychology (age, children, pedagogical and other branches);
the experiment is complex, requiring the joint efforts of theoretical psychologists, practical psychologists, research psychologists, didactics, methodologists, etc. And therefore, this is an experiment taking place in special institutions where all this can be organized. (See additional illustrative material.)
Thus, the formative experiment is a significant restructuring of psychological and pedagogical practice (as a joint activity of the researcher and the subject) and, first of all, a restructuring of its content and methods, leading to significant modifications in the course of mental development and characterological characteristics of the subjects. It is precisely because of these characteristics that this type of research methods of various branches of psychology reveals the reserves of mental development and at the same time constructs, creates new psychological characteristics of the subjects. Therefore, formative and educational experiments are included in a special category of methods of psychological research and influence. They allow you to directionally form the features of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking.
In conclusion, it should be noted that in the process of development of psychology, not only theories and concepts change, but also research methods: they lose their contemplative, ascertaining character, they become formative or, more precisely, transformative. The leading type of research method in the experimental field of psychology is the formative experiment.
So, the development of the methodological arsenal of modern psychology consists in a special consolidation of all research methods, the result of which is the formation of a new set of research methods - a formative experiment.

Issues for discussion:
1. Approaches to the classification of psychological research methods.
2. Experimental, diagnostic and non-experimental methods of psychology.
3. Formative methods.

3.4. The problem of the reliability of the received psychological information
The dependence of the reliability of the obtained psychological data on the reliability and validity of the methods used.
The concept of test reliability.
The concept of test validity.
The dependence of the reliability of the obtained psychological data on the reliability and validity of the methods used
When analyzing and interpreting the results of psychological research obtained by various methods, the question of their reliability is always acute. The solution to this problem largely depends on how reliable and valid the methods and techniques chosen by the researcher for the study of a particular mental phenomenon. Let's consider this question on the example of reliability and validity of test methods.
When conducting testing, as with any measurement, there are three main classes of errors:

misses;
systematic errors;
random mistakes.
Misses are the result of gross violations of the testing procedure. For experienced experimenters, misses are quite rare. They can be easily identified and eliminated by discarding outliers.
The systematic measurement errors remain constant or change regularly from measurement to measurement. Due to these features, they can be predicted in advance, and in some cases eliminated.
This group includes errors arising from the use of various methods of data collection. Each method of collecting personal data ("L", "Q" and "T") has its own specific instrumental distortions.
Random errors occur when successive measurements of a constant characteristic give different numerical estimates, i.e. when determining random errors, it is assumed that the measured characteristic does not change with time, and all deviations are due to measurement inaccuracy. (See additional illustrative material.)

The concept of test reliability
In practice, three main methods for assessing the reliability of tests are used:

retesting;
parallel testing;
split.
Let's consider each of them separately. (See additional illustrative material.)
Re-testing. Measurement error can be determined by repeated testing. Therefore, it is quite natural that repeated testing of a sample of subjects with the same test after a certain time interval and under the same conditions has become one of the main methods for measuring reliability. Retesting is usually referred to as a retest, and reliability measured in this way is referred to as retest reliability. The retest reliability estimation scheme has the following form:

(See additional illustrative material.)
In this case, the correlation coefficient between the results of two tests is taken as the reliability index.
The retest method has both advantages and disadvantages. Among the advantages are the naturalness and simplicity of determining the reliability coefficient. The disadvantages include the uncertainty in choosing the interval between two measurements. The occurrence of temporal uncertainty is due to the fact that retesting does not differ from the initial one. The subjects are already familiar with the content of the test, remember their initial answers and are guided by them when re-taking the test. Therefore, during repeated testing, either "adjustment" to the initial results is often observed, or, as a result of negativism, a demonstration of "new" results. (See additional illustrative material.)
As a result, it turns out that by repeating the measurement to evaluate some sources of error, we bring to life others. This is a specific psychometric problem, since a person is not only an object, but also a subject of measurement, and actively influences the test results. As one of the effective means of eliminating errors associated with repeated use of the same test, it is recommended to retest at sufficiently large intervals so that the initial answers are forgotten, and, if possible, the very fact of the first measurement is erased from memory. However, at long intervals between two surveys, changes in the measured personality characteristics themselves may occur. In this case, low values ​​of the coefficient of reliability will be a consequence of the variability of the measured characteristic, and not the low reliability of the test. Therefore, when citing its retest reliability in the test manual, it should be indicated to which time interval it corresponds. Due to the fact that the retest reliability decreases with increasing time interval, the most reliable are high reliability coefficients obtained with clearly large intervals between tests. Insufficiently high reliability factors may be the result of non-optimal determination of time intervals.
Parallel testing. In this case, the multiplicity of measurements is organized using parallel (parallel), or equivalent tests.
The scheme for using parallel tests to measure reliability is as follows:

(See additional illustrative material.)
The correlation coefficient calculated between two parallel tests is called the equivalent reliability.
High values ​​of the correlation coefficient between parallel forms indicate not only the reliability of these two tests, but also the equivalence of their psychological content. Therefore, when the equivalent reliability is low, this may be due to either non-equivalence of the psychological content of the tests, or low reliability, or both. To rule out some alternatives, estimates of retest reliability for parallel tests should be obtained. With low retest reliability, it is logical to consider low equivalent reliability as a consequence of the unreliability of tests, otherwise, when retest reliability is high, one has to admit that parallel forms are not equivalent in psychological content. If there are doubts about the equivalence of the psychological content of the tests, then these doubts are not removed by any statistical calculations. Equivalence is confirmed by psychological analysis, expert judgments of specialists, and only in addition to this - by statistical criteria.
The creation of parallel forms of tests is associated with overcoming a number of difficulties. In world practice, there are quite a few tests that have parallel forms. As an example of such tests, we can mention the previously mentioned multifactorial personality tests developed by the staff of the University of Illinois under the guidance of R.B. Cattell, - CPQ, CSPQ, HSPQ, 16PF, each of which has two or more parallel forms.
splitting method. It is a development of the parallel testing method and is based on the assumption of parallelism not only of individual test forms, but also of individual tasks within one test. To calculate the reliability factor using the splitting method, the test is divided into individual tasks or groups of tasks. The most common procedure is to "splitting" the test into two parts: the results of even tasks are collected in one part, and the odd ones are collected in the other. When splitting the test into two parts, the reliability index is calculated using the Spearman-Brown formula, which proposed it independently. Their articles with the derivations of the formula were published in the same issue of a psychological journal.

Where R1,2 is the correlation coefficient of the two halves of the test.

