In the ancient world, the sciences of nature were called in Greek physis, hence the modern name of the fundamental natural science - physics. Physis was understood as a person's knowledge of the world around him. In Europe, scientific knowledge was called natural philosophy because they were formed in an era when philosophy was considered the main science; in 19th century Germany. Natural philosophy was the name given to all the natural sciences in general.

In the modern world, natural science is understood as either: a) a unified science of nature as a whole; b) the totality of the sciences of nature. In any case, the subject of study of natural science is nature, understood as the world around man, including man himself.

The natural sciences are physics, chemistry, biology, cosmology, astronomy, geography, geology, psychology (not completely) and the so-called joint sciences - astrophysics, biophysics, biochemistry, etc. and applied sciences - geography, geochemistry, paleontology, etc.

Initially, natural science was faced with the task of knowing the surrounding world and its objective laws. In ancient times, mathematics and philosophy dealt with this, later - mathematics, chemistry and physics, and after the division of scientific knowledge into narrower sciences - all of the above and narrower of those not listed.

Relatively speaking, natural science was called upon to solve a number of mysteries or so-called eternal questions: about the origin of the world and man, about the levels of the structure of the world, about the transformation of the dead into the living and, conversely, about the vector of the direction of time, about the possibility of ultra-long travel in space, etc. At each stage of the development of knowledge, it turned out that the tasks were solved only partially. And each new stage of knowledge brought the solution closer, but he could not solve the problems.

In modern natural science, a set of tasks is understood as the knowledge of the objective laws of nature and the promotion of their practical use in the interests of man, while the practical value of the knowledge gained is a decisive factor that determines funding issues: promising branches of science receive good funding, unpromising ones develop more slowly due to poor funding .

2. The relationship of natural sciences

All phenomena in the world are connected with each other, therefore, close ties between the sciences of nature are natural. Any living and non-living object of the surrounding world can be described mathematically (size, weight, volume, the ratio between these categories), physically (the properties of the substance, liquid, gas of which it consists), chemically (the properties of the chemical processes occurring in it and the reactions of the substance of the object ) etc.

In other words, the objects of the surrounding world, whether they are living or inanimate, obey the laws of the existence of this world discovered by man - physical, mathematical, chemical, biological, etc. For a long time, there was a simplified view of complex living objects and phenomena, they tried apply the same laws that exist in inanimate nature, since scientists could understand and describe the processes in living organisms only from a mechanistic point of view.

It was a simplified, though quite scientific view for that time; we call him reduction.

In modern scientific knowledge, on the contrary, there is a different approach - holistic or holistic. In complex objects and phenomena, all the laws of nature known to man operate, but they do not act separately, but in synthesis, therefore it makes no sense to consider them in isolation from each other. reduction approach determined the application of the analytical method, that is, it assumed the decomposition of a complex object into the smallest components, holistic involves the study of an object as a set of all its components, which requires studying at a much more complex level of all existing relationships. It turned out that even for the study of inanimate matter it is not enough to rely on the known laws of physics and chemistry, but it is required to create new theories that consider such objects from a new point of view. Known laws were not repealed as a result, and new theories opened up new horizons of knowledge and contributed to the birth of new branches of the natural sciences (for example, quantum physics).

3. Division of natural sciences into fundamental and applied

Natural sciences can be divided into fundamental and applied. Applied Science solve a certain social order, that is, their existence is aimed at fulfilling a task from society that is in demand at a given stage of its development. Basic sciences they do not fulfill any order, they are busy obtaining knowledge about the world, since obtaining such knowledge is their direct duty.

They are called fundamental because they are the foundation on which applied sciences and scientific and technical research (or technologies) are built. In society, there is always a skeptical attitude towards fundamental research, and this is understandable: they do not bring the necessary dividends immediately, as they are ahead of the development of the applied sciences existing in society, and this “usefulness” lag is usually expressed in decades, and sometimes even centuries. The discovery by Kepler of the laws of the relationship between the orbit of cosmic bodies and their mass did not bring any benefit to modern science, but with the development of astronomy, and then space research, it became relevant.

