CSE QUESTIONS
1. The concept of worldview
mythological
religious
philosophical
Scientific
3. Definition of science
4. Features and properties of science
● objectivity
● validity
● infinity
● versatility
● formality
● consistency
5.Functions:
1) cognitive and explanatory
2) ideological
3) production
Goals
Tasks :
:
7. Levels of scientific knowledge
1) empirical
2) theoretical
Structure of the scientific method
.
Essence of pseudoscience
D) Lack of laws
Negative manifestations and dangers of technology
They are related to two aspects: A) Environmentally significant consequences B) Consequences in the sphere of human activities
18. Different understandings of the time of the birth of science
Science as a system of knowledge (ancient civilizations)
Science as religiously proven knowledge (VI-VII century BC Ancient Greece)
Science as practical knowledge (New time, XVII-XVIII centuries)
Science as an institution of society (XIX century)
Science as the leading form of social progress (XX century)
Prerequisites for the rationalization of the worldview in Ancient Greece
➢ Faith and myths are being replaced by attempts to give a rationale.
➢ The task is to explain the phenomenon of the human soul.
➢ There are philosophical attempts to find the beginning of the world and its substance.
➢ There is a demythologization of the surrounding world, nature and space.
Achievements of ancient Greek science
1) Science as theoretical and evidence-based knowledge
2) The basic principles of mathematics, astronomy and mechanics are laid
3) Development of theoretical methods of scientific knowledge
Basic principles of quantum mechanics
one). Bohr's principle of complementarity. (both corpuscular and wave properties are used to describe the objects of the microworld) 2). Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. A micro-object either has a certain position or has energy. (Related to principle 1) 3.) Probable interpretation of De Broglie (elementary particles are in a certain place with a certain probability.) (there is no fixed place). 4). Corpuscular-wave dualism of matter. (In the microcosm, micro-objects can manifest themselves as particles and as waves) Postulate of absorption and emission by quanta Pauli's principle - 2 or more electrons cannot be in the same quantum state. Therefore, there cannot be more than 2 electrons in one atomic orbit.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. according to the principle, it is impossible to know the exact position and exact speed of an object at the same time, because every object in the universe behaves both as a particle and as a wave. micro-objects have either a place or a definite energy. It is impossible to simultaneously accurately determine the location of the particle and its momentum (the more precisely the coordinate of the particle is determined, the more uncertain its momentum becomes and vice versa).
physical vacuum
physical vacuum is a special environment that forms the space of the universe, not containing real particles and energy. It is a set of all kinds of virtual particles and antiparticles, which in the absence of external fields can turn into real ones. It is not directly observed, but the manifestation of its properties is recorded in experiments. The role of the fundamental material basis of the world. Physical vacuum is such a continuous medium in which there are no particles of matter, no field, but only disappearing and appearing virtual particles.
General provisions of the Big Bang theory
According to modern concepts, the Universe we are currently observing arose 13.7 ± 0.13 billion years ago from some initial “singular” state and has been continuously expanding and cooling since then. According to the known limitations on the applicability of modern physical theories, the earliest moment that can be described is the moment of the Planck epoch with a temperature of about 1032 K (Planck temperature) and a density of about 1093 g/cm³ (Planck density). The early universe was a highly homogeneous and isotropic medium with unusually high energy density, temperature, and pressure. As a result of expansion and cooling, phase transitions occurred in the Universe similar to the condensation of a liquid from a gas, but in relation to elementary particles. Approximately 10−35 seconds after the onset of the Planck epoch (Planck time is 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang, at which time the gravitational force separated from the rest of the fundamental interactions), the phase transition caused the exponential expansion of the Universe. This period is called Cosmic Inflation. After the end of this period, the building material of the Universe was quark-gluon plasma. As time passed, the temperature dropped to values at which the next phase transition, called baryogenesis, became possible. At this stage, quarks and gluons coalesced into baryons, such as protons and neutrons. At the same time, an asymmetric formation of both matter, which prevailed, and antimatter, which mutually annihilated, turning into radiation, took place simultaneously. A further drop in temperature led to the next phase transition - the formation of physical forces and elementary particles in their modern form. After that, the era of nucleosynthesis began, in which protons, combining with neutrons, formed the nuclei of deuterium, helium-4, and several other light isotopes. After a further drop in temperature and the expansion of the universe, the next transitional moment occurred, at which gravity became the dominant force. 380 thousand years after the Big Bang, the temperature dropped so much that the existence of hydrogen atoms became possible (before that, the processes of ionization and recombination of protons with electrons were in equilibrium). After the era of recombination, matter became transparent to radiation, which, freely propagating in space, reached us in the form of relic radiation.