Dividing the test into two equal parts can be done in different ways, and each way gives a new numerical estimate of reliability. To overcome this shortcoming of the splitting method, methods are being developed for calculating reliability coefficients, which proceed from the assumption of dividing the test not into two parts, but into a larger number of parts, in the limit equal to the number of tasks. But no one has yet given an exhaustive theoretical substantiation of this problem: in practice, most of the criteria are based on the fact that the correlation matrix of individual tasks of a reliable test consists of coefficients whose value is close to one. Therefore, it is most natural to consider the average modulus of the correlation coefficient of all test items or the average coefficient of determination as the reliability index.
The reliability factor obtained by the splitting method is called the coefficient of internal consistency or homogeneity of the test (homogenety). The homogeneity of the test indicates that all test items consistently measure the same psychological characteristic. This means that if the subjects have the same test scores, then the degree of expression of the measured quality in them is the same.
So, we have considered three empirical methods for assessing the reliability of tests: retesting with the same test, retesting with a parallel form of the test, and splitting the test. When using the method of repeated testing, we obtain an estimate of the degree of stability of the results over time and depending on the testing conditions. Therefore, the retest coefficient of reliability is also called the coefficient of stability or stability of the test. When using the method of parallel forms and the method of splitting, the degree of mutual consistency of the parts of the test is assessed. Therefore, the reliability coefficients obtained by these two methods are interpreted as indicators of the homogeneity, homogeneity of the test.
The main problem of test theory is how to determine the true results from the measured results. There are two main definitions of true test scores that are relevant to psychometrics:

specific;
generalized (generalized).
The specific true measurement result refers to the exact result obtained using a specific test. This concept is close to the concept of real exact (or "levelled") estimates used in the measurement of physical quantities. Here, the truth of the results is understood in terms of the accuracy of the measurement method. To characterize the specific truth of test results, the concept of reliability has been developed. It characterizes the ratio of the observed result and its actual value. (See additional illustrative material.)
Generalized (generalized) true result is a term used to characterize the actual level of hidden, unobservable qualities or properties. A property hidden from external observation cannot be measured by any one test alone. In practice, for this purpose, a battery is used with a finite number of different tests aimed at measuring one hidden property, the level of which needs to be determined. Each of the tests used only partially covers the property under study.

The concept of test validity

To characterize the ability of a test to measure the actual level of a mental property or quality, the concept of validity is used.
The validity (validity) of the test shows to what extent it measures the quality (property, ability, characteristic, etc.) for which it is intended, i.e. tests that do not have validity are not suitable for practical use.
In modern psychometry, there are three main types of validity:

meaningful (logical);
empirical;
conceptual.
Content validation. It is often referred to as "logical validity" or "validity by definition". Content validity means that the test is considered valid by experts.
Content validity should be distinguished from obvious, facial, external validity (face validity). Apparent validity is validity from the point of view of the subject. It means the impression about the subject of measurement, which is formed by the subject when he gets acquainted with the instructions and the test material. Apparent validity plays an important role in the testing process, since it is it that primarily determines the attitude of the subjects to the survey. (See additional illustrative material.)
Apparent extrinsic validity may have different relationships to content validity. In some cases, content and extrinsic validity coincide, while in others, extrinsic validity is used to mask content validity. To this end, the content of tasks and instructions is given a special form that masks the true purpose of the study. This prevents the occurrence of installation behavior during testing. This is one of the main tactics used in creating objective tests. In contrast to apparent validity, content validity is always associated with an assessment of the relationship of the content of the test material to the true, and not the imaginary purpose of the measurement. Expert methods are used to determine content validity.
Empirical validity. The idea of ​​empirical validity is to determine the ability of a test to serve as an indicator or predictor of a strictly defined mental ability or form of human behavior. To measure this property, the correlation coefficient of the test result with the external criterion - R(X,K) is calculated. The criterion can be any indicator that independently and indisputably measures the same psychological characteristic as the test being validated. The question of choosing a criterion is the main one in this type of validity. Qualitative and quantitative assessments of validity depend on the choice of criterion. It is conditionally possible to distinguish three groups of criteria:

expert;
experimental;
"vital".
The expert criterion involves the use of expert assessments for independent measurement of personality traits. Although considerable attention has recently been paid to the expert method of measuring personality traits, nevertheless, the use of expert assessments for test validation does not have sufficiently developed unified procedures that allow obtaining reliable and stable information.
In practice, experimental criteria are much more common. In these cases, the results of simultaneous and independent testing of subjects by another test, supposedly measuring the same personality trait as the test being validated, are used as a criterion for validity. The correlation coefficient between the results of two measurements is called empirical mutual validity. Its value depends both on the degree of coincidence of the content of the measurement, and on the reliability of the tests. Therefore, the maximum coefficients of empirical mutual validity have parallel tests.
The empirical validity of a test is always the validity with respect to a particular criterion. Therefore, the process of constructing a test is often accompanied by a search for a suitable criterion. If by the time the validity of such an experimental criterion does not turn out to be valid, the characteristics of real behavior are used as it, which, on the basis of existing psychological theories, are assumed to be associated with the measured property. So, as this vital criterion for the test of intelligence, indicators of the success of training, extroversion - the success of administrative activities, anxiety - the frequency of diseases with neurosis, etc. are used.
Conceptual validity (construct validity). It is established by proving the correctness of the theoretical concepts underlying the test. Appeal to conceptual validity is necessary in cases where the results of test measurements are used not just to predict behavior, but as the basis for conclusions about the extent to which subjects have some specific psychological characteristic. Moreover, the measured psychological characteristic cannot be identified with any observed feature of behavior, but is a theoretical concept. Examples of such concepts are intelligence, personality traits, motives, attitudes, and so on. Conceptual validity is also important in the development of fundamentally new tests for which external validity criteria have not been defined. (See additional illustrative material.)
Unlike empirical validity, for which there is usually a single external criterion, when evaluating conceptual validity, all hypotheses arising from the theoretical concept underlying the validated test are tested, if possible.

Issues for discussion:
1. Dependence of the reliability of the obtained psychological data on the reliability and validity of the methods used.
2. The concept of test reliability.
3. The concept of test validity.

Reader for the course introduction to psychology. Textbook for students of faculties of psychology of higher educational institutions in the specialties 52100 and 020400 - "Psychology" / Ed.-comp. E.E.Sokolova. - M.: Russian Psychological Society, 1999.
Melnikov V.M., Yampolsky L.T. Introduction to experimental psychology of personality. - M .: Education, 1985.
Workshop on General Psychology / Ed. A.I. Shcherbakov. 2nd ed. revised and additional - M.: 1990.
Nemov RS Psychology / Textbook for students of higher pedagogical educational institutions. In 3 books. Book 3. - 2nd ed. - M.: Education VLADOS, 1995.
Sokolova E.E. Introduction to psychology. A brief summary of lectures and guidelines for the course: Educational and methodological manual for students of the faculties of psychology of higher educational institutions in the specialties 52100 and 020400 - "Psychology". - M.: Russian Psychological Society, 1999.

Gippenreiter Yu.B. introduction to general psychology. Lecture course. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow University, 1988.

A social worker acquires psychological knowledge from a variety of sources, such as general, which are available to him for a long period of time, and private when information about a particular psychological phenomenon or event can be obtained on specific details or within a short period of time.

Common sources are conditionally divided into four large groups ( Nemov R.S., 1998).

First source, a person encounters him in childhood, these are the people around him: mother, father, relatives, people replacing them. They psychologically assess the child, characterize his behavior. The child takes these assessments on faith, refers them to himself; as a result, he develops a certain self-esteem, which, in fact, is an assessment formed in him by other people. The psychological characteristics that a person gives to other people are formed on the basis of what he himself sees, communicating with them and studying the reviews of others about them. Correlating his own impressions with the assessments of others, a person forms images of these people.