Fundamental discoveries over time become the basis for the creation of new sciences or branches of existing sciences and contribute to the scientific and technological progress of mankind. Applied sciences are strongly associated with the progress of such knowledge, they cause the rapid development of new technologies.

Under technologies in the narrow sense, it is customary to understand the totality of knowledge about the methods and means of carrying out production processes, as well as the technological processes themselves, in which a qualitative change in the processed object occurs; in a broad sense, these are methods of achieving the goals set by society, determined by the state of knowledge and social efficiency.

In everyday life, technologies are understood as technical devices (an even narrower sense of the word). But in any sense, technology is backed by the applied sciences, and the applied sciences are backed by the fundamental sciences. And it is possible to build a three-level scheme of interconnections: fundamental sciences will occupy the commanding heights, applied sciences will rise one floor below, technologies that cannot exist without sciences will be at the bottom.

4. Natural science and humanitarian culture

The original knowledge of the world was not divided into natural science and art; in Greece, natural philosophy studied the world in a complex, without trying to separate the material from the spiritual or the spiritual from the material. This process of splitting knowledge into two parts took place in medieval Europe (albeit slowly) and reached its peak in the modern era, when the social revolutions that took place led to industrial revolutions and the value of scientific knowledge increased, since it and only it contributed to progress.

Spiritual culture (art, literature, religion, morality, mythology) could not contribute to material progress. The technology funders weren't interested in it. Another reason was that the humanitarian culture was saturated with religion and did not help the development of natural science knowledge (rather hindered). Rapidly developing, the natural sciences very quickly began to isolate within themselves more and more new branches, becoming independent sciences. Philosophy was the only bond that prevented them from disintegrating into isolated and self-contained sciences.

Philosophy was a science of the humanities by definition, but basic to the natural disciplines. Over time, there was less and less philosophy in the sciences and more and more calculations and applied elements. If in the Middle Ages the laws of the universe were studied with a global goal - to know the world order given to people by God, in order to improve a person for life in a world built by God, then at a later time the humanitarian component left the natural sciences, they engaged in the extraction of "pure" knowledge and the discovery "pure" laws, based on two principles: to answer the question "how it works" and give advice "how to use it for the progress of mankind."

There was a division of the thinking part of humanity into the humanities and scientists. Scientists began to despise the humanities for their inability to use the mathematical apparatus, and the humanists began to see scientists as "crackers" in whom there was nothing human left. The process reached its peak in the second half of the 20th century. But then it became clear that humanity entered an ecological crisis, and humanitarian knowledge is necessary as an element for the normal functioning of the natural sciences.

5. Stages of natural science knowledge of nature

The history of the development of scientific knowledge is a long and complex process that can be conditionally divided into several stages.

First stage covers the period from the birth of natural philosophy until the 15th century. During this period, scientific knowledge developed syncretically, that is, undifferentiated. Naturphilosophy represented the world as a whole, philosophy was the queen of sciences. The main methods of natural philosophy were observation and conjecture. Gradually, around the 13th century, highly specialized areas of knowledge began to emerge from natural philosophy - mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. By the 15th century. these areas of knowledge took shape in specific sciences.

Second phase - from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Analysis came to the fore in the methods of the sciences, an attempt to divide the world into ever smaller constituent parts and study them. The main problem of this time was the search for the ontological basis of the world, structured from primitive chaos. The ever finer division of the world into parts also caused a finer division of natural philosophy into separate sciences, and those into even smaller ones. (From a single philosophical alchemy, the science of chemistry was formed, which then diverged into inorganic and organic, physical and analytical, etc.)

At the second stage, a new method of science appeared - experiment. Knowledge was acquired mainly empirically, that is, experimentally. But attention was directed not to phenomena, but to objects (objects), due to which nature was perceived in static, and not in change.

Third stage covers the XIX-XX centuries. It was a period of rapid growth of scientific knowledge, rapid and short scientific progress. During this period, mankind has received more knowledge than in the entire history of the existence of science. This period is usually called synthetic, since the main principle of this time is synthesis.

