India is a state of South Asia, located on the Hindustan peninsula. India as a state within its current borders was created in 1947, when it was divided by the British government into two independent dominions of India and Pakistan. However, we must not forget that the historical and modern borders of India are different, many historical areas that once belonged to India are now part of neighboring states.

India's external borders had a great influence on the fate of India. On the one hand, India, due to its borders, is isolated from the outside world. On the northern, northwestern and northeastern borders of the country there are mountain ranges (Himalayas, Karakoram, Purvachal), and on the other sides it is washed by the waters of the Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal). This isolation naturally affected the history and culture of India. The historical path of India is unique, and Indian culture is distinguished by its originality.

Nevertheless, from ancient times, mountain passes led to the territory of India, which served as a gateway to India both for trade caravans and for the conquering armies. Basically, we are talking about the northwestern border, where there are such mountain passes as: Khyber, Gomal, Bolan, through which almost all the conquerors came from the territory of modern Afghanistan to India (Aryans, Persians, Alexander the Great, Mahmud of Ghaznevid, Muhammad Guri, Babur ). In addition, India can be reached from the north and northeast from China and Myanmar.

If we talk about the maritime border of India, then despite its great length, India has never been considered a strong maritime power. This is due to the fact that the coastline is poorly dissected, so there are few natural harbors on the coast where sailing ships could take shelter from the winds. Basically, Indian ports are located either in the mouths of rivers or artificially arranged. Difficulties for sailors were also created by shallow water and reefs off the coast of India. Nevertheless, the Indians nevertheless made attempts to try themselves as sailors.

In history and ethnography, India is traditionally divided into three physical and geographical regions: 1) the Indo-Gangetic Plain, 2) the Deccan Plateau (Decan), 3) the Far South.

The Indo-Gangetic Plain is historically the most important part of India, because it was there that great empires have always been located. This northern plain is divided into two parts by the Thar Desert and the Aravalli Mountains. The western part is irrigated by the waters of the Indus, and the eastern part by the Ganges and its tributaries. Thanks to the rivers, the soil here is fertile, which led to the prosperity of the local population. It was here that the great civilizations of antiquity and medieval states arose. It was the Indo-Gangetic Valley that was most conquered, five decisive battles in Indian history took place on its land.

India can be called a land of contrasts. There is a well-known phrase "India is a world in miniature". If we talk about the climate, then in India it varies from the dry frosts of the Himalayas to the tropical heat of the Konkan and the Coromandel coast. All three types of climate can be found in India: arctic, temperate and tropical. The same goes for precipitation. There are very dry places in India like the Thar Desert and on the other hand the wettest point on the planet is Cherrapunji.

The English historian Smith calls India an "ethnographic museum," and for good reason. India is a museum of cults, customs, faiths, cultures, religions, languages, racial types and differences. From time immemorial, peoples belonging to different races (Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Turks, etc.) came to India. There are many ethnic groups living in India, all of them have their own traditions, customs and languages. There is a huge variety of religious denominations in India. This includes world religions - Buddhism, Islam, Christianity; local religions - Sikhism, Jainism and many others. The most widespread religion in India is Hinduism, it is practiced by the majority of the Indian population.

Indian culture and history is one of the oldest on earth. According to some historians, Indian history is not inferior in antiquity to the histories of Egypt and Sumer. The Harappan civilization in the Indus Valley arose around 2500 BC. and lasted for about a millennium, that is, until 1500 BC. Most of the main cities of this civilization were located along the banks of the Indus. The first large-scale studies of it began in 1921. This civilization was named after the name of the first large city found. The second most famous and largest city of the Indus civilization was Mahenjo-Daro (Hill of the Dead).

The ethnic composition of the population of the Indus Valley and its roots are still a mystery. The Harappan culture was urban, and all cities were built according to a single plan. The Indians of that era were active in trade with other countries, were engaged in crafts, agriculture and cattle breeding. They had a written language, which, unfortunately, has not been deciphered, so this culture is studied from archaeological finds. The reasons for the decline of this civilization are still not clearly defined, but most likely it is associated with natural disasters. The last centers of Harappan culture may have fallen at the hands of the Aryans, who came to India around 1500 BC.

The Aryans are nomadic tribes who invaded India from the northwest, through the Khyber Pass. Literary monuments (Vedas) are practically the only source of our knowledge about this period, while archaeological data are very scarce. The ancient Aryans did not have a written language, and the Vedic texts were passed from mouth to mouth, later they were written down in Sanskrit. The period of the first Aryan settlements, which is studied according to the Vedas, is called the Vedic period. A characteristic feature of the Vedic era is the dominance of religion and ritual cults in the life of society. Many elements from the Vedic religion entered Hinduism. It was during this period that there was a division of society into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Vedic era lasted until the VI century. BC, before the formation of the first states in the Ganges valley.

6th century - an era of change. During this period, in addition to the appearance of the first states, new religions appeared, the main ones being Jainism and Buddhism. Buddhist and Jain texts have not only sacred value, but also historical value, since we mainly draw information about the states of that era from them. According to Buddhist sources, at that time there were 16 states that were constantly at war with each other. By the 4th century BC. there has been a tendency towards unification, the number of states has decreased, but political fragmentation has not yet been overcome. The existing political instability in the country made India an easy prey for Alexander the Great, who invaded its territory in 326 BC. The great conqueror did not go far inland, he was forced to leave the country before reaching the Ganges valley. He left some garrisons in India, which later assimilated with the local population.