Second source psychological knowledge are practical affairs and products of human activity. Evaluating them, comparing the results of one's own activity and the activity of others, a person forms an idea of ​​his own qualities, abilities and capabilities. He develops a self-assessment of knowledge, skills, business, strong-willed and other personal qualities. Comparing someone else's achievements with their own successes and failures, a person forms images of other people.

third source Psychological self-knowledge and knowledge of other people can be served by various kinds of tests and critical life situations, when a person most clearly shows his characteristics. Tests, additionally used in other cases, provide the most reliable and accurate information about a person. They are often the only source of knowledge about such psychological properties of people that cannot be observed and evaluated directly.

Fourth source psychological knowledge - works of science, literature and art. An invaluable source, one might say, a textbook of the psychological knowledge of people, are the works of great writers, connoisseurs of human souls: these are Shakespeare, Chekhov, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Stendhal, Balzac, etc.

Naturally, the psychological knowledge of another person is not limited to global sources. More private , but quite substantive sources for replenishing the psychological knowledge of a social worker about a person can be the following.

1. Handshake , which can be very informative, especially its intensity and duration:

 too short, sluggish handshake of very dry hands- indifference;

 prolonged handshake and wet hands- strong excitement;

 a slightly drawn-out handshake along with a smile - friendliness;

 palm turned down, - desire to dominate;

 palm up- submissive handshake, transfer of initiative to another;

 partner's hands remain in the same position - respect;

 straight, not bent, hand - a reminder of inequality;

 fingertip shaking- maintaining distance;

 glove gesture- Honesty partner, he can be trusted.

2. body constitution , wherein:

 fragile physique, tall stature, flat chest, narrow shoulders, long and thin legs (leptosomatic) - indicate a tendency to fluctuate emotions, stubbornness, obstinacy, isolation, difficulty in adapting to others (schizothymic);

 pronounced adipose tissue, obese constitution, medium or small stature, large belly, round head on a short neck (picnic) - these signs indicate emotional swings between joy and sadness, ease in contacts with people, realism in views (cyclothymic);

 well-developed muscles, strong physique, high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips (athletic) - all this is evidence of a calm disposition, low impressionability, restraint of gestures and facial expressions, low flexibility of thinking, often pettiness (ixotimic).

3. Individuality (graphology) of handwriting , it can be used to judge the individual characteristics of a person. In this case, the following regularities are distinguished ( Shchegolev I., 2007. S. 12–13):

 Handwriting is characterized by the degree of geometric consistency of writing. We are talking about the alignment of lines, lines and fields, the size of the intervals between words and lines, the same pressure. The degree of consistency of the letter depends on the will of the person, the reserves of his internal energy, the ability to work hard, the balance of character.

 Any exaggeration in handwriting indicates the desire of the author of the letter to stand out, draw attention to himself, compensate for the lack of desired qualities.

 The ornate handwriting speaks of complacency, boastfulness, narrow-mindedness, deliberate behavior.

 Wavy lines in the letter and in the signature are inherent in people who are quirky, cunning, able to adapt.

 The abundance of angular lines in the letter indicates firmness, perseverance, conflict.

 The rounded lines in the letter are characteristic of peaceful people who smooth out conflicts and are able to maintain good relations.

4. Features of the face (physiognomic data) can also say a lot about a person. For example, American psychologists J. Glive and E. Clery, after a five-year study of character traits in 10 thousand dossiers, showed:

 dark-eyed children are more viable and initiative;

 dark blue eyes in adults are a sign of perseverance and a tendency to sentimentality; besides, these people are capricious;

 people with dark gray eyes are stubborn and bold, quick-tempered and vindictive, jealous, but monogamous;

 brown-eyed are cheerful, witty, quick-tempered, amorous, but fickle in everything;

 light brown eyes indicate shyness, a tendency to solitude;

 blue-eyed - romantics, truthful, but ambitious and selfish;

 green and gray-green eyes - people with a strong will, constant, purposeful, but tough and intractable.

5. Mimic expressions carry more than 70% of the information about what a person experiences. It has been established that a complete message is assimilated by a person through facial expressions and gestures by 55%, through intonation - by 38%, and through words - only by 7%. For example, a look might be:

 businesslike, when it is fixed in the forehead area of ​​​​the interlocutor, this implies the creation of a serious atmosphere of business partnership;

 secular, when the gaze falls below the level of the eyes of the interlocutor (to the level of the lips) - this contributes to the creation of an atmosphere of secular easy communication;

 intimate, when the gaze is directed below the face - to other parts of the body up to chest level; such a look indicates a greater interest in each other in communication.

6.Gestures can be classified into the following types Nirenberg J., Calero G., 1990):

 evaluation gestures- scratching the chin; stretching the index finger along the cheek; getting up and walking, etc.;

 confidence gestures- connection of fingers in the dome of the pyramid; rocking in a chair;

 gestures of nervousness and uncertainty- intertwined fingers; pinching of the palm; tapping on the table with fingers; touching the back of a chair before sitting on it, etc.;

 self-control gestures- hands are wound behind the back, while one squeezes the other; the posture of a person sitting on a chair and clutching the armrest with his hands, etc.;

 waiting gestures- rubbing of the palms; slowly wiping wet palms on a cloth;

 negative gestures- folded hands on the chest; body tilted back; crossed arms; touching the tip of the nose, etc.;

 location gestures- putting a hand to the chest; intermittent touch to the interlocutor, etc.;

 dominance gestures- gestures associated with showing thumbs, sharp swings from top to bottom, etc .;

 gestures of insincerity- “covering the mouth with the hand”; “touching the nose”, as a more subtle form of covering the mouth, speaking either of a lie or doubt about something; turning the body away from the interlocutor; "running glance", etc.

But this list is far from exhaustive. Literally every detail associated with a person gives information about a person. Psychologically informative are such factors as: a person’s age, last name, first name, patronymic, date of birth, clothing features, accessories, manner of smiling and laughing, speech features, etc. Noteworthy are the nuances in changing a person's behavior in comparison with the general context of interaction with him.

1.4. Psychology of social work:

Of course, psychology would never be an independent science if it were guided only by everyday, everyday ideas. The most productive way to achieve psychological knowledge is scientific. What is science? This is universally valid, necessary knowledge, which is based on conscious, verifiable methods and is always directed to individual, specific objects. New results obtained by science are actually being implemented, and not just as a tribute to a passing fashion, but everywhere and for a long time. Any scientifically established truth can be so clearly demonstrated or proved that a reasonable person, able to understand the essence of the matter, cannot dispute its necessary character. All this is absolutely clear, but often various kinds of false interpretations obscure the essence of the matter.

Science is extremely versatile. The scope and meaning of scientific knowledge varies depending on the methods used. It is impossible to demand from any one method something that can be achieved only through completely different forms of research methods. With a scientific approach, any method of achieving the truth is acceptable, if only it meets such universal criteria of the scientific approach as general validity, the necessary nature of conclusions (provability), methodological clarity and openness to substantive discussion.

Observation - one of the main empirical methods of psychological research. It consists in the conscious, deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of mental phenomena. The purpose of observation is to study specific changes under certain conditions, as well as to find the meaning of this phenomenon, which is not revealed without much effort. There are several types of observation, which differ from each other in the ways of organization:

Included Surveillance when the observer is a member of the group that has become the object of study. In this case, the observer organizes the life of the group, but he himself does not stand out in it.

Random observation , in which, as in life, the observer discovers a fact that literally strikes him, since in the latter, according to the researcher, the main cause of this process is found, some regularity of the mental process becomes clear.