From the end of the 20th century science has moved on integral-differential stage . This explains the emergence of universal theories that combine data from various sciences with a very strong humanitarian component. The main method is combination of synthesis and experiment.

6. Formation of a scientific picture of the world

The scientific view of the world, like science itself, has gone through several stages of development. At first dominated mechanistic picture of the world, guided by the rule: if there are physical laws in the world, then they can be applied to any subject of the world and any of its phenomena. There could be no accidents in this picture of the world, the world firmly stood on the principles of classical mechanics and obeyed the laws of classical mechanics.

The mechanistic view of the world took shape in the era of the presence of religious consciousness even among the scientists themselves: they found the basis of the world in God, the laws of mechanics were perceived as the laws of the Creator, the world was considered only as a macrocosm, movement - as a mechanical movement, all mechanical processes were due to the principle of complex determinism, which in science is understood as an exact and unambiguous definition of the state of any mechanical system.

The picture of the world in that era looked like a perfect and precise mechanism, like a clock. In this picture of the world there was no free will, there was fate, there was no freedom of choice, there was determinism. It was the world of Laplace.

This picture of the world has changed electromagnetic, which was based not on the macrocosm, but on the field and properties of the fields just discovered by man - magnetic, electric, gravitational. It was the world of Maxwell and Faraday. He was replaced picture of the quantum world, who considered the smallest components - the microworld with particle velocities close to the speed of light, and giant space objects - the megaworld with huge masses. This picture obeyed the relativistic theory. It was the world of Einstein, Heisenberg, Bohr. From the end of the 20th century a modern picture of the world appeared - informational, synergetic, built on the basis of self-organizing systems (both living and inanimate nature) and probability theory. This is the world of Stephen Hawking and Bill Gates, the world of space folds and artificial intelligence. Technology and information in this world are everything.

7. Global natural science revolutions

A distinctive feature of the development of natural science is that, having evolved for a long time within the framework of natural philosophy, then it developed through sharp revolutionary changes - natural science revolutions. They are characterized by the following features: 1) the debunking and discarding of old ideas that impede progress; 2) improvement of the technical base with the rapid expansion of knowledge about the world and the emergence of new ideas; 3) the emergence of new theories, concepts, principles, laws of science (which can explain facts that are inexplicable from the point of view of old theories) and their rapid recognition as fundamental. Revolutionary consequences can be produced both by the activity of one scientist, and the activity of a team of scientists or the whole society as a whole.

Revolutions in the natural sciences can refer to one of the three types:

1) global- affect not one particular phenomenon or area of ​​knowledge, but all our knowledge about the world as a whole, forming either new branches of science or new sciences, and sometimes completely turning society's idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe structure of the world and creating a different way of thinking and other guidelines;

2) local- affect one area of ​​knowledge, one fundamental science, where the fundamental idea is radically changed, turning the basic knowledge of this industry upside down, but at the same time not affecting not only the foundations, but also the facts in the neighboring field of knowledge (for example, Darwin's theory erased the axiom of biology about the immutability of the species of living beings, but did not affect physics, chemistry or mathematics in any way);

3) private- relate to individual unviable, but widespread theories and concepts in some field of knowledge - they collapse under the pressure of facts, but the old theories that do not conflict with new facts remain and develop fruitfully. From new ideas, not only a new theory can be born, but also a new branch of science. The fundamental idea in it does not reject old grounded theories, but creates one so revolutionary that it does not find a place next to the old ones and becomes the basis for a new scientific branch.

8. Cosmology and natural science revolutions

The demolition of the old vision of the world in natural science has always been closely connected with cosmological and astronomical knowledge. Cosmology, occupied with questions of the origin of the world and man in it, was based on existing myths and religious ideas of people. The sky in their worldview occupied a leading place, since all religions declared it the place where the gods live, and the visible stars were considered the incarnations of these gods. Cosmology and astronomy are still closely connected, although scientific knowledge got rid of the gods and ceased to consider space as their habitat.

The first human cosmological system was topocentric, that is, who considered the settlement to be the main place of origin of life, where the myth about the origin of life, man and some local god was born. The topocentric system placed the center of origin of life on the planet. The world was flat.