Strong Anthropic Principle
However, even this seemed to some scientists not enough to explain the observed suitability of our Universe for life, as a result of which a strong anthropic principle was formulated: the Universe must be arranged so that intelligent life could arise in it. In this version of it, the principle goes beyond the weak anthropic principle and states that the origin of life in the Universe is not only possible (weak principle), but actually inevitable. Supporters of this view of things justify their point of view by the fact that there is a certain universal (and still not open) law, according to which all fundamental universal constants simply cannot differ from those that we have in objective reality. The extreme point of view in this cosmogonic tradition goes so far that not only are universal constants predetermined, but the development of a conscious mind in the universe is inevitable.
POLIT THEORY SUMMARY
1.Weber (Politics as a profession and vocation)
2. Political consciousness (definition) and ideologies
3. Electoral system
4. state (according to Heywood): small, hollow, social democratic. totalitarian. collectivized
5. Types of desks. System
6. Social movements
7. Interest groups - definitions, types (Heywood)
CSE QUESTIONS
1. The concept of worldview
Worldview - a picture of the world, a system of theories, ideas, principles, values, ideals that characterize a person's attitude to the world around him, society and himself.
2. Basic types of worldview
mythological- figurative knowledge, passed down from generation to generation, forms a single attitude towards the world.
religious- belief in supernatural power; dissemination of their knowledge through a special source. Difference from myths - orderliness, the existence of symbols and canons of faith
philosophical- rational knowledge based on the mind, the sphere of knowledge of which is the internal state of a person.
Scientific- based on rational knowledge, the most important component of which is the mind
3. Definition of science
1) as a system of reliable knowledge expressed in the form of theories
2) as a spiritual activity; cognitive activity aimed at obtaining practically confirmed knowledge
3) as a social institution; a system of organizations of institutions that develop the dissemination and preservation of knowledge
4. Features and properties of science
● objectivity
● validity
● infinity
● versatility
● formality
● consistency
5.Functions:
1) cognitive and explanatory(science is engaged in the production and reproduction of knowledge, which ultimately takes the form of a hypothesis or theory that describes, explains, systematizes the acquired knowledge, contributing to the prediction of further development, which allows a person to navigate the natural and social world)
2) ideological(not being a worldview itself, science fills the worldview with objective knowledge about nature and society and thereby contributes to the formation of the human personality as a subject of cognition and activity)
3) production(science becomes a direct productive force, participating in the creation of production at a modern level, while at the same time taking root in other spheres of society.)
4) social (educational)(science develops methods and forms of education, forms an education strategy based on the developments of psychology, anthropology, pedagogy, didactics, and other sciences)
Goals : obtaining knowledge about the objective and subjective world, comprehension of objective truth
Tasks :
1) collection, description, analysis, generalization and explanation of facts
2) discovery of the laws of motion of nature, society, thinking and cognition
3) systematization of the acquired knowledge
4) explanation of the essence of phenomena and processes
5) forecasting events, phenomena and processes
6) establishment of directions and forms of practical use of acquired knowledge
6.Prerequisites for the emergence of science
Neolithic revolution → rationalization of forms of activity and communication → division of labor and development of spiritual culture → the emergence of writing → the path from myth to logos.