Organized , or systematic observation when a plan is specially thought out, a scheme for observing another person and focusing on his specific qualities;

Chaotic Observation ) i.e. lack of periodicity and systematicity, change of means (including technical ones) and methods of observation. This type of observation can be diary entries.

So, observation is a general term that is used to describe any situation where the observer registers the behavior of the participants in the experiment. The term "observation" can be used to describe a data collection method (ie, we observe someone doing something) or as a research design. When trying to define this term precisely, we automatically contrast observation with experimental research, since observation does not require manipulation of the independent variable. Thus, various types of non-experimental studies can be classified as observational. The table shows the most common categories of observation.

Table

controlled surveillance	Participants are observed in an environment that is to some extent under the control of the observer.
natural observation	Behavior is studied in a natural setting. Example: watching children play in the school yard
Active and passive surveillance	The observer takes part in the activities of the studied group (active observation), or observes from the outside and tries to be invisible (passive observation)
Structural observation	Observations are sorted into separate categories. For example, an event can be logged every time it occurs (sampling by events), or you can log specific events that occur in a given period of time (sampling by time interval)

Experiment - in psychology, one of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general and psychological research in particular. An experiment differs from an observation by the active intervention of the observer in the situation. In a broad sense, the experimental psychologist manipulates some aspect of the situation and then observes the results of this manipulation on some aspect of behavior. There are three main categories of experimentation.

1. Laboratory experiments. The main characteristic of laboratory experiments is the ability of the researcher to control and change the observed variables. With this ability, the researcher can eliminate many external variables that would otherwise affect the outcome of the experiment. External variables include noise, heat or cold, distractions, or the nature of the participants themselves.

The laboratory experiment has its advantages. Due to the experimenter's ability to neutralize the impact of external variables, causal relationships can be established. In laboratory conditions, the experimenter has the opportunity to evaluate behavior with greater accuracy than in a natural setting. The laboratory allows the researcher to simplify complex situations that arise in real life, breaking them down into simple components.

However, laboratory experiments also have some disadvantages. It is argued that laboratory conditions do not correlate well with real life, so the results of this category of experiments cannot be extrapolated to the outside world. Participants may respond to the laboratory environment by either adjusting to the requirements of the experiment (strong characteristic) or acting in an unnatural way out of concern for the experimenter's judgment (apprehension evaluation). The experimenter often has to mislead the participants in order to avoid the above distortions in laboratory studies. This raises serious questions about the ethics of such research.

2. Field experiments. In this category of experiments, the artificial laboratory environment is replaced by a more natural one. Participants are unaware of their participation in the experiment. Instead of examining the effects of an independent variable in a man-made environment or waiting for the required conditions to arise on their own, the researcher will create a situation of interest to him and watch how people react to it. An example is observing the reaction of passers-by to an emergency situation, depending on the clothes and appearance of the "victim", i.e. disguised experimenter.

In favor of these experiments is the fact that by focusing on behavior in a natural setting, the experimenter strengthens the external validity of his discoveries. Since the subjects are unaware of their participation in the experiment, the likelihood of anticipating the assessment is reduced. The experimenter retains control over the independent variable and is therefore still able to establish causality. However, there are also arguments against. Because many manipulations of the independent variable are quite subtle, they may go unnoticed by participants. Similarly, the participants' subtle reactions may go unnoticed by the experimenter.

Compared to the laboratory setting, the experimenter has little control over the exposure to external variables that can disturb the purity of the cause-and-effect relationship. Because the participants are unaware of their participation in the experiment, ethical issues such as invasion of privacy and lack of informed consent arise.

3. natural experiments. This category of experiment is considered "real" because the independent variable is not under the direct control of the experimenter, and he cannot direct the actions of the participants at various stages of the experiment. When conducting a natural experiment, the independent variable is controlled by some external agent (for example, a school or a hospital), and the psychologist can only study the result. Arguments for: as research into different real-life situations takes place, the psychologist gets the opportunity to study problems of high public interest, which can have important practical consequences. Arguments against: since the experimenter has little control over the variables being studied, establishing causal relationships is highly speculative; Since behavior is influenced by various factors unknown or beyond the control of the researcher, natural experiments are extremely difficult to repeat under the same conditions.

Test (in psychodiagnostics) - a standardized technique, which is a series of standardized brief tests of the same type, to which the subject is subjected. The sum of the obtained results is translated into standard units and is a characteristic of the level of the measured psychological quality. The test differs from other diagnostic tools in compliance with the requirements of validity, reliability and representativeness. The reliability of a test is its "noise immunity", the independence of its results from the action of random factors. Allocate retest reliability - the correspondence of the results of two tests of the same sample after a certain period of time. The conformity of a test with the psychological quality being measured is called validity.

According to the diagnostic orientation, differential psychometric tests (aimed at assessing individual parameters of human cognitive processes), tests of intelligence and mental development, ability tests (general and special), achievement tests are distinguished.

Tests have the widest application in various areas of practical psychology.

An extremely wide category of tests designed to determine the intelligence and success of human behavior. The Stanford-Binet IQ and the Late Wexel Child Intelligence Test (WISP) have been used to measure specific aspects of the mental development of preschool and school age children. Tests usually measure individual parameters of human intelligence, such as verbal or arithmetic skills. Based on these tests, it is technically possible to determine a more general IQ, although the practical usefulness of such a definition remains controversial. The heyday of intelligence tests came in the 1960s, when their results were used to make decisions that were important for the education and careers of many people. This rarely happens now, although the tests have become more advanced and focused on specific skills.

Modern psychology as a science is trying to develop more accurate ways to obtain reliable knowledge about the properties and qualities of a person. Hence the desire to create new methods. Various kinds of questionnaires, questionnaires and directed interviews are in wide demand, i.е. special techniques that allow obtaining reliable data on individual qualities of human consciousness. "All methods of obtaining psychological knowledge are based on the fact that an observer or researcher can set himself the task of identifying one or another quality of a person, creates conditions for this and singles out this quality, fixing it as a property of the mental, a property of consciousness" .

• Abramova G. S., Yudchits Yu. A. Psychology in medicine. S. 15.

Cause of skin diseases — disrespect for people.

Disrespect is expressed in arrogance, neglect, placing oneself above others, considering oneself to be chosen, significant, and others as inferior, low. The cause of skin diseases can be disrespect for people when their shortcomings are sharply manifested: self-interest, greed, stupidity, etc. According to natural laws, any creature is worthy of respect, since there is a particle of the Divine in it. It is necessary to respect not for a set of qualities of a person, but for the fact that he has an immortal soul. We prevent it from developing by imposing disrespectful stamps. Do not confuse with reverence - this is a completely different kind of energy that is given to parents for giving us a physical body and Teachers.

Oncology. Causes of cancer

Cause of cancer — unintentional deception, deception behavior.

Example. BUT Andrey wanted to buy winter shoes for a long time, so that they were of high quality and inexpensive. At work, he was offered a nice pair of boots for $40. He had no money with him and he asked Vasya to lend him. Vasya replied that, of course, he would give money, he would only go home for them during dinner. He went home, took the money, but on the way to work he saw a blouse in the store, which his wife had been looking for for a long time. Having bought it for $20, he brought Andrey only half of the money. While Andrei was looking for the missing amount, the owner of the shoes had already sold them to someone. Then Andrei, when he saw good shoes on someone, recalled Vasya ... And a couple of months later, Vasya was diagnosed with a tumor. This is a simple example of unintentional deception.