Magadha-Maurian era (IV century BC - I century). After the departure of Alexander the Great, the rulers realized the need for unification, and the ruler of the state of Magadha, Chandragupta Maurya (317 BC), the founder of the Maurya dynasty, became the leader of the association. The capital of Magadha was the city of Pataliputra. The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Ashoka (268 - 231 BC). He became famous as a distributor of Buddhism, the policy of his state in many aspects was also based on the religious and ethical norms of Buddhism. In 180 BC The Mauryan dynasty was overthrown by the Shung dynasty. It was a weak dynasty, and the once great Mauryan state collapsed.

Until the 4th century in. power was divided between clans and tribes. In 320, a new Gupta dynasty was founded (IV - VI centuries), under their rule a vast empire was created. The era of the Guptas is the heyday, the "golden age" of the culture of Ancient India. Literature and architecture enjoyed the greatest patronage. In the VI century. The Gupta empire was on the verge of collapse and fell under the onslaught of nomadic tribes (Huns) invading Indian territory.

After the fall of the Gupta state, political fragmentation began in the country. The first who, after the Guptas, tried to unite the country within a single state was Harsha (Harshavardhan), he ascended the throne in 606 and ruled until 646. It is from him that the beginning of the medieval history of India is considered to be. The capital of the state of Harsha was Kanauj. He was an educator. He patronized literature and science, favorably treated Buddhism. Harsha did not have strong successors, immediately after his death his state collapsed, and a period of political disintegration again followed. In the conditions of feudal fragmentation, the Indian rulers were unable to repulse the new threat - the Muslim conquests.

Arabs were the first Muslims to enter India. The Arabs began their campaigns of conquest after the death of Muhammad (632). By the 8th century, the turn came to India. In their conquests, the Arabs limited themselves to the territory of Sindh. Their main conquests were associated with the name of Muhammad ibn Qasim (712). Their campaigns were predatory, and the Arabs did not make any fundamental changes in the administration of India, but for the first time they organized Muslim settlements in India with a system of government different from the traditional Indian one.

The next conqueror was Mahmud of Ghaznevid. Ghazna is a principality in Afghanistan. He made his first campaign in 1000, and took up the tradition of going to India every year. He made his last campaign in 1027. Gradually, Ghazna lost its political influence, and its rulers ceded power to another Afghan principality, Gur. The rulers of Gur also could not ignore India, and these campaigns were led by Muhammad Guri. He made his first campaign in 1175, and the last in 1205. Muhammad Guri, as a governor in India, left his commander Kutb-ud-din Aibek, who soon began to rule as an independent ruler, and it is with him that the era of the Delhi Sultanate begins ( 1206-1526).

There were four dynasties in the Delhi Sultanate: Ghulams (1206-1287), Khilji (1290-1320), Tughlaks (1320-1414), Sayyids (1414-1451), Lodi (1451-1526). ). The Sultans of Delhi no longer limited their military campaigns to the northwest of the country, but conducted them throughout India. The main goal of their domestic policy was conquest, the administrative system of the Sultans of Delhi was fragmented and poorly controlled. During the period of the Delhi Sultanate, India was attacked by the Mongols and invaded by Timur (1398-1399). In 1470, the Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited India. But he did not visit the Delhi Sultanate, but one of the states on the Deccan - the state of the Bahmanids. The history of the Delhi Sultanate ended in the Battle of Panipat in 1526, when Babur won a victory over the ruler from the Lodi dynasty. He became the founder of the Mughal Empire: Babur (1526-1530), Humayun (1530-1556), Akbar (1556-1605), Jahangir (1605-1627), Shah Jahan (1627-1658) .), Aurangzeb (1658-1707), Late Mughals (1707-1858). This era is full of events in both foreign and domestic policy of India. The military strategy of Babur, the reforms of Akbar, the great buildings of Shah Jahan, the intransigence of Aurangzeb glorified the Muslim rulers of India far beyond its borders.

The new history of India is the era of the Europeans. The first to open the way to India were the Portuguese. Vasco da Gama reached the shores of India in 1498. They settled on the western coast of the country (Goa-Diu). Their power has always been limited to the coastline, they did not go inland. Gradually, they gave way to the Dutch, who began their activities in 1595. Another contender for Indian trading possessions was the French, who came to India in 1664.

The history of the English East India Company dates back to 1600. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 is considered to be the starting point for the conquest of India by the British, when the English commander Robert Clive defeated the ruler of Bengal, Siraj-ud-doula. The establishment of British rule in India was completed by 1856. India became the "pearl" of the British colonial possessions. It was both a raw material base and a sales market for the UK.

The Indians were not ready to put up with their situation, uprisings broke out in the country (the Great Sepoy Uprising (1857 - 1859), a national liberation movement was organized. Leaders of the independence movement such as: Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Vinayaka Damodar Savarkar held different views on the path to liberation.The great thinker of the 20th century, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi), believed that the path to freedom lies through "ahimsa" (non-violence).He propagated that boycotts and inaction are much more effective than forceful and armed methods of struggle.

On February 20, 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Richard Attlee announced the readiness of the British Government to grant India full independence by June 1948 at the latest. After negotiations with all interested parties and a number of agreements, the Governor General of India, Louis Mountbatten, presented a plan for the division of British India into two independent states: Muslim and Hindu. Based on this plan, the British Parliament drafted and passed the Indian Independence Act, which received royal assent on July 18, 1947. At midnight on August 14/15, 1947, India became an independent state.

August 15, 1947 - Indian Independence Day The first prime minister of India was Jawaharlal Nehru. The division of India, carried out on a religious basis, was accompanied by numerous victims. Those regions where the majority of the population were Muslims went to Pakistan, and the rest to India. Kashmir is still a disputed territory.