The prerequisites for the emergence of science were formed in the process of resolving a number of contradictions:
● between myth and abstract knowledge
● between conflicting myths
● between rational knowledge and the practical need to expand this knowledge
In addition, there is such a prerequisite as the idea of rational justification of knowledge, which is the most important condition for the emergence of science.
7. Levels of scientific knowledge
1) empirical
aimed directly at the study of its object
Purpose: study of scientific factors and identification of empirical patterns
Methods: observation, experiment, description, comparison, change
2) theoretical
is aimed at comprehending the essence of the studied phenomena
Purpose: identification of laws, hypotheses, theories
Methods: analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, analogy, idealization
8.Classification of scientific methods
Usually methods are divided into empirical and theoretical in accordance with the two main levels of scientific knowledge.
Observation, Induction, Experiment, Deduction, Measurement, Analysis, Comparison, Synthesis, Formalization, Modeling, Axiomotization, Mathematical hypothesis
Structure of the scientific method
The scientific method is a way of organizing the means of cognition to achieve scientific truth, a system of regulatory principles of cognitive activity.
The structure of the method contains three independent aspects:
● conceptual (ideas about one of the possible forms of the object under study)
● operational (prescriptions, norms, rules, principles governing the cognitive activity of the subject)
● logical (rules for fixing the results of interaction between an object and means of cognition)
Essence of pseudoscience
Pseudoscience is a socio-psychological phenomenon that, without performing functions in society related to obtaining reliable and practically effective knowledge, claims the status and authority of science.
It differs from science, firstly, by the content of its knowledge, and, secondly, by its structure, which is characterized by fragmentation and non-integration.
Distinctive features of pseudoscience
A) Uncritical analysis of the source data
B) Neglect of contradictory facts
C) Immutability of views, despite any objections
D) Lack of laws
E) Violation of generally accepted ethical standards
12. Social functions of pseudoscience
The functions partly coincide with the functions of science itself (cognitive-explanatory, worldview, prognostic), but pseudoscientific knowledge changes the nature of their execution.
The problem of determining the scientific nature of a theory arises because a number of theories that arise on the border of scientific knowledge can turn out to be both scientific and pseudoscientific.
Pseudoscience differs from science in the first place, content of his knowledge.
The statements of pseudoscience do not agree with the established facts, do not stand up to objective practical verification.
The effectiveness of astrological forecasts has been tested many times, and the result has always been negative. Everyone can be convinced of this at an elementary level. It is only important to follow the correct sequence: at first write down the most important events of your own or someone else's life, referring each to a certain category (health, personal life, money, work) and evaluating it with a plus or minus sign, and already then compare with the horoscope for this period. Astrologers are indifferent to the negative results of such tests, because, as mentioned above, in fact, an accurate prediction of the future is not the goal of this pseudoscience.
Second, pseudoscience is different from science structure of his knowledge.
Pseudo-scientific knowledge is fragmentary and does not fit into any integral picture of the world.
The scientific picture of the world is harmonious. Not a single brick can be arbitrarily added to it, and not a single brick can be taken out of it without seriously rebuilding the whole building. In this regard, scientific work can be compared with solving an endless crossword puzzle, in which each word is checked by intersection with several known ones, and pseudoscientific activity can be compared with entering a word only on the basis that it consists of the required number of letters.
The contradictions between scientific and pseudoscientific ideas are considered by pseudoscientists as evidence of the falsity of the "old" science, and not its individual provisions, but all at once. Often, an “iron” argument is used: how many times in the history of science has a new theory canceled an old one! The weakness of this argument is that, in reality, new scientific theories do not so much abolish as expand old ones ( conformity principle, see Section 2.5.3). Einstein did not cancel Newtonian mechanics, but showed that it fair only at speeds of motion much less than the speed of light (section 2.5.2). Darwinism did not cancel the system of classification of organisms proposed by C. Linnaeus, an opponent of the doctrine of the variability of species, but showed that it reflects the history of the natural development of the biosphere.