Behavioral deceptions are somewhat more complex. There are many of them in sexual relations. For example, the causes of all tumors in the genital area are associated with these deceptions. The causes of diseases are the same as described for inflammation of the appendages - everything starts with inflammation, then benign tumors form, sometimes turning into malignant ones. Here, people do not talk about what they will do, but promise by their behavior and the energy they radiate. Remember how a woman lives with one man, and "keeps in reserve" another or even several. After all, in order to keep in reserve, one must promise something energetically, lure a person with something. But at the same time, she does not lie down in bed, with those - others, so tumors are obtained.

Baldness - psychosomatic causes

Cause of baldness — concern, heavy oppressive thoughts for a long time.

The hair just can't handle that kind of energy on the head. (Causes such as radiation or lack of calcium are not considered here.)

Ayurveda. Causes of diseases. periodontal disease

Reason - criticism, loosening the foundations.

Again we find the operation of the law of similarity. The gums are the foundations for the teeth. When a person condemns the foundations of a family, clan, clan, people, some kind of society, then by doing so he shakes them. The foundations may be imperfect, they may contain violations of natural laws, but some people still need them and it is pointless to criticize them - society will fight for its foundations, laws, moral principles developed over the centuries. The Jews have one foundation, the Ukrainians have another. A Ukrainian married a Jewess, got into her family and cannot resist criticism, as a result, this was the cause of the disease - periodontal disease.

Fractures, injuries, bruises

Cause — deliberate deception.

This is a conscious deception, when a person already knows that what he says is not true.

Liver disease

Cause of liver disease- our manifestation of malice, anger, gloating.

Example. One student at the institute, for some reason, was not transferred to the next course. Whether the administration was right or not is a murky question, because the institute lives not according to natural, but according to social laws. But the student was offended and when something did not work out for the administration in the educational process, he rejoiced, or rather, gloated, in general, took out his insult in conversations with representatives of this very administration. His liver ached a few hours after the conversation. This is a simple example of the manifestation of a cause, but it is taken from real life.

Polyarthritis. Causes of Polyarthritis

Cause — pride with integrity.

There were many cases when one person taught another how to live, planted his principles on him from above and suffered from polyarthritis. It doesn’t matter how true the principles are, but such a form of teaching makes the student an “automaton”, deprives him of flexibility and forces him to accept someone else’s experience in finished form, and not to grow himself, reaching the truths, albeit more slowly, but with his own mind. Nature and its laws are flexible, fluid, changeable, they struggle with dogmas and authoritarianism.

Kidney disease according to Ayurveda

Cause of kidney disease:

1. 
   Sexual causes, similar to all inflammations, i.e., the use of sexual energy is not the case, which has already been considered.


2. 
   Fear. It is dumped in the body to the kidneys, from which children can immediately wet their pants. It is through urine that the energy of fear that is destructive to the body is discharged. Adults do not allow themselves this and they have a lot of accumulating chronic fear - it destroys the kidneys.

Cold. Causes of colds

Cause of colds- condemnation and criticism, most often in relation to domestic ones.

Chronic tonsillitis is often observed in people who condemn their loved ones.

Radiculitis. Psychosomatics of sciatica

Psychosomatic causes of sciatica:

1. 
   Fear. Mother was very afraid for two adult daughters. She loved them, but she was so worried about their personal life and financial situation that she enveloped them in a dark field of fear. This distorted the girls' real picture of their lives and prevented them from moving along the path of development. The mother had an attack of sciatica. They began to look at what he was preventing her from doing - sciatica prevents her from moving freely physically. As soon as the mother apologized and forbade herself to be afraid, the pain disappeared. In this situation, she violated the law "Do not interfere" in relation to her daughters.


2. 
   Pride. The young man often went hiking and if the nights were cold, he gave the girls a sleeping bag, and he slept in a tent right on the ground. Never got sick. One evening, a situation arose where the guys argued, swaggered, apparently proving to each other and the girls their intelligence, strength, etc. He again gave the sleeping bag, but this time with pride, they say, you can’t do that. Some of the guys fuse, probably, was in poorer health and was really afraid of catching a cold. That night, our tourist developed this rare disease for young people - sciatica.


3. 
   Sexual violations. In one company, relations have developed in such a way that flirting has become the norm, a game, a way of communication. Everyone flirted, that is, both men and women radiated sexual energy, teasing each other. As long as none of them fell for anything, did not take offense, everything was in order. But here one lady strongly desired some man. He did not pay attention to it, ignored it (maybe he did not like her too much). That's when he got sciatica. Why? If he had not given a reason, had not flirted with everyone, and with her too, he would have avoided such a situation. But he played this game, and according to natural laws, it has a continuation - the bed and there is nowhere to evade.

Muscle strains

Deep causes of sprains - almost always associated with pride.

One lady could not freely move her arm in the shoulder joint for six months, because of this she could not sleep normally and do yoga exercises. At the healing, they helped her find the cause, she apologized and everything went away by itself. One morning she went to do gymnastics at the stadium. There, a man was mowing the grass, and she wanted to try to mow - she had not had to before. It turned out well. Then she did gymnastics and went home. The next day, everything repeated, but with one small difference - next to the man was another lady, as it turned out later - his wife. And our heroine, of course, showed herself while she was mowing the grass. On the first day everything was fine, but on the second day she got a muscle strain and joint pain.

Heart failure

Causes of heart failure a person does not give heart energy to close people.

If you are with someone in a friendly or secular relationship, then it hardly makes sense to look for the cause of heart failure among these people. Usually this disease manifests itself where the relationship on your part at the beginning was warm, close, and then changed, became more cool and closed. And the person remained open to you. At the same time, it would be necessary to warn him, to apologize, to explain something. But it's not always easy. People are vulnerable, it is difficult to speak frankly with them. Many people try to avoid open explanations. And here favorable soil is created for this disease.

Blindness. Causes of eye diseases

Causes of eye diseases - may be different, but related to the vision. Let's consider one example. The girl was dating a guy. She became pregnant and had an abortion. Then they got married, she became pregnant again and gave birth to a healthy child, but she herself became 95% blind by the end of pregnancy, there was a retinal detachment. At the healing it turned out that the reason for the abortion was "so that they don't see the belly at the wedding."

Tuberculosis and its causes

The cause of tuberculosis as a disease- Integrity in relationships.

When we want to do one thing according to our hearts, but we do it differently, guided by some reasons, and this hurts people, then there is a chance of getting tuberculosis. Why is TB common in prisons? Not only because of the sanitary conditions. There people live according to developed principles, far from natural laws.

It became psychologically difficult for one person - sadness, melancholy, depression, in prison this is not uncommon. Another would be happy to help him, give him heartfelt energy, encourage him, but does not do this, as he may be treated with contempt: they say that you are fussing with him. They were comrades and together received a sentence for one case. The first became despised in prison, and the second was accepted normally and he would be happy to help a friend, but according to the principles of the local hierarchy, he should not do this. If a friend is offended, which is very likely, then the second one may get tuberculosis.

Insect bites with severe swelling

Cause — pride.

When the body's defense systems are working normally, normal bites don't swell much.