According to the Constitution adopted in 1950, India is a sovereign federal secular democratic republic. Until the 1990s power in the country belonged to the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Nehru Gandhi clan. Since the 1990s India lived under a coalition government. In the 2014 parliamentary elections, the Indian People's Party (BJP) won a decisive victory, and Narendra Modi was elected to the post of prime minister.

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History of India, Indus Valley Civilization
Until the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that the history of Ancient India begins with the arrival of warlike nomads from the northwest - Aryan tribes, carriers of archaic Vedic culture, and what was before them - only primitive primitive tribes, whose history is covered in darkness

In 3 thousand BC, the so-called Harappan civilization was formed in the Indus Valley - named after the modern name of the settlement on the left bank of the river. Dig in the Punjab, where one of the largest cities of this civilization was once located.

The second known large city of this civilization - Mahenjo-Daro - is located on the right bank of the Indus, about 400 km. from its mouth. In Kalibangan, near the border of India with Pakistan, at the mouth of the ancient Saraswati (now almost dry), another city was found belonging to this civilization. A large number of smaller towns and settlements are also known. In general, the Harappan civilization occupied a vast territory even by modern standards - about 1,500 km long from north to south.

Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa arose presumably in the middle of 3 thousand BC. and existed at least in the 2nd millennium BC. Obviously, even then these cities maintained contact with the civilizations of Mesopotamia. The Harappan civilization was most likely theocratic, i.e. ruled by priests.
Both cities were built according to a similar plan - a citadel with battlements and public buildings inside, around which the city was located, covering an area of ​​\u200b\u200bmore than a square kilometer. Completely straight streets divided the city into quarters. The construction material for buildings was usually fired brick of extremely high quality.
Houses with a height of 2 floors were also built according to the same plan - around a rectangular courtyard, a suite of rooms. The entrance to the house was usually not from the street, but from the alley; all windows overlooked the courtyard.
The houses had rooms for ablutions - a kind of "bath" with a system of drainpipes leading into the city sewer. City sewer pipes ran under the streets and were covered with special brick slabs.
In Mohenjo-Daro, one of the oldest swimming pools in the world, about 11 X 7 m in size, was opened.
In Harappa, north of the citadel, a large granary measuring 45 x 60 m was found. Studies show that the main crops of the Harappan civilization were wheat and barley. Buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, donkeys, and various domestic animals have already been tamed.

To the surprise of archaeologists, none of the structures in Mahenjo-Daro and Harappi could be identified as.
There was already a written language, most likely of a pictographic nature, with about 270 characters. Many of these signs are displayed on seals found during excavations. Unfortunately, despite all attempts, the writing of the Harappan civilization has not yet been deciphered.
Around 1500 BC, a powerful earthquake occurs that destroys many cities of the Harappan civilization, and all after that invaders from the west invade the Indus Valley, who finally destroyed this culture. There is still no established opinion whether these were already Aryan, or earlier conquerors.

ARIA

There are numerous theories about the origin of the Aryans. Trying to summarize the most reasonable of them, we can say that around 2000 BC, somewhere on the territory of modern Ukraine, barbarian tribes lived: rather tall, fair-skinned people. They were perhaps the first in the world to tame horses and harness them to light, high-speed wagons with spokes. These tribes were mainly engaged in cattle breeding and some agriculture.
At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, for some reason (overpopulation??) these tribes set in motion and subsequently settled vast territories from Ireland in the west to India in the east. They conquered local peoples and mixed with them, forming the ruling elite.
The penetration of the Aryans was not a one-time action, but a process that stretched over hundreds of years. This period in the history of India is called Aryan or Vedic. It was during this era that the greatest monuments of Indian and world culture were created - the poetic epics "" and "Ramayana". (However, there are opinions that these ancient epics were created much earlier - about 6000 thousand years BC, that is, when the Aryans still lived in their ancestral home).
The Aryans did not create an urban civilization, the economic basis of their existence was pastoralism and agriculture, and cattle occupied a very important place in the economy. also had exceptionally great importance in the life of the Aryans, but was used mainly for military purposes.
It is in the Vedic era that the main estates () are formed. , which was the basic unit of Aryan society - strictly patriarchal - monogamous and indissoluble. Numerous finds during the excavation of dice testified to the passion of the Aryans for gambling. They also loved intoxicating drinks (soma and sura).
The material culture of the Aryans reached a high development. They mastered the art of working bronze, made weapons and tools from it (it should be noted that ancient copper mines were found in the alleged ancestral home of the Aryans).

LATE VEDIC PERIOD

Between the invasion of the Aryans in the Indus Valley and the Age of Buddha, about 5 centuries passed. During this time, the Aryans moved further east down the Ganges, their culture adapted and changed to local conditions. It is in the east that new kingdoms arise, which later played a significant role in Indian history. Many researchers believe that the "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" reflect the events that took place during this period. However, there are still too many mysteries here - and it is still impossible to finally confirm or date anything.

THE AGE OF BUDDHA. MAGADHO-MAURIAN STATE.

In the era which later came to be called the era of the Buddha, the center of Indian civilization is moving eastward. Here four kingdoms arise and flourish: Koshala, Magadha, Vatsa and Avanti, eclipsing the ancient country of Kuru in Punjab both economically and politically. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC, one of them - Magadha - managed to create, in fact, the first Indian empire, the possessions of which included the entire basin and almost all of Northern India, with the exception of Rajasthan, Sindh and Punjab.
Around 326, Alexander the Great, after conquering the Persian empire of the Achaemenids and marching into Bactria, overcomes the Hindu Kush and invades India. Alexander's troops cross the Indus and enter the Punjab. Alexander defeats the troops of the Punjab king Por and begins an offensive inland, but under the threat of a rebellion in his troops, he is forced to turn back.
After the death of Alexander to one of Alexander's commanders, Seleucus Nicator again invades India in 305 BC, however, apparently, he is defeated by the emperor of the Magadho-Maury state of Chandraguta.