Thus, it is possible to distinguish pseudoscientific knowledge from scientific knowledge in terms of its content and structure, but this is not always easy, since it requires extensive and deep knowledge. It is easier to distinguish a pseudoscientist by the methodology.
The pseudosciences are characterized by the following methods of obtaining, testing and disseminating knowledge:
1) Uncritical analysis of source data. Legends, myths, third-hand stories, etc. are accepted as reliable facts.
2) Disregard for conflicting facts.Interest is shown only in material that can be interpreted in favor provable concept, everything else is simply not considered.
3) The immutability of views in spite of any objections. Real scientists are not shy about admitting they are wrong (see, for example, the story of Einstein and Friedman in Section 5.1.1). Do not hesitate because there is confidence in the scientific method knowledge, which guarantees the elimination of errors.
4) Lack of laws. It is not a concept that is presented, but a story or scenario according to which, according to the author, certain events took place. So, in Ufology, the most unacceptable element is not the stories about meetings with aliens themselves, but the lack of proper understanding of them. Who are these aliens? Where are they from? If from other stars, then how did they overcome the technological and environmental difficulties of organizing interstellar travel, which, as we already understand, are of a fundamental nature? The answers to these and other similar questions, if given, are inconclusive and pale in comparison with the detailed descriptions of the circumstances of the UFO landing. It is very characteristic that none of the ufologists has yet succeeded predict the date and place of the appearance of the next flying saucer is a sure sign of the absence of positive knowledge.
5) Violation of generally accepted ethical standards. This applies most of all to deviant science. To manipulate the results of experiments, to adjust solutions to a given answer, means not only to give incorrect information (no one is guaranteed against mistakes), but to act immorally. To understand the pseudoscientific nature of the theories of the largest pseudoscientist of the 20th century, Academician T. D. Lysenko and his associates, who for several decades occupied commanding heights in domestic biology and agricultural sciences, it is not necessary to be a professional biologist. It was enough to see with what methods they dealt with those whom they considered their opponents. If a person who introduces himself as a scientist calls his opponent a scoundrel and a pest, if his argument in a scientific dispute is a denunciation or a complaint to administrative authorities, then it is better not to believe his scientific results.
Other varieties of pseudoscience are also flawed in moral and ethical terms. Deception and fraud, the unscrupulous exploitation of the peculiarities of human psychology, are almost always revealed when pseudoscientific claims are subjected to thorough verification. Unfortunately, such thorough checks do not happen very often - serious people are reluctant to be distracted from their affairs, and pseudoscientists themselves usually achieve not so much a thorough analysis of their activities by competent professionals, but the favor of the authorities and popularity with the general public.
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As long as the Svidomo dog \u200b\u200bkrev nurtures everyday fascism and jumps into the abyss, let's return to our sheep and continue to throw rotten offal of pseudoscientific nonsense on the fan.
Ah yes clean karma, Dear Comrades!
In parallel with science, many doctrines developed, ostensibly based on scientific methodology, but in reality only imitating a professional approach. They often offer simple solutions to problems that require special training to study seriously, are uncritical about their own theories, and rely too much on random coincidences. "Theories and Practices" compiled a list of the most famous pseudosciences - from phrenology to socionics - and remembered why they failed to earn the trust of scientists.
Astrology
Predicting the future, guided by the movements of the planets and stars, began in antiquity - the first evidence of attempts to find out the future is found in the Sumerian-Babylonian myths, where celestial bodies are identified with gods. Greek astrology took over the idea of a "divine" stellar entity and developed it into the forms we are familiar with. The most significant phenomenon of astrology today is horoscopes, which are compiled on the basis of the individual influence of the planets for 12 signs of the zodiac.