Example: The company went to rest in the Crimea. Everyone is bitten by mosquitoes and some other midges. But one person's arms and legs swell, while others don't. Allergy? Yes, this is an allergy, but it has reasons, in this case - pride. Pride swells and the body swells. Again, you can calculate the cause by the law of similarity.

Cystitis - psychosomatics of the disease

Cause of cystitis- pride with integrity and pretensions in relations between men and women.

Cases of cystitis have been observed by healers. For the successful treatment of the disease, it was enough to remove the cause with the ritual of apology. When a wife began to make claims to her husband with pressure, demand, resentment that he was not behaving like a man, she had bouts of cystitis. In this example, unlike the skin inflammation example, the woman does not have contempt, but she does have a claim.

Schizophrenia - psychosomatic causes of the disease

Cause of schizophrenia — mishandling of information and knowledge.

One of the frequent causes of schizophrenia is the accumulation of a large amount of information without its practical development and application. This usually applies to people who learn not simple information from books and newspapers, but esoteric information that greatly influences their worldview. Most often this happens when a person is suspicious, suggestible, falls for information and without making the knowledge gained his experience, skill, ability, he lacks all the new knowledge from various occult sources.

There is another example of the cause of schizophrenia when a woman violated the law "Do not pass on information without making it yours." She gave great lectures in Moscow, agitated people to go hungry, while she herself went hungry for only three days. One of her listeners, inspired by these sermons, began a multi-day fast. On the 15th day, mercury began to come out of her body. Mercury accumulates in the bones and this woman has accumulated a lot of it. Mercury came out of the anus in balls. The woman and her family were very frightened and at three in the morning they called the lady who was lecturing. From sleep she didn’t figure out how to talk, and told the truth: “I actually starved for only three days, and I don’t know what to do in such cases.” And soon she "went roof."

If we pass on knowledge to someone, especially influencing the psyche and health, then we bear a serious responsibility for this.

Diseases in children and pets

When a child is born, for the first year of his life he is connected with the mother's energy and is highly dependent on her state of health and psyche. Since the mother's body is energetically stronger, if it breaks the laws, the child can get sick. This is called dumping the disease on the weak. After a year, the child either remains on the energy of the mother, or is transplanted into the energy of the father. So he lives up to 8-10 years old and suffers from the violations of his parents, and starts to get sick for his own violations after 8-10 years, switching to his own energy.

To determine which parent needs to track their behavior, you can leave the baby to play in the room for one minute for 20. Then mom and dad enter the room and stand in different corners. To whom the child rushes first, clings to his feet, hugs him, he needs to look for his violations - the baby lives on his energy.

After the child has transitioned into his energy, which is usually accompanied by changes in his character and some distance from his parents, he can be taught to track his violations, analyze situations and use an apology ritual.

On pets, too, there are discharges of diseases from the owners. The dog usually has one owner in the family, whom she chooses herself, and cats live on the energy of the whole house.

Ritual of apology as a way to eliminate the causes of diseases.

When the cause of the disease is found, you need to sit down and think about your behavior in the future. Having found a new form of behavior without violating the natural law, it is necessary to lay it on the subconscious in meditation. To do this, they clearly imagine themselves in situations similar to the one where the violation was made and mentally act in a new way. It would be nice to work out 10-15 situations and the more varied they are, the better. Then they do the ritual:

1. 
   Call mentally the face of the person in relation to whom there was a violation. Greet him and thank him for science.


2. 
   Tell him what law you broke.


3. 
   Show that in the future you will act differently, that you have worked out the law.


4. 
   Sincerely ask for an apology, without harboring anger or resentment in your soul.

Cases where diseases occur for other reasons.

There are exceptions to every rule. In healing, there are many situations when diseases are due to other reasons than described above.

1. 
   If someone does yoga or any energy gymnastics, he constantly pumps energy into the organs of the physical body, ether and chakras. It happens with such people that when the law is violated and the heart should have been ill, the head suddenly hurts. This happens because in any structure there is a weakest and a strongest point. The weak becomes the point of discharge of destructive energies. Every organ of the body tries to throw off the negative influence, and it goes to the weakest. Everyone has his own.


2. 
   It also happens that people remove diseases from their loved ones. This happens if they love them very much or feel sorry for them. Then you need to apologize to the one from whom the disease was removed. Sometimes healers, who have not worked out pity, remove the disease from patients on themselves. There was even a case when a woman felt sorry for a completely unfamiliar young handsome guy whom she met by chance at the station. He was deaf and began to hear in two days, but the seven-year-old son of this woman became deaf. The healers had to work to restore the boy's hearing, and the guy remained with normal hearing.


3. 
   Sometimes people get sick on their own. From childhood, he was used to receiving a lot of energy, warmth, care, and sometimes pity from his relatives during illness. All household duties and the need to prepare lessons were removed from him. A subconscious mechanism has been developed, and when such a person wants to take a break from worries, he himself falls ill.


4. 
   Magic, curses, spells also do not belong to ordinary diseases and proceed according to their own laws. Whether a person dries up or becomes childless, or the organ on which the magician dumped his sore gets sick - all these cases are dealt with separately in healing and their classification is not included in the task of this work. One thing is certain: magical attacks do not happen just like that, but mainly on those people who themselves climb into the world of magic. For example, they begin to keep a husband, bewitch a lady, dump illnesses on someone, hypnotize for their own purposes. To get out of such causal relationships, rituals of apology and exchange are used with an internal refusal to influence people.


5. 
   There are still cases when people behave not by nature and because of this they get sick.

There lived an official. Never did anything for anyone. By the age of 60, I tried everything in my life, "ate" and calmed down. A girl came to him and gave him a sincere request - she asked him to help her go to college. And he thought: "What to take from her? I have plenty of money, the bed - I also walked up. I'll arrange it just like that, let her live and be happy". He acted not according to the nature of his astral body, in which the element of self-interest dominated, but according to his soul - according to the deeper part of his nature, according to which he had never lived before. The girl entered the institute and all the time remembered with gratitude his disinterested act. And his heart chakra (the astral body consists of chakras) is not used to receiving such energy, because people have always given energy to him. Envy, selfishness, fear. So, from this pure energy, he had a heart attack and happened - the chakra could not process it.

And in the movie "Time of Desires" the reverse situation is shown, and also in the heart chakra. There, the wife promotes her new husband in the service, making him a successful official. He used to sit in his free time at his favorite dacha and natural energies flowed through his heart chakra - air, wood, water, etc. The wife sold the dacha, promoted her husband so that he already went to work in a black Volga with driver. More and more energies of envy, flattery, depression went to him, and he also had a heart attack. You can not force other people to live by their laws. Similar situations can occur in any chakra.

Conclusion. Ahimsa (non-violence).

When someone breaks the law and we fall for it (offended); he might get sick. Most often this happens with family, friends, acquaintances, that is, those people who did not want to make them sick. But if you do not react at all to violations of the laws, people will continue to do the same and sooner or later they will get sick from the offense of someone else.

There is a good way to help a person understand his disorders without hitting him with energy and without causing illness. It is necessary to tell him aloud what he is violating, but not to be offended at all inside. This is the most evolutionary way - it is used by "gray" teachers. It does not cause illness, but it is not condoning the violation of laws. It should be remembered that this can be done in cases where the violation concerns you, and if it is done in relation to someone else, pointing to it may be interference in other people's affairs.