Around 269 BC. Ashoka becomes the emperor - later, one of the greatest rulers of India. According to Buddhist sources, Ashoka illegally seized the throne, killed all possible rivals and began to rule as a tyrant, but eight years after ascending the throne, the king morally and spiritually became a completely different person and began to pursue a new policy. He abandoned the usual territorial expansion, the internal expansion was significantly softened. He forbade animal sacrifice, even replaced the traditional pastimes of Indian kings - hunting - with pilgrimages to Buddhist shrines.
According to the son (brother?) of Ashoka - Mahendra (Mahinda), Sri Lanka was converted to.
Emperor Ashoka died about 232 BC, apparently having already lost power by this time. Ashoka's heirs ruled India for about 50 years.

THE AGE OF INVASIONS

In 183 BC. Pushyamitra Shunga, one of the commanders of the last Mauryan king Brihadrahti, seized power as a result of a palace coup. The new king returns to the old Hindu. There is a gradual "erosion" of the Mauryan kingdom - many principalities are moving away from it and becoming independent.
At this time, on the northwestern borders of India, as a result of the collapse of the Seleucid empire, independent Hellenistic states of Bactria and Parthia were formed. The Bactrian Greeks begin their expansion into northwestern India. They take over most of the Indus and Punjab valleys and raid far into the Ganges valley. Subsequently, this Greek state in northwestern India breaks up into tiny Greco-Bactrian kingdoms.
In the 2nd c. BC hordes of nomads from Central Asia (known from Chinese sources under the name of the Yuezhi) moved west, crowding the Scythians. The Scythians, under pressure from the north, attacked Bactria and captured it, and subsequently, pressed by the same nomads, defeated Parthia and the Greek kingdoms of northwestern India. The power of the Scythians (Saks, Shaks) spread to Mathura itself. The earliest known to us the king of the Scythians, who ruled in India, is Maues (80 BC?).

In the 1st century AD Kunjuly Kadziva from the Yuezhi Kushan tribe concentrated power over Bactria in his hands, and then he would be able to capture northwestern India as well. One of his followers, Kanishka, manages to concentrate in his hands power over a significant part of Central Asia and northwestern India (up to). Under Kanishka, Buddhism began to penetrate Central Asia and the Far East.
Kanishka's successors ruled northwestern India until the middle of the 3rd century, when King Vasudeva was defeated by Shapur I, a representative of the new Iranian Sassanid dynasty. The North falls under Iranian influence.
In the 1st century BC - 4th c. AD, on the Deccan Peninsula, several new kingdoms (, the kingdom of the Satavahans) appeared, which existed for several hundred years.
In the south of India in Tamil Nadu during this period there are several Tamil states. Good navigators, Tamils ​​invade about. Lanka and for some time capture its northern part. The Tamils ​​had close trade relations with Egypt and the Roman Empire.

THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS

In 320 AD in the history of India appears Chandra Gupta, whose descendants largely restored the power of the Mauryan Empire.
Under his successor, Samudragupta (c. 335-376), a great empire is again established in India, stretching from Assam to the borders of the Punjab. The Shaks (descendants of the Scythians) who ruled northwestern India manage to shake the Gup empire, but in 338 Chandra Gupta II finally defeats the Shaks.
At the end of the reign of Kumaragupta I (415-454), northwestern India was again invaded by northern nomads, known from Byzantine sources under the name of the Huns.
His son Scanlagupta (circa 455-467) succeeded in restoring the empire.
At the end of the 5th c. the Huns again moved to India and, starting from 500, Western India was in the hands of the Hunnic kings. In 530, Narasinkhgupta drove out the Huns, but by 550, the Gupta empire ceased to exist.
As a result of Harsha (606-647) from the lateral branch of the Gupta dynasty, he regains control over a large part of the empire from Gujarat to Bengal.
After the death of Harsha, a great turmoil begins. - the incessant alternation of strife between local dynasties. In 812, the Arabs captured Sindh.
In 986, the emir from the city of Hansa in Afghanistan, Sabuktigin, launched the first raid on northwestern India. From 997, his son Mahmud began to make systematic campaigns against the rich Indian kingdoms.
The alliance of Indian kings, organized to repulse Mahmud, was defeated in 1001 near Peshawar. By 1027, Mahmud annexed to his state all the northwestern regions and the Punjab, along with the Arab state of Sindh.

THE ERA OF THE MUGHOLS

The dynasty of Mahmud in Afghanistan was supplanted by a new dynasty, one of its representatives, known as Muhammad Ghuri, continued the conquest of the Hindu states. His commander Qutb ud-din Aibak occupied Delhi, another commander Muhammad ibn-Bakhtiyar moved down the Ganges and devastated, then, almost without resistance, occupied Bengal. Starting from the beginning of the 13th century. and up to the 18th century. Muslim conquerors dominated northern India. In 1206, Muhammad ibn-Bakhtiyar was killed and the first Sultan of Delhi was his commander Qutb-ud-Din, a freedman slave. It was Qutb-un-Din that laid the foundation for the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526). During the existence of the Delhi Sultanate, several dynasties have changed: Gulams (1206-1290), Khilji (1290-1320), Tughlaka (1320-1413), Sayyids (1414-1451), Lodi (1451-1526). During the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq, almost all of India was conquered, with the exception of the South and Kashmir.
In 1398, the Delhi Sultanate was attacked by the invasion of Timur, the ruler of Samarkand. The Sultanate began to disintegrate into separate parts, by the end of the 16th century. it included only Delhi with its immediate environs.
In the 15-16 centuries. in South India there was a Hindu Vijayanagara empire and a Muslim empire of the Bahmanids.
In 1498, the Portuguese first appeared off the coast of India and began to gain a foothold on its western coast.
At the beginning of the 16th century on the ruins of the Delhi Sultanate, a new powerful empire begins to take shape, the founder of which was Babur, a native of Central Asia. In 1526 he invaded India. In the battle of Panipat, he divided the troops of Ibrahim Lodi and took the throne of Delhi. Thus was founded the state of the Great Moguls.
Initially, the Mughal empire was limited to the interfluve of the Ganges and Jamna, but already under Babur's grandson Akbar (1556-1505), all of Northern and Afghanistan was conquered.
During the reign of Akbar's son Jahangir (1605-1627), the first English ambassador arrived in India.
Akbar's grandson Shahjahan (reigned 1628-1658) moved the capital from Delhi to Agra.
The last of the great Moghuls, the son of Shahjakhan Aurangzeb (1658-1707) ascended the throne, imprisoning his father in the Red Fort of the city. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire collapsed.