With the expansion of cultural and commercial ties, there were too many places and gods for a topocentric scheme to exist. Appeared geocentric system (Anaximander, Aristotle and Ptolemy), which considered the issue of the origin of life in a global, planetary volume and placed the Earth at the center of the system of planets known to man. As a result Aristotelian revolution the world became spherical, and the sun revolved around the earth.

Geocentric replaced heliocentric a system in which the Earth was assigned an ordinary place among other planets, and the sun, located in the center of the solar system, was declared the source of life. It was Copernican revolution. The ideas of Copernicus contributed to getting rid of the dogmatism of religion and the emergence of science in its modern form (classical mechanics, the scientific works of Kepler, Galileo, Newton).

A contemporary of Copernicus, J. Bruno, put forward an idea that was not appreciated in his time polycentrism- that is, the plurality of worlds. A few centuries later, this idea was embodied in the works of Einstein and relativistic theory (the theory of relativity), a cosmological model of a homogeneous and isotropic Universe and quantum physics appeared.

The world is on the verge of a new global revolution in the natural sciences, a theory must be born that links the general theory of relativity with the structure of matter.

9. Levels of scientific knowledge

Modern natural science operates on two levels of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical.

The empirical level of knowledge means experimental obtaining of factual material. Empirical knowledge includes sensory-visual methods and methods of cognition (systematic observation, comparison, analogy, etc.), which bring a lot of facts that require processing and systematization (generalization). At the stage of empirical knowledge, facts are recorded, described in detail and systematized. To obtain facts, experiments are carried out using recording instruments.

Although observation involves the use of a person with his five senses, scientists do not trust the direct feelings and sensations of a person and, for accuracy, use instruments that are incapable of error. But a person is still present as an observer, the objectivity of the empirical level is not able to turn off the subjective factor - the observer. Experiments are characterized by methods of checking and rechecking data.

The theoretical level of knowledge means processing empirical results and creating theories that can explain the data. It is at this level that the formulation of regularities and laws discovered by scientists takes place, and not just repeating sequences or disparate properties of some phenomena or objects. The task of a scientist is to find, explain and scientifically substantiate patterns in the material obtained empirically, and to create on this basis a clear and harmonious system of the world order. The theoretical level of knowledge has two varieties: abstract fundamental theories (lying aside from existing reality) and theories aimed at specific areas of practical knowledge.

Empirical and theoretical knowledge are connected with each other and one does not exist without the other: experiments are made based on existing theories; theories are built on the basis of the obtained experimental material. If it does not correspond to existing theories, then it is either inaccurate or a new theory needs to be created.

10. General scientific methods of cognition: analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, induction, deduction

General scientific methods of cognition include analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, induction, deduction, analogy, modeling, historical method, classification.

Analysis- mental or real decomposition of an object into its smallest parts. Synthesis - combining the elements studied as a result of the analysis into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis are used as complementary methods. At the heart of this way of knowing is the desire to disassemble something in order to understand why and how it works, and put it back together to make sure that it works precisely because it has a studied structure.

Generalization- the process of thinking, which consists in the transition from the individual to the whole, from the particular to the general (in the principles of formal logic: Kai is a man, all people are mortal, Kai is mortal).

Abstraction - the process of thinking, which consists in adding certain changes to the object under study or excluding from consideration some properties of objects that are not considered essential. Abstractions are things like

(in physics) a material point that has mass, but is devoid of other qualities, an infinite straight line (in mathematics), etc. Induction- the process of thinking, which consists in deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts. Induction can be complete or incomplete. Full induction provides for the observation of the entire set of objects, from which general conclusions follow, but in experiments it is used incomplete induction, which makes a conclusion about the totality of objects, based on the study of a part of the objects. Incomplete induction assumes that similar objects taken out of the brackets of the experiment have the same properties as those studied, and this allows using experimental data for theoretical justification. Incomplete induction is called scientific. Deduction- the process of thinking, which consists in conducting analytical reasoning from the general to the particular. Deduction is based on generalization, but carried out from some initial general provisions, which are considered indisputable, to a particular case in order to obtain a truly correct conclusion. The deductive method is most widely used in mathematics.