With modern scientific methodology, the methodology of astronomy is incompatible, which has been repeatedly proven by scientists. Textbook examples of evidence are the debunking of Michel Gauquelin's statistical hypothesis, called the "Mars effect", and Bertram Forer's experiment called the "Barnum Effect". Gauquelin discovered the relationship between the birth of champion athletes and the phases of Mars, and for a long time insisted on the veracity of the results of his research, until he was convicted of juggling the original statistics. In turn, Forer proved the failure of astrology with the help of a social experiment: giving students a test to determine the specific traits of their personality, he promised to provide on its basis an individual psychological portrait of each, but instead distributed a uniform description based on the principle of a horoscope to everyone. Most of the students highly appreciated their "personalized" description and were satisfied with the professor's efforts.
However, despite numerous arguments in favor of recognizing astrology as a pseudoscience, horoscopes continue to be updated daily, some people continue to believe in the existence of the mythical planet Nibiru, which is capable of destroying the Earth, and the "Flat Earth Society" (according to the postulates of which Antarctica is just an ice wall encircling the world , and photographs of the Earth from space are fakes) have not yet disintegrated, so that astrology, while remaining a pseudoscience in certain circles, is generally flourishing.
Phrenology
Pseudoscience, which became widespread at the beginning of the 19th century thanks to the research of the Austrian physician and anatomist F.J. Gall, who established a connection between the mental portrait of a person and the physical characteristics that the skull possesses. Gall believed that any internal changes in the brain, especially changes in the volume of its hemispheres, provoke visible changes in the corresponding parts of the skull, in connection with which one can judge the development or underdevelopment of a person and the presence of certain skills, abilities and personal characteristics.
Moviegoers are familiar with phrenology thanks to Quentin Tarantino's film Django Unchained, where the slave owner Candy is fond of comparing the skulls of representatives of different races. Such a detail is historically determined - many slave owners of America really became interested in phrenology in the 19th century and put cruel experiments on their slaves. The debunking of phrenology took place along with the development of neurophysiology, which scientifically proved that the features of the psyche do not depend on the relief of the brain, and even more so on the structure of the skull.
Homeopathy
A pseudo-medical direction in science that calls for the use of special homeopathic medicines to prevent the development of diseases in the future. The founder of the direction is the German doctor Christian Hahnemann, who at the end of the 18th century developed a whole system of homeopathic treatment (he also put forward the so-called “coffee theory of diseases”, according to which almost all diseases known to people are provoked exclusively by the use of coffee). Homeopathy is based on the principle “like is treated with like”, which is contrary to modern rational pharmacotherapeutic medicine, therefore, in homeopathy, in fact, a drug in homeopathy is a catalyst for the development of a mild form of the disease from which the patient is going to be treated. All allegedly active drugs are diluted at least twelve times in concentration and, according to the scientific community, are no different from placebo - a substance that does not contain medicinal properties. At least most studies have not confirmed the effectiveness of homeopathic medicines.
Parapsychology
Parapsychology studies such supernatural phenomena as telepathy, telekinesis, clairvoyance, teleportation and suggestion. This parascience is trying to convince the public that it is possible to move in time and space, and people endowed with special talents can predict the future, as well as control those around them with the power of thought. Calling to believe in astral duality, near-death experiences and reincarnation, parapsychologists conduct many experiments and experiments to prove that superhuman possibilities exist.
Telepathy, for example, was for some time explained by scientists using the "wave theory", which reported the presence of special waves that, when captured by a person, could cause him a certain image, similar to the image that arose in another person, but this theory does not was proven and found to be invalid. In the 1930s, a dice player was investigated for superpowers and claimed to be able to use his mind to stack dice to show the correct amount, but more than 650,000 rolls of the dice disproved his claim, establishing that the coincidences were coincidental. Failed to establish the triumph of anomalous abilities and Uri Geller, known for his ability to change the physical form of material objects at a distance. He was completely convicted of pre-treating his fingers with a special chemical compound, which allowed him to bend the spoons only by touching them.
For 40 years, the scientist Ian Stevenson tried to study reincarnation, who studied 3,000 cases of alleged rebirth, comparing moles and birth defects of children and the dead, who had moles and scars in the same places. He failed to scientifically prove the fact of reincarnation. In the same way, not a single extraordinary phenomenon has yet been scientifically proven, and the constant emergence of information about new phenomena of parapsychology is only due to the fact that a certain percentage of the world's population still has not lost faith in paranormal phenomena.