COMING OF EUROPEANS

Vasco da Gama, the first European Muscovite to reach India by way, landed in the area of ​​the modern city in 1498.
In 1600, the English East India Company was founded. Her first ship arrived in India in 1608.
In 1613, the company, by decree of Emperor Jahangir, received the right to trade.
In 1640, on the East coast of India, in the area of ​​​​the modern city of Madras, the Fort of St. George was founded by the Company.
In 1668, on the West Coast of India for 10 pounds, the Company purchased the island and revised its policy towards India. In 1858, the East India Company was liquidated, and India became a possession (colony) of the British Empire.
British colonial domination continued until 1947. Resistance to British dominance has always existed, and since the 1920s it has gained real scope. In 1947, Britain was forced to make a decision to grant independence to India. According to this law, two dominions are created in place of British India - India and Pakistan. Pakistan included the predominantly Muslim western and eastern regions of India. Later (in 1971), the eastern regions separated from Pakistan and a state was proclaimed here.

INDEPENDENT INDIA

Indian civilization is one of the most ancient on the planet. The religious and ethical teachings and works of art created here are distinguished by their extraordinary beauty and originality. At the same time, the political history of India, full of incredible turns and events, is of great interest.

ancient india

Harappan civilization (3000-1500 BC)

About 5000 years ago, the Harappan civilization arose in the Indus Valley in what is now Punjab. Scientists believe that ethnically the Harappans belong to the Dravidian peoples who still inhabit the south of India. There were suggestions that the first civilization in India was created by settlers from Sumer or Aryan tribes. But recent archaeological research suggests that, apparently, the Harappans were the indigenous inhabitants of this region, and their culture was quite original.

Around 2500 B.C. e. the "golden age" of the Harappan civilization began. Large cities with thoughtful and clear layouts were built here. In the two largest cities - Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, according to some estimates, from 30 to 100 thousand inhabitants could live at a time. The houses of the townspeople were different, depending on the wealth of the owners. The poor lived in small one-room buildings, while the houses of the rich could be real multi-story palaces. Each courtyard had its own well, and archaeologists also discovered the remains of a sewer system in the Harappan cities.

Artifacts found in the Indus Valley indicate that the Harappans were a peaceful people. They preferred trade and crafts to conquests. Excavations of the city of Lothala showed that the locals were talented seafarers. The city was both a port and a center of crafts and trade. There were entire streets, consisting of workshops where they made dishes, jewelry and fabrics. From Lothala, boats loaded with goods were sent to northeast Africa and Western Asia. Archaeologists have found many tablets and ceramics with inscriptions that testify to the existence of writing already at that time. But, unfortunately, scientists have not yet been able to decipher the language of the Harappans.

The main occupations of the Harappans, like most peoples of the Bronze Age, were agriculture and cattle breeding. They were familiar with many agricultural crops. Complex irrigation systems were created to irrigate the fields. The Harrapians also managed to tame sheep, goats, cows, cats, dogs and elephants.

Religious ideas of the inhabitants of the Harappan civilization are still little studied. Apparently, their religion already contained some elements of the future Hinduism. Archaeological finds allow us to conclude that the cult of the mother goddess was popular among the Harappans, and mythological subjects borrowed from the Sumerian-Akkadian religion were also widespread.

Around 1500 B.C. e. Harappan cities began to decline. Crafts become more crude and primitive, public buildings and palaces fall into disrepair, sewerage and irrigation systems are destroyed. Scientists express a number of hypotheses explaining the barbarization of the Harappan culture: soil salinization, changes in the course of the Indus, floods and droughts. Shortly after the final decline of the Harappan civilization, new tribes came to these lands.

Aryan conquest of India. Vedic civilization (1500 - 500 BC)

Approximately in the XII-VII centuries BC. e. Aryan conquerors came to the territory of modern India. Modern science can already answer the question, where was the ancestral home of the Aryans. Once upon a time, Indians and Iranians were one people. Their ancestors lived in the region of Central Asia - in the Caspian steppes, Western Siberia, on the territory of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. Most likely, the Indo-Aryans moved from there to Hindustan in several migration waves. The newcomers settled in the north of the peninsula, while the Harappans and other local tribes were forced to move south. However, in many regions, settlers and natives coexisted peacefully, adopting each other's culture and traditions.