The science of Nature, that is, natural science, is traditionally divided into such more or less independent sections as physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology.

Physics deals not only with all kinds of material bodies, but with matter in general. Chemistry - with all kinds of so-called substantial matter, that is, with various substances, or substances. Biology - with all kinds of living organisms.

No scientific discipline is limited to collecting observable facts. The task of science is not only to describe, but to explain, and this is nothing more than finding dependencies that allow one set of phenomena, often very wide, to be derived on the basis of a theory from another, as a rule, narrower set of phenomena.

“Dialectical logic, in contrast to the old, purely formal logic,” says Engels, “does not content itself with enumerating and, without any connection, putting next to each other the forms of the movement of thinking ... It, on the contrary, derives these forms one from the other, establishes between them there is a relation of subordination, and not of coordination, it develops higher forms from lower ones.

The classification of sciences proposed by F. Engels met precisely these requirements. Having established the position according to which each form of the movement of matter corresponds to its own specific "form of the movement of thinking", that is, a branch of science, F. Engels found out that both between the forms of movement of matter, and between their reflection in the head of a person - branches of science, there are relationships of subordination. He expressed these relationships in the form of a hierarchy of natural sciences: Biology, Chemistry, Physics.

And in order to emphasize that this hierarchical connection between the natural sciences determines their unity, that is, the integrity of all natural science as one system, F. Engels resorted to such definitions of branches of natural science that indicate the origin of higher forms from lower ones, "one from the other" . He called physics the "mechanics of molecules", chemistry the "physics of atoms", and biology the "chemistry of proteins". At the same time, F. Engels noted that this kind of technique has nothing to do with a mechanistic attempt to reduce one form to another, that it is only a demonstration of a dialectical connection between different levels of both material organization and its cognition, and at the same time it is a demonstration jumps from one discrete level of scientific knowledge to another and the qualitative differences between these levels.

However, one should keep in mind the conditional (relative) validity of any subdivisions of natural science into separate natural science disciplines and its unconditional (principled) integrity. This is evidenced by the systematic emergence of interdisciplinary problems and related synthetic subjects (such as physical chemistry or chemical physics, biophysics, biochemistry, physicochemical biology).

When forming general - natural-philosophical - ideas about Nature, it was initially perceived as something fundamentally integral, unified, or at least somehow connected together. But as the concrete knowledge about Nature was required to be detailed, it took shape, as it were, as independent divisions of natural science, primarily the basic ones, namely, such as physics, chemistry, and biology. However, this analytical stage of the study of Nature, connected with the detailing of natural science and its division into separate parts, in the end had to be replaced or supplemented, as it actually happened, by the opposite stage of their synthesis. The apparent differentiation of natural science, or along with it, is necessarily followed by its essential integration, real generalization, fundamental deepening.

Tendencies of unity, or integration, of natural science knowledge began to appear a very long time ago. Back in 1747-1752, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov substantiated the need to involve physics to explain chemical phenomena and created on this basis, as he himself put it, "the theoretical part of chemistry", calling it physical chemistry. Since then, a wide variety of options for combining physical and chemical knowledge have appeared (leading to such sciences as chemical kinetics, thermochemistry, chemical thermodynamics, electrochemistry, radiochemistry, photochemistry, plasma chemistry, quantum chemistry). Today, all chemistry can be called physical, because such sciences, which are called "general chemistry" and "physical chemistry", have the same subject and the same research methods. But there was also "chemical physics", which is sometimes called the chemistry of high energies or the chemistry of extreme (far from the norm) states.

On the one hand (outwardly), such a combination is dictated by the impossibility of explaining chemical phenomena by "purely chemical" means and, consequently, by the need to turn to physics for help. On the other hand (internally), this unification is nothing but a manifestation of the fundamental unity of Nature, which does not know any absolutely sharp division into rubrics and different sciences.