Ufology
Parascience, mainly studying UFOs, as well as recorded facts and upcoming opportunities for the inhabitants of the Earth to communicate with aliens and aliens, poltergeists and ghosts. The main subject of study of ufology is paleocontacts - contacts of beings of extraterrestrial origin with earthlings and even their visits to our planet in the past. As proof of the viability of the theory of paleocontact, ufologists cite signs left by aliens on the ground - crop circles, unidentified floating objects and other very dubious artifacts. As a science, ufology was born only in the 1940s, when the first evidence of "flying saucers" moving at supersonic speeds began to arrive. At first, such statements were taken seriously even by the heads of many states, who immediately created special secret projects to study the phenomenon. In the USA - the Sayn project and the Blue Book project, in Britain - Room 801, in France - GEPAN. However, over the years of research, it has not been possible to confirm the main fear of ufologists that the Earth is under the supervision of other creatures.
Numerology
Parascientific teaching about the mystical meaning of numbers and their impact on people's lives. Numerology was given impetus to the birth many centuries ago thanks to the Hebrew alphabet, in which letters were used, among other things, to write numbers, which is why they had their own numerical values. The philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras, who discovered the relationship between numbers and notes, is considered the founder of the main provisions of numerology. After his discovery, he established the GDZ in Grade 6 Mathematics, any object and any phenomenon of reality can be expressed in numbers.
In numerology, any multi-digit number can be reduced to a single-digit number with its own characteristics by adding its components.
Letters also have an individual numerical equivalent, so numerology willingly reveals the "secrets of names" to everyone. The number makes it possible to unravel the strengths and weaknesses of a person under its influence, predict the future and describe the patterns of his life. The multiple number of numerological tables and the presence of various tactics for adding numbers does not allow us to come to a single interpretation of numbers, which is always emphasized by opponents of the spread of numerology. Another weighty argument of those who doubt this parascience is connected with female surnames. If yesterday the girl was, for example, "Belousova Anna Alekseevna" and the number of her fate was considered the number "13", and today she married a Spaniard and became, say, "Mares Anna Alekseevna", then the number of her fate is no longer "13 ", and "1".
Cryptozoology and cryptobotany
Related disciplines involved in the search for animals and plants known to us only from legends, myths and eyewitness accounts, as well as the search for animals and plants that, according to scientists, are considered extinct. Cryptozoologists are not limited to finding dinosaurs, dragons and unicorns, they are also looking for creatures from more modern legends - Bigfoot and the Loch Ness Monster. Scientists themselves involved in cryptozoology or cryptobotany recognize it as pseudoscience, but still consider it a useful discipline and continue to search for lake demons (ogopogo) and vampire goats (chupacabra).
Palmistry
An unscientific method of establishing the relationship between the lines in the palm of a person and his fate. Palmistry examines the skin relief of the palms, especially papillary lines - it is believed that each of the lines is responsible for some direction in a person's life, and by studying its pattern, one can predict the success of a person's fate in a particular area. The patterns on the palms, the shape of the palm and fingers make it possible to understand the inner world: the thumb and the line extending from it is the line of life, the line of the heart corresponds to the index finger, the line of fate to the middle finger, the line of happiness to the ring finger. Additional lines, such as the marriage line and the line of offspring, can determine the success of the marriage and the number of children.
However, in numerous handbooks on palmistry, the same signs on the palms are explained in different ways, and for predictions it is proposed to use either the left or the right palm, the patterns on which are most often contradictory. Palmistry is not recognized as a science in most countries, but in some it is still considered a serious occupation: for example, palmistry is taught at the National Indian University today, and in Canada there is a “National Academy of Palmistry”. In contrast to palmistry, science is actively developing, seriously studying the skin of the palms and making it possible to determine the predisposition to hereditary diseases - dermatoglyphics.