Indo-Aryan culture is often also called Vedic, since the main cultural asset of this civilization is the Vedas - sacred scriptures that set out the foundations of Hinduism. The most famous Veda is the Rig Veda, dating back to the 11th-10th centuries BC. e. Thanks to the Rigveda, scientists were able to learn a lot about the philosophical and religious picture of the world of the Indo-Aryans and get an idea of ​​the social structure, life and main occupations of the local population. The Indo-Aryans were polytheists. Their pantheon included:

• Indra - thunderer and warrior;
• Varuna - the god of heavenly bodies and the legislator;
• Vishnu is the god of the sun;
• Agni is the god of fire;
• Soma is the deity of the intoxicating drink of immortality;

In addition, the Indo-Aryans believed in the existence of many evil and good small spirits.

Vedic culture dates back to the Iron Age. Thanks to iron tools, the Indo-Aryans were able to explore the rugged areas of Hindustan, cultivate the soil efficiently and achieve a high level in many crafts.

Unlike the Harrapians, where the basis of social organization was popular meetings, among the Indo-Aryans the king played a key role, whose person the subjects deified. From Iran, the ancient Indians borrowed the varno-caste system, which developed here precisely in the Vedic era.

Buddhist (Magadh-Maurian) period (V - II centuries BC)

Revolutionary in the history of India was the era of the Mauryan dynasty. These powerful rulers:

• created a united state with a developed infrastructure on the Hindustan Peninsula;
• contributed to the flourishing of local culture, the spread of writing, the deepening of scientific knowledge;
• did a lot to develop trade.

During this period, Buddhism spread in India and such religious teachings as Vishnuism and Shaivism appeared.

In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. the Ganges valley became a battlefield between many small states. Each of them sought to establish their influence in the region. Gradually began the rise of Magadha - a strong and rich kingdom located in the northeast of modern India, with its capital in Pataliputra. In the course of a stubborn struggle, the kings of Magadha managed to crush most of their political opponents.

The northwestern regions of India in the VI century. BC e. became part of the Achaemenid Empire, who ruled in Persia. In the IV century. BC e. the state of the Achaemenids fell under the onslaught of the troops of Alexander the Great. After the victory, the Macedonian ruler immediately advanced to India. However, the tired army demanded that Alexander return home. Alexander the Great was forced to turn around before reaching Magadha.

In 322 BC. e. Chandragupta, a representative of the new Mauryan dynasty, becomes the king of Magadha. In order to get the throne, Chandragupta had to fight not only with the kings of the former dynasty - the Nandas, but also with the Greek garrisons left in India by Alexander the Great. The Mauryan kings managed to unite under their rule all the principalities of northern India and maintained close ties with Egypt and the Seleucid Empire. The Mauryan Empire stretched from the Himalayas to the central part of Hindustan.

The Mauryas did a lot to spread Buddhism on the peninsula, managed to strengthen the vertical of power and created a complex bureaucratic system. Thanks to the appearance of the coin, credit and banking and trade began to develop in the country.

The end of the Mauryan Empire was the conspiracy of Pushyamirta Shunga (185 BC), after which a new dynasty came to power.

Classic period (IV-V centuries)

Even under the last Mauryas, the empire began to gradually collapse. The new dynasty - the Shungs - had to face the disobedience of the petty Indian princelings, as well as the Greek and Iranian conquerors.

In the 1st century n. e. The mighty Kushan Empire arose on the territory of Central Asia. The Kushan kings managed to subjugate the lands that were once part of the Mauryan state and some Greek colonies. In the III century. The Kushan Empire fell and a period of fragmentation began in India. Magadha again became the center of the revival of a united India. In 320, the Gupta dynasty was strengthened on the royal throne of Magadha. Their reign is considered a "golden age" in Indian history. The Guptas were talented warriors and managed to create the largest empire in terms of area in the Ancient East.

However, in the middle of the 5th century, the Gupta Empire faced a serious opponent - the Iranian-speaking Ephtalite tribes. The aliens occupied almost all of northern India. The later Guptas only managed to maintain control over Magadha.

Middle Ages and Modern Times

The Hephthalites stayed briefly in India. Some of them left, and some assimilated and adopted the culture of the local population. India again plunged into strife and feudal fragmentation. Some principalities for a time towered over others, but literally after a few years they fell into decay. In this chaos, a system of seignioral-vassal relations arose, similar to the European one. Serious changes in the region began in the 11th century, when India began to be subjected to raids by Islamic conquerors. Mired in internecine wars, the Indian princes could not resist the new threat and were forced to submit.

Islamic period

The Turkic conquerors who professed Islam were also very heterogeneous and often competed with each other. In 1206, the Delhi Sultanate arose in India, which quickly became the leader in the region. The local and Muslim nobility preferred to submit to the Delhi rulers, since news of the aggressive campaigns of Genghis Khan had already come from Central Asia. In the XIII century, the Mongols invaded Northern India more than once, each time leaving many victims and destruction.

The sultans pursued a policy of Islamization. According to their decrees, many Hindu temples were destroyed, and mosques were erected in their place. Due to additional taxes imposed on the “infidels”, a certain decline in crafts and trade is noted during this period. Rajas and maharajas from among ethnic Indians could retain their possessions only on condition of complete submission to the sultan, providing him with their military detachments and paying tribute.

In the XIV century, the Delhi Sultanate began to weaken. Its final fall occurred at the end of the same century after the invasion of India by Tamerlane. In 1526, one of Tamerlane's descendants, Babur, was forced to flee Central Asia. Babur, together with his army, invaded Northern India and soon subjugated it, thereby laying the foundation for the Mughal Empire.

The descendants of Babur understood that in order to maintain stability within the empire, they needed support in the person of the local nobility. Therefore, they stopped the destruction of Hindu shrines and began to accept Hindus into the bureaucratic corps. The Great Mughals were talented conquerors and wise rulers who did a lot to develop the economy and culture.