If you learn not to be resentful of transgressions against yourself, although it is difficult, then you will be able to teach people a lot without harming them, that is, observing Ahimsa.

It is interesting! There is a special computer program that allows you to quickly determine the causes of diseases at a subtle level and work effectively with them. It contains all the psychosomatics of most human diseases.

Finding the cause of the disease involves several different techniques. When a person knows what this disease is given for, the search spectrum narrows noticeably, and if the cause of the disease is unknown, then the first thing to do is to remember and carefully analyze all the events that happened to the person during the day before the first signs of pain or malaise. The fact is that, according to natural laws, punishment overtakes a person within a day after he violates any law. Example: At five o'clock in the evening you have a sore throat.

Methods for determining the causes of diseases

Determining the cause of the disease - 1 way:

To find the cause, you need to look for some conflicts with people that have happened since last night. Remember who was offended by you, who was dissatisfied with something, outraged, with whom there was a struggle on a subtle level.

How to determine the cause of the disease - 2 way:

If nothing can be found, you can try the following technique: sit alone in a room, in a calm state and mentally call up images of all the people you have encountered during the day. Mentally ask each one: "Because of you sickness?". It usually happens that the person from whom you received the punishment will flash brighter than the rest on your mental screen. Then ask him what he was offended by, what is his claim. If he does not answer, try to understand your violation yourself.

Determination of the causes of the disease - 3 way:

Let's say you couldn't find the cause. You can mentally turn to your strengths and ask to show the reason in a dream. In a dream, you will find yourself in situations similar to the one that caused the disease, but there the violation of laws will be more visible.

Psychosomatic causes of diseases - 4 way:

This is one of the main ways to determine the causes of diseases, based on the law of similarity. It often happens that the disease in its form, appearance, nature of pain sensations and location on the body resembles our violation.

If you have a headache, then immediately pay attention to the nature of the pain. Very often it is oppressive, and this may be due to the fact that you put psychological pressure on someone and got change.

If the heart sank, then most likely you "pricked" someone in the heart.

Psychological causes of stomach and intestinal ulcers are directly related to causticity in communication.

Toothache associated with criticism, which can be figuratively represented as if we are biting someone.

When there is a sore throat and a cough, then it often looks like barking, but doesn’t the energy with which we condemn our relatives and friends, if we argue and prove something, not look like barking? There is an expression in Russian that describes this behavior: "they bark like dogs."

There is another key to finding the causes of diseases, also built on the law of similarity. Some people have pain in their knees. The key question is: "What does this pain prevent a person from doing?". The answer is that it prevents him from walking and being flexible. This means that he himself prevents someone from going their own way through life and being flexible, that is, free in their desires, decisions, and choices.

At the physical level, what we do to people psychologically and energetically returns to us in the form of a disease. In this case, an example from healing practice was considered, when a husband taught his wife how to act in different situations. These teachings were categorical, authoritarian in nature, the husband had great confidence in his rightness and inner pride. The wife, trusting the authority of her husband, at first tried to do as he said, but then found that this did not correspond to her nature, was indignant, rejected his teachings and began to act in her own way. Just at the time when she was indignant, her husband's knees hurt (polyarthritis).

Another example: a woman comes for healing, who has developed severe skin irritation in the groin area. We pose the question: "What is it that prevents her from doing?". It interferes with making love. So she's stopping someone from making love? Not so literally. Let's try to expand the question - this sore prevents her in some sense from being a woman. It means that she interferes with someone in this way. Soon, from further conversation, it turns out that recently her husband showed qualities in communication with her that she cannot consider masculine, worthy of a knight. His behavior did not correspond to her idea of ​​\u200b\u200bwhat a man should be and she began to be offended, indignant, her thoughts were contemptuous: " Fi! It's not like a man... It's not a man!". The husband felt this energy and was offended in turn. His resentment caused illness in his wife because she had a violation of natural law - an attack with contempt.

They may ask: "Why doesn't your husband get sick?". We do not know if he violated natural laws by his actions. A wife came to us for healing, and the fact is that his behavior did not correspond to her ideas about male qualities, but her idea was formed under the influence of the environment where she was brought up, and this environment could have its own laws that did not correspond to natural ones. The woman apologized in the astral and a day later the inflammation disappeared.

Determination of the causes of the disease - 5 way:

To find the psychological cause of the disease, you can ask your Higher Seeds to bring to you people who have the same disorder as you. From the side of the violation is more visible, they are striking, and especially if they are directed at you. Ask to be confronted with such people for a period of time, such as a week. This week you need to be very sensitive and attentive to everything that will happen around. Each event can be a sign, a hint. If, nevertheless, you are forgotten in the daily bustle, then sit down in the evening before going to bed, and look through the whole day if someone has had a behavior similar to yours.

Causes of diseases and their definition - 6 way:

It is used for chronic diseases, the cause of which a person cannot find in himself. Ask your strength to slightly aggravate the disease immediately after, or even during a situation where you break the law.

Let's say you have a stomach ulcer. It is either felt or not felt. It depends on behavior and nutrition. Make food for a week dietary so that there are no side irritating factors. Communicate actively and uninhibitedly with people, let your irony, sarcasm, causticity manifest itself in full. Where the pain in the stomach will catch - your violations of the laws.

Causes of diseases. Psychosomatics of diseases

Almost all diseases are psychosomatic in nature. Below is a large list of the causes of the most common diseases. Having completely dealt with the psychological causes of diseases and changing their behavior or attitude to life, a person almost always manages to defeat the disease.

Arrhythmia

Cause of arrhythmias- uneven, episodic supply of heart energy, warmth to loved ones, alternating with closeness, alienation, anger.

Example . Mom comes home from work and gives heart energy to children: "Oh, my family! You are waiting! Look what I brought you". She the next day: "How tired of you all! Did you do your homework? March to bed".

Mom jumps in mood and she allows herself such behavior in relation to loved ones.

Myopia - psychosomatics

Cause of myopia- Criticism by vision.

Example . A well-read, intellectual young man, 10 years old, with great pride, wants to assert himself in the eyes of others, to gain authority for himself. He starts for no good reason, only to draw attention to himself, to criticize the shortcomings of the world around him. A couple of years later, the young man developed severe myopia. People were offended by such criticism and the energy of their resentment hit the boy on Ajna, the chakra responsible for vision. See less, judge less.

Varicose veins - cause

The psychological cause of varicose veins as a disease- suppression of anger, discontent within oneself. A person is angry at someone, at life, at difficult situations, and at this time Manipura generates a lot of negative destructive energy. If a person immediately dumps it through swearing, screaming, claims, then there may be other diseases, and varicose veins occur when he suppresses this energy within himself with the help of will. Suppressed by the will, anger is dumped through the legs. there are channels in the legs through which the body removes unnecessary energy.

If dissatisfaction with something manifests itself for a long time, then the channels cannot cope with the release of destructive energy and this is reflected in the tissues of the physical body. The energy of anger and chronic irritation resembles swirling black smoke. Pay attention to the pattern of swollen veins on the legs - it is exactly like that. Here, too, the law of similarity is manifested. A person does not want to dump such energy on others, so as not to spoil relationships, and suppresses it inside himself. The energy mechanism of this disease is not the same as in the case of myopia. There, the surrounding people inflict an energy blow, but here a person destroys himself.