Socionics
Pseudoscience, built on the basis of Jung's teachings on typology and archetypes, offering the opportunity, on the basis of a certain test methodology, to identify for each person his personal so-called type of "information metabolism" - the process of exchanging individual signals with the outside world - and classify it as one of the 16 described in detail sociotypes. Socionics as a separate doctrine arose in the 1970s thanks to the efforts of the Lithuanian economist and psychologist Aushura Augustinavichute. The key parameters for determining the type of informational metabolism are "sensation", "thinking", "intuition", "feeling" (in the physical sense of the word), "introversion" and "extroversion": in different combinations they form different socionic personality types. According to the results of the socionic test (it exists in several versions from different authors), each person is conditionally identified with one of 16 characters named after famous people and literary heroes (for example, Don Quixote, Dumas, Stirlitz or Napoleon) and gets the opportunity to find out about their compatibility with other sociotypes.
Socionics is known mainly in the post-Soviet space and is not considered an official science - it has neither a general scientific theory nor fixed uniform research methods. It has also been criticized for being too speculative and lacking empirical evidence. In addition, the concept was strongly discredited by crowds of enthusiasts who immediately took to determine the socionic types of unfamiliar, already dead people and even entire countries - while the founders of socionics emphasized that they did not pretend to create a universal psychological classification for all occasions.
Physiognomy
An alternative direction in science, trying to prove the connection between the external appearance of a person and his character and spiritual qualities. Physiognomy tries to "read" the face, the structural features of the body, the meaning of gestures, postures and the general bodily impression that a person makes, as well as to determine the level of a person's intelligence solely by his appearance and demeanor. In the eastern countries, physiognomy was not separated from medicine and began to develop even before our era, calling for studying a person based on the principle of “five peaks”: forehead, nose, chin, cheekbones. In European culture, science also found support, for example GDZ Physics Grade 7, Charles Darwin supported the development of physiognomy, believing that by studying the work of an individual's muscles, one can understand what his main personal inclinations are. Based on the shape of the face, hairline, location and shapes of natural facial openings and other reliefs on the face, based on the basics of physiognomy, you can create for yourself a basic portrait of the inner world of a person.
The modern scientific community does not believe in the amazing possibilities of physiognomy, especially after studies of twins were carried out, which, despite their external identity, often have diametrically opposed characters.
folk history
Predominantly Russian direction of pseudo-history, engaged in redrawing historical realities, most often with the aim of publishing mass-oriented books. Alternative history gravitates towards fiction and falsifications while apparently retaining a scientific form. The author of a work of folk history pretends to open a new story to the reader, but in reality he just juggles the facts and, breaking logical connections, creates a “new story” that runs counter to established events.
Folk history began to develop actively in Russia in the years after the collapse of the USSR, when a single communist ideology ceased to dominate history. Lev Gumilyov is considered the forerunner of the trend, who, offering readers his theory of passionate ethnogenesis, also put forward a very specific "author's" version of history. .
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Pseudoscience
In human culture, in addition to science, there is pseudoscience or pseudoscience. Pseudosciences include, for example, astrology, alchemy, ufology, parapsychology. The mass consciousness either does not see the difference between science and pseudoscience, or sees, but with great interest and sympathy, perceives pseudoscientists who, according to them, experience persecution and oppression from the ossified "official" science. A cultured person needs to have an idea of the true value of pseudoscience, its historical, psychological and social roots and characteristics.
Pseudoscience- a socio-psychological phenomenon that, performing functions in society that are not related to obtaining reliable and practically effective knowledge, claims the status and authority of science.
The popularity of pseudosciences indicates that their existence is due to serious social and psychological reasons.
Pseudoscience differs from science, firstly, by the content of its knowledge. The statements of pseudoscience do not agree with the established facts, do not stand up to objective practical verification.