However, by the 17th century, the empire was greatly weakened. This was due to many factors:

• the beginning of the European invasion of India;
• internecine wars between heirs to the throne;
• the actions of the Hindu nobility, determined to overthrow the power of foreigners;
• peasant unrest;
• performances of the Sikhs (the people in northern India who fought for independence).

The final fall of the Mughal Empire took place in 1858, when the British troops captured Delhi and captured the last Mughal ruler.

Europeans in India

For Europeans, India was a rich and attractive land. The European nobility was willing to pay huge sums of money for Indian spices, fabrics and jewelry. The struggle for India began in the 16th century, when the first Portuguese colony appeared on Hindustan. Soon rivalry for Indian wealth and domestic markets unfolded between Portugal, Spain, France, England and the Netherlands.

Europeans, with the help of money or a military threat, lured local nobles to their side, trying to enlist their support. In the middle of the 18th century, France became the most active player in the region, starting the creation of its colonial empire here. Her plans were thwarted by the British. During the conflict, both sides used detachments of sepoys - Indian soldiers who fought under the banner of European powers. The result of the Anglo-French war was the victory of the British, who began the immediate development of India.

To strengthen their power in the occupied territories, the British concluded agreements with the Indian principalities, according to which they had to give up independent foreign policy and a huge part of taxes in exchange for military assistance. Since the British exported from India everything of even minimal value, the principalities were rapidly impoverished and were forced to completely renounce their sovereignty.

Huge taxes, the decline of many crafts, enslaving conditions for renting land led to the impoverishment of the population, the irretrievable death of many crafts and mass starvation. Unlike the previous conquerors, the British were not going to assimilate and adopt local ways. All resources were simply pumped out of India. Moreover, if the Indian feudal lords, interested in a constant influx of taxes, tried not to oppress the landowners too much, then the British were absolutely not worried about the standard of living of the population. Therefore, colonial India was much poorer than feudal India. In the 19th century, the colonialists tried to create bourgeois relations and a developed industry in India. In some cities, such as Bombay, this has been successful. But due to the preservation of feudal vestiges, the Indian economy could not develop fully.

The local population tried more than once to oppose the colonialists. The most famous such attempt was the sepoy uprising of 1857-59. However, the rebels failed because:

• the leaders of the uprising were unable to present a united front;
• to know, who led the popular movement, was not ready to make concessions to the peasants;
• the British managed to lure most of the feudal lords to their side;
• the sepoy army was too weak for serious military operations;
• the rebels were unable to create a clear political program and put forward slogans suitable for the entire population.

But, despite the defeat of the rebels, the British administration was forced to make a number of concessions.

Although the colonialists brought the Indian people a lot of grief, they also contributed to the rallying of the Indians in the face of a common threat. In addition, the British built factories, railways and schools. Young people from wealthy families went to study abroad, bringing new knowledge and ideas from there. At the beginning of the 20th century, political parties and circles began to appear in India, promoting independence and freedom. Also, the revolutions in Russia, Germany and China had an impact on the internal situation of India.

Some of the most active public figures of that time were Mahatma Gandhi and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Their ideas became especially popular after the end of the First World War. Gandhi managed to establish contacts not only with the Hindus, but also with the Indian Muslims who started the caliphate movement. The movement of disobedience initiated by the intelligentsia in the early 1920s was also taken up by the peasants. The Indian National Congress, the country's first political party, was responsible for coordinating all actions.

At first, the British were ready to make concessions, but in the context of the aggravated international situation, the British administration took drastic measures, arresting Gandhi and his associates. India soon entered World War II as part of the British Empire.

Throughout the war, actions against the British continued. The situation was aggravated by the growth of mutual hatred between Hindus and Muslims. After the end of the war, the British authorities came to the conclusion that London was no longer able to hold Indian colonies. In order to prevent further religious and ethnic conflicts, it was decided to divide India into two parts - Muslim and Hindu. So in August 1947, two independent countries appeared on the world map at once - Pakistan and, in fact, India.

Independent India

Despite the division of the former British colonies, the conflict between Muslims and Hindus continued for many more years and led to several Indo-Pakistani wars. The border on both sides was flooded with refugees, with occasional regional clashes.

In 1948, Gandhi was assassinated and the government was headed by Jawaharlal Nehru. In the National Congress in the 1950s, the rivalry between the two political factions began. One advocated development along the Western capitalist path, while the other insisted on state management of the economy. As a result, the left opposition broke away from the National Congress and founded its own party.

Today, India's economy can be described as a mixed one. Thanks to the talented leaders of the country, such as Indira Gandhi, Lal Bahadur Shastri and Narasimha Rao, a number of successful economic reforms and many technological innovations have been introduced here. India even became a nuclear power in the 1970s. Today, due to the cheapness of manual labor and raw materials, there are branches of many large European and American industrial enterprises in India.

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The kings had various titles. The most common of them were maharaja, raja and sultan. You will learn more about the rulers of Ancient India, the Middle Ages and the colonial era from this article.

The meaning of titles

Maharaja in India is a great prince or to whom smaller rulers were subordinate. It is considered the highest title that was available to the rulers of these lands. Initially, it belonged to the ruler of a huge Indian kingdom that existed in the 2nd century and occupied most of the Hindustan peninsula, Sumatra, Malacca and several other islands. Also, this title was sometimes worn by smaller rulers. They could take it themselves or get it from the British colonizers.

Sultan - the supreme ruler during the Muslim rule in India. Hassan Bahman Shah was the first to wear it. He ruled the Bahmanid state from 1347 to 1358. Later, all representatives of the Muslim dynasties that owned the Delhi Sultanate, lands in northern India, had this title.