In the same way, at one time there was a need for a synthesis of biological and chemical knowledge. In the last century, physiological chemistry and then biochemistry became known. And quite recently, a new synthetic science of physicochemical biology has appeared and has become widely known, even fashionable. It essentially claims to be nothing more and nothing less than "theoretical biology." Because to explain the most complex phenomena occurring in a living organism, there are no other ways than to attract knowledge from chemistry and physics. After all, even the simplest living organism is a mechanical unit, a thermodynamic system, and a chemical reactor with multidirectional flows of material masses, heat, and electrical impulses. And at the same time, it is neither one nor the other separately, because a living organism is a single whole.

At the same time, in principle, we are talking not only and not so much about reduction, i.e., about reducing all biology simply to one pure chemistry, and all chemistry simply to one pure physics, but about the actual interpenetration of all three of these basic natural sciences into each other. friend, although with the predominant development of natural science in the direction from physics to chemistry and biology.

At the present time, generally speaking, there is not a single area of ​​research in the natural sciences proper that would relate exclusively to physics, chemistry, or biology in a pure isolated state. Biology relies on chemistry and together with it or directly, like chemistry itself, on physics. They are permeated with the laws of Nature common to them.

Thus, the entire study of Nature today can be visualized as a huge network consisting of branches and nodes connecting numerous branches of the physical, chemical and biological sciences.

concept modern natural science science

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1. Natural science as a science about Nature. Basic natural sciences and their relationship

2. Quantum physics and its basic principles. The world of particles and antiparticles

3. Mechanics. Basic laws of classical mechanics

1. Natural science as a science about Nature. Basic natural sciences and their relationship

natural science the science of nature . In the modern world, natural science is a system of natural sciences, or the so-called natural sciences, taken in mutual connection and based, as a rule, on mathematical methods of describing objects of study.

Natural Science:

One of the three main areas of scientific knowledge about nature, society and thinking;

Is the theoretical basis of industrial and agricultural technology and medicine

It is the natural scientific foundation of the picture of the world.

Being the foundation for the formation of a scientific picture of the world, natural science is a certain system of views on one or another understanding of natural phenomena or processes. And if such a system of views takes on a single, defining character, then, as a rule, it is called a concept. Over time, new empirical facts and generalizations appear, and the system of views on the understanding of processes changes, new concepts appear.

If we consider the subject area of ​​natural science as broadly as possible, then it includes:

Various forms of motion of matter in nature;

Their material carriers, which form a "ladder" of levels of the structural organization of matter;

Their relationship, internal structure and genesis.

But it was not always so. The problems of the device, the origin of the organization of everything that is in the Universe (Cosmos), in the 4th-6th centuries belonged to "physics". And Aristotle called those who dealt with these problems simply "physicists" or "physiologists", because. the ancient Greek word "physics" is equal to the word "nature".

In modern natural science, nature is considered not in the abstract, outside of human activity, but concretely, as being under the influence of man, because its knowledge is achieved not only by speculative, theoretical, but also by the practical production activity of people.

Thus, natural science as a reflection of nature in human consciousness is being improved in the process of its active transformation in the interests of society.

The goals of natural science follow from this:

Revealing the essence of natural phenomena, their laws, and on this basis, the prediction or creation of new phenomena;

The ability to use in practice the known laws, forces and substances of nature.

It follows that if society is interested in training highly qualified specialists who are able to productively use their knowledge, then the goal of studying the concepts of modern natural science is not to study physics, chemistry, biology, etc., but to reveal those hidden connections that create the organic unity of physical , chemical, biological phenomena.

The natural sciences are:

Sciences about space, its structure and evolution (astronomy, cosmology, astrophysics, cosmochemistry, etc.);

Physical sciences (physics) - sciences about the deepest laws of natural objects and at the same time - about the simplest forms of their changes;

Chemical sciences (chemistry) - sciences about substances and their transformations

Biological sciences (biology) - life sciences;

Earth sciences (geonomy) - this includes: geology (the science of the structure of the earth's crust), geography (the science of the size and shape of the earth's surface), etc.

The listed sciences do not exhaust the whole of natural science, because. man and human society are inseparable from nature, they are part of it.