Causes of Venereal Diseases

Cause of venereal disease — disgust and contempt in sexual relations. This usually manifests itself in the general disrespect of partners, when using someone to satisfy sexual desires. First, a person breaks the law, the partner is offended, and this resentment goes into space as a request demanding that the violator be punished. After a couple of days, the one who showed disgust finds himself in bed with a new partner who already has a venereal disease. As far as AIDS is concerned, it seems to be associated with the inoculation of other people, especially young people, with sexual perversions. The strength of the punishment is proportional to the strength of the violation. The question arises: "But what about the infection of AIDS babies in maternity hospitals?". All diseases of this kind from any infections, as well as miscarriages and abortions, are associated with the karma of past lives. When a creature is in space and is about to be born, it knows perfectly well what it is getting into. From there, destinies are visible and the task of such an incarnation is to burn one's negative karma through suffering in the process of illness.

Causes of diseases. Inflammation of the appendages

Causeinflammation of the appendages coquetry with the release of sexual energy, teasing men when they do not want to enter into intimate relationships with them.

This is a very common disorder and naturally follows the disease. Women flirt in order to collect energy for themselves, to attract attention, sometimes in order to provide them with some kind of service, help. At the same time, sexual energy goes beyond the aura of a woman and penetrates into the field of a man, and this, according to natural laws, is an invitation to bed. When a “warmed up” man comes up with proposals, the lady “rejects” him. If he is offended, then the appendages or other organs of the genitourinary system will hurt, if he is not offended, then nothing can hurt.

Gastritis, gastric and duodenal ulcer

Causes of stomach diseases — causticity, irony, sarcasm, prickly mockery.

There is a lot of such behavior in today's world. Why doesn't everyone have ulcers? The energy mechanism of communication, in which both interlocutors are internally closed, ready for causticity and exchanging barbs, resembles a duel between two knights. Both put on armor and try to get each other with swords. In this case, they do not take offense at each other, because they play according to the same rules of communication, they were taught this way by upbringing, they live by this and accept causticity as the norm.

Diseases arise when causticity is directed at a person who lives according to other laws, who is open, vulnerable, who does not accept a duel as a form of communication. He has the right to be offended if such energy was directed at him, but he did not give a reason for this. The natural laws of our planet are on his side.

Hemorrhoids - causes according to Ayurveda

Psychosomatic reasonhemorrhoids - unwillingness to let go of what should go according to natural laws. Greed.

An example of the cause of the disease. The woman had an operation for hemorrhoids only because she did not want to throw away a large amount of canned vegetables that had already deteriorated in her pantry. She walked and felt sorry for her jars and worried that they needed to be thrown away. From strong emotions of this kind, the energy inside the body begins to circulate incorrectly, and this is expressed on the physical level in the form of hemorrhoids. Here, too, the law of similarity is manifested - feces must leave the body, and it hurts to let them go if the anus is not in order. It can be a pity to let go of things, money, or even energy - something related to the navel chakra.

Hepatitis (jaundice) - psychosomatics of the disease

cause of hepatitis. This disease also applies to Manipura, but the nature of the energy released by a person is different from causticity. The sting hits, stabs, and the acrimony oozes, while others or their vision of the world are also attacked, but of a slightly different nature. When they hit back, the bilious person starts to get sick.

Headaches - Ayurveda. Causes of diseases.

• 
  Will pressure on people.


• 
  Imposing your vision, opinion.


• 
  "Prominaniye" under someone else's will.


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  Allowing other people to impose their vision on themselves.

Let's take a closer look at the causes of headaches:

1. 
   Will pressure with the desire to force a person to do something does not cause a headache until the person is indignant. From that moment on, the oppressor begins to have a headache. These people usually have high blood pressure. Teachers, military authorities, directors of organizations do not always have a headache - they are partially covered by this violation of the society, since they are in the service and are, to a certain extent, "automatic" of the societies from which they work. If you look at natural laws, then the influence of wills is an attack, since the laws "Do not interfere", "Do not ask, do not interfere" are violated.


2. 
   Imposing your vision. Husband and wife came to visit a friend. While they were sitting, drinking tea, the husband said that he wanted to buy a new tape recorder, and his wife began to dissuade him. Then a friend intervened without asking and began to assure that this was an excellent tape recorder and that it should be urgently bought. When the guests left, the owner had a headache. The wife sunk down because she wanted to spend the money on buying a washing machine, not a tape recorder.


3. 
   Prominenie under someone else's will. For those who allow themselves to ride, the pressure is often lowered. These are oppressed people, accustomed to obey. They have no desire to argue, fight for their energy, and the reason may be fear and disbelief in their strength. Usually it starts from childhood - strong repression on the part of parents creates submissive "automatic machines" that, losing one psychological battle after another, turn into executors of someone's will. The head can hurt from the loss of energy - it goes to the one who commands you.


4. 
   Allowing others to impose their opinions on you. Living in someone else's mind is a property of insecure people. They also give a lot of energy to those whose advice, experience, and authority they live on. They lack energy.

umbilical hernia

Psychological reasonumbilical hernia - attraction to hoarding and pride.

Often people have a hernia after acquiring a dacha. Finally, you can save up some valuables, and in addition to valuables in the country, they also pile up all the old, unnecessary rubbish. If pride is still involved, then the owner’s thoughts take on the following character: “Now I have a lot of things. I will have more than my neighbors! Relatives will come -“ I will show them how to live, let them envy, etc. ”

All this can live in the subconscious of a person, and the energy just obeys the subconscious impulses - this is a sufficient reason for the onset of the disease.

Example. A specific case of a hernia is known. In one family, the father earned a lot, turned things around and some valuables accumulated in the house. The owner himself took this rather calmly, but the son was proud of his father and the well-being of the whole family. A poor neighbor, unimportantly dressed, came to visit. And it was the son who began to look down on him, as if he were "unfinished", showing pride. The neighbor was offended when he felt the attitude of the owner's son, although there was no talk of this in words - they talked about completely different topics. The son had a hernia, and then his child, because the child lived on the energy of his father.

Diabetes and its psychosomatic causes

Cause — contempt for those below while worshiping those above.

If a person has only one of these qualities, then there will be no diabetes. This is a disease of people who are hierarchical in their vision of the world. Diabetes is the scourge of India. In the 20th century, India ranked first in the world in this disease. This is the only country where caste is still so strongly manifested in our time. The untouchables are despised there - this is the norm - and they bow before the owners, which creates a fertile ground for diabetes. It is interesting that in different societies the hierarchy is built according to different laws - not always wealth will be the main thing. Somewhere they value strength, somewhere they value intelligence, creativity, etc. Let's take a chess club - the ability to play chess is valued there. If a member of the club will despise those. Who plays worse than him and bows before the best players, then he may well earn diabetes. Resentment often comes from the despised, from those who are stamped with inferiority.

Toothache - psychological causes according to Ayurveda

Cause of toothache — criticism of society, any societies.

This may include both criticism of the government, reforms, laws, and condemnation of doctors, police, merchants - any societies that make up the social structure. If someone criticizes another person or the activity of an entire organization in order to improve it, to help understand something, then this may not cause a toothache. But when we sit in the kitchen, drink tea and curse the state, then our emotional energy flies out and hits this structure in the astral plane. This is an attack on our part and the astral society has the right to give back, which returns to us in the form of a disease. The reason is in ourselves, however, as always :)

sickness love child