The effectiveness of astrological forecasts has been tested many times, and the result has always been negative. Everyone can be convinced of this at an elementary level. It is only important to follow the correct sequence: first write down the most important events of your own or someone else's life, referring each to a certain category (health, personal life, money, work) and evaluating it with a plus or minus sign, and only then compare it with a horoscope for this period. Astrologers are indifferent to the negative results of such tests, because, as mentioned above, in fact, an accurate prediction of the future is not the goal of this pseudoscience.
Second, pseudoscience differs from science in the structure of its knowledge. Pseudo-scientific knowledge is fragmentary and does not fit into any integral picture of the world.
It is possible to distinguish pseudoscientific knowledge from scientific knowledge in terms of its content and structure, but this is not always easy, since it requires extensive and deep knowledge. It is easier to distinguish a pseudoscientist by the methodology he uses.
The pseudosciences are characterized by the following methods of obtaining, testing and disseminating knowledge.
1. Uncritical analysis of initial data. Legends, myths, third-hand stories, etc. are accepted as reliable facts.
2. Neglect of contradictory facts. Interest is shown only to the material that can be interpreted in favor of the concept being proved, everything else is simply not considered.
3. Immutability of views, despite any objections. Real scientists don't hesitate to admit they're wrong. They are not shy because there is confidence in the scientific method of cognition, which guarantees the elimination of errors.
4. Lack of laws. It is not a concept that is presented, but a story or scenario according to which, according to the author, certain events took place. So, in Ufology, the most unacceptable element is not the stories about meetings with aliens themselves, but the lack of proper understanding of them. Who are these aliens? Where are they from? If from other stars, then how did they overcome the technological and environmental difficulties of organizing interstellar travel, which, as we already understand, are of a fundamental nature? The answers to these and other similar questions, if given, are inconclusive and pale in comparison with the detailed descriptions of the circumstances of the UFO landing. It is very characteristic that none of the ufologists has yet been able to predict the date and place of the appearance of the next flying saucer - a sure sign of the lack of positive knowledge.
5. Violation of generally accepted ethical standards. This applies most of all to deviant science. To manipulate the results of experiments, to adjust solutions to a given answer, means not only to give incorrect information (no one is guaranteed against mistakes), but to act immorally. To understand the pseudoscientific nature of the theories of the greatest pseudoscientist
20th century Academician T.D. Lysenko and his associates, who for several decades occupied commanding heights in domestic biology and agricultural sciences, do not have to be a professional biologist. It was enough to see with what methods they dealt with those whom they considered their opponents. If a person who introduces himself as a scientist calls his opponent a scoundrel and a pest, if his argument in a scientific dispute is a denunciation or a complaint to administrative authorities, then it is better not to believe his scientific results.
Other varieties of pseudoscience are also flawed in moral and ethical terms. Deception and fraud, unscrupulous exploitation of the peculiarities of human psychology are almost always revealed when pseudoscientific claims are subjected to thorough verification. Unfortunately, such thorough checks do not happen very often - serious people are reluctant to be distracted from their affairs, and pseudoscientists themselves usually achieve not so much a thorough analysis of their activities by competent professionals, but the favor of the authorities and popularity with the general public.
| Table of contents |
|---|
| The system of natural sciences and the natural-scientific picture of the world. |
| Didactic plan |
| Foreword |
| Thematic review |
| Basic natural sciences |
| The scientific method of knowing nature |
| Elements of the scientific method of cognition |
| Pseudoscience |
| Fundamental and applied sciences. Technology |
| Scientific knowledge in the Ancient East |
| The emergence of science in ancient Greece |
| ancient science |
| Mathematical program of Pythagoras - Plato |
| Atomistic program of Leucippus and Democritus |
| Aristotle's continuum program |
| The development of science in the Hellenistic era |
| Scientific knowledge in the Middle Ages |
| The main features of the medieval worldview and science |
| The Renaissance: a revolution in worldview and science |
| The discoveries of Copernicus and Bruno - the foundation of the first scientific revolution |
| Galileo Galilei and his role in the development of classical science |
| The further course of the scientific revolution |
| Isaac Newton and the completion of the scientific revolution |