Raja - a title that was originally worn by representatives of dynasties that owned any territories. Later, they began to call all sovereign persons who had at least some kind of power that way. The ruler of India, who bore the title of raja, could only come from the highest castes - kshatriyas (warriors) or brahmins (priests).

Mauryan Empire

The state existed from about 317 to 180 BC. e. His education began after Alexander the Great left these lands, not wanting to help Chandragupta in the war with the kings who ruled the Nanda empire. However, he was able to expand his own state on his own without the intervention of the Greeks.

The highest flowering falls on the reign of Ashoka. He was one of the most powerful rulers in ancient India, who managed to subjugate vast territories inhabited by at least 40 million people. The empire ceased to exist half a century after the death of Ashoka. It was replaced by a state led by the newly formed Shunga dynasty.

Medieval India. Gupta dynasty

During this period, neither a strong centralized authority nor a unified empire existed. There were only a few dozen small states that were constantly at war with each other. At that time, the ruler in India bore the title of either Raja or Maharaja.

With the coming to power of the Gupta dynasty, a period began in the history of the country, which is called the "golden age", since at the imperial court Kalidas composed plays and poems, and the astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata managed to calculate the length of the equator, predicted solar and lunar eclipses, determined the value of "π and and also made many other discoveries. In the quiet of the palace, the philosopher Vasubandhu wrote his Buddhist treatises.

Representatives of the Gupta dynasty, who ruled in the 4th-6th centuries, were called Maharajas. Its founder was Sri Gupta, who belonged to the Vaishya caste. After his death, the empire was ruled by Samundragupta. His state stretched from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. At this time, a practice appeared associated with the donation of land, as well as the transfer of the rights of administration, tax collection and court to local rulers. This state of affairs entailed the formation of new centers of power.

Fall of the Gupta Empire

Endless feuds between numerous rulers weakened their states, so they were very often subjected to raids by foreign conquerors, who were attracted by the untold riches of these places.

In the 5th century, tribes of nomadic Huns came to the lands belonging to the Gupta dynasty. By the beginning of the VI century, they were able to capture the central and western parts of the country, but soon their troops were defeated, and they were forced to leave India. After that, the Gupta state did not last long. It collapsed by the end of the century.

Formation of a new empire

In the 7th century, many countries fell under the onslaught of the troops of one of the then rulers - Harshavardhana, the lord of Kanauj. In 606, he created an empire the size of which can be compared with the state of the Gupta dynasty. It is known that he was a playwright and poet, and under him Kanauj became the cultural capital. Documents of those times have been preserved, which say that this ruler of India introduced taxes that were not burdensome for people. Under him, a tradition appeared, according to which every five years he distributed generous gifts to his subordinates.

The state of Harshavardhana consisted of vassal principalities. After his death in 646, the empire immediately broke up into several Rajput principalities. At this time, the formation of the caste system was completed, which operates in India to this day. This era is characterized by the displacement of the Buddhist religion from the country and the widespread establishment of Hinduism.

Muslim rule

Medieval India in the 11th century was still bogged down in strife that constantly took place between numerous states. Taking advantage of the weakness of the local nobles, the Muslim ruler Mahmud Ganzevi invaded their territory.

In the XIII century, the entire northern part of India was conquered. Now the power belonged to Muslim rulers who bore the titles of sultans. Local rajahs lost their lands, and thousands of beautiful Indian temples were looted and then destroyed. Mosques were built in their place.

Mughal Empire

This state existed in 1526-1540 and 1555-1858. It occupied the entire territory of modern Pakistan, India and the southeastern part of Afghanistan. During all this time, the boundaries of the Mughal Empire, where the Baburid dynasty ruled, were constantly changing. This was facilitated by the wars of conquest waged by representatives of this dynasty.

It is known that Zahireddin Mohammed Babur became its founder. He came from the Barlas clan and was a descendant of Tamerlane. All members of the Baburid dynasty spoke two languages ​​- Persian and Turkic. These rulers of India have quite complex and varied titles. But they did have one similarity. This is the title "padishah", once borrowed from the Persian rulers.

Initially, the future ruler of India was the ruler of Andijan (modern Uzbekistan), which was part of the Timurid state, but he had to flee from this city under the onslaught of nomads - the Deshtikipchak Uzbeks. So, together with his army, consisting of representatives of various tribes and peoples, he ended up in Herat (Afghanistan). Then he moved to North India. In 1526, at the Battle of Panipat, Babur managed to defeat the army of Ibrahim Lodi, who was then the Sultan of Delhi. A year later, he again defeated the Rajput rulers, after which the territory of Northern India passed into his possession.

Babur's heir, the son of Humayun, could not hold power in his hands, so for more than 15 years, from 1540 to 1555, the Mughal Empire was in the hands of representatives of the Afghan Surid dynasty.

Titles of rulers in colonial India

Since 1858, when the British Empire established its dominion in the Hindustan Peninsula, the British had to replace all local rulers who were not satisfied with the presence of conquerors on their land. So new rulers appeared who received titles directly from the colonialists.

Such was the ruler of Shinde from the province of Gwalior. He received the title of Maharaja when he went over to the side of the British during the famous sepoy uprising. Bhagavat Singh, who lived in the province of Gondal, received the same title for his services to the invaders in honor of the coronation of Emperor George V. The ruler of the lands in Baroda, Sayajirao III, became a Maharaja after the previous one was removed for embezzlement.

Interestingly, not only native Indians could bear this title. There were also so-called white rajahs, for example, representatives of the English Brooke dynasty. They ruled the small state of Sarawak for about a hundred years, starting in the middle of the 19th century. It was not until India gained independence and became a republic in 1947 that all titles of rulers were officially abolished.