A person's desire for knowledge of the surrounding world is expressed in various forms, methods and directions of his research activities. Each of the main parts of the objective world - nature, society and man - is studied by its own separate sciences. The totality of scientific knowledge about nature is formed by natural science, that is, knowledge about nature ("nature" - nature - and "knowledge").

Natural science is a set of natural sciences that have as the subject of their research various phenomena and processes of nature, the laws of their evolution. In addition, natural science is a separate independent science of nature as a whole. It allows you to study any object of the world around us more deeply than any one of the natural sciences can do. Therefore, natural science, along with the sciences of society and thinking, is the most important part of human knowledge. It includes both the activity of obtaining knowledge and its results, i.e., the system of scientific knowledge about natural processes and phenomena.

The specificity of the subject of natural science is that it studies the same natural phenomena from the standpoint of several sciences at once, revealing the most general patterns and trends, considering Nature as if from above. This is the only way to present Nature as a single integral system, to reveal the foundations on which the whole variety of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world is built. The result of such studies is the formulation of the basic laws that connect the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds, the Earth and the Cosmos, physical and chemical phenomena with life and mind in the Universe. The main objective of this course is the understanding of Nature as a single integrity, the search for deeper relationships between physical, chemical and biological phenomena, as well as the identification of hidden connections that create the organic unity of these phenomena.

The structure of natural science is a complex branched system of knowledge, all parts of which are in relation to hierarchical subordination. This means that the system of natural sciences can be represented as a kind of ladder, each step of which is the foundation for the science that follows it, and in turn is based on the data of the previous science.

So, the basis, the foundation of all natural sciences is physics, the subject of which is bodies, their movements, transformations and forms of manifestation at various levels.

The next step in the hierarchy is chemistry, which studies chemical elements, their properties, transformations and compounds.

In turn, chemistry underlies biology - the science of the living, which studies the cell and everything derived from it. Biology is based on knowledge about matter, chemical elements.

Earth sciences (geology, geography, ecology, etc.) are the next degree of the structure of natural science. They consider the structure and development of our planet, which is a complex combination of physical, chemical and biological phenomena and processes.

This grandiose pyramid of knowledge about Nature is completed by cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole. Part of this knowledge is astronomy and cosmogony, which study the structure and origin of planets, stars, galaxies, etc. At this level, there is a new return to physics. This allows us to talk about the cyclical, closed nature of natural science, which obviously reflects one of the most important properties of Nature itself.

The most complicated processes of differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge are going on in science. The differentiation of science is the allocation within any science of narrower, private areas of research, their transformation into independent sciences. So, within physics, solid-state physics and plasma physics stood out.

The integration of science is the emergence of new sciences at the junctions of the old ones, the manifestation of the processes of unification of scientific knowledge. An example of this kind of sciences are: physical chemistry, chemical physics, biophysics, biochemistry, geochemistry, biogeochemistry, astrobiology, etc.

Natural science is a set of natural sciences that have as the subject of their research various phenomena and processes of nature, the laws of their evolution.

Metaphysics (Greek meta ta physika - after physics) is a philosophical doctrine of supersensitive (inaccessible to experience) principles of being.

Naturphilosophy is a speculative interpretation of nature, the perception of it as a whole.

The system approach is the idea of ​​the world as a set of multi-level systems connected by relations of hierarchical subordination.

2. Quantum physics and its main applicationsincipi. The world of particles and antiparticles

In 1900 the German physicist M. Planck demonstrated by his research that the radiation of energy occurs discretely, in certain portions - quanta, the energy of which depends on the frequency of the light wave. The theory of M. Planck did not need the concept of ether and overcame the contradictions and difficulties of J. Maxwell's electrodynamics. The experiments of M. Planck led to the recognition of the dual nature of light, which has both corpuscular and wave properties. It is clear that such a conclusion was incompatible with the ideas of classical physics. The theory of M. Planck marked the beginning of a new quantum physics, which describes the processes occurring in the microcosm.

Based on the ideas of M. Planck, A. Einstein proposed the photon theory of light, according to which light is a stream of moving quanta. The quantum theory of light (photon theory) considers light as a wave with a discontinuous structure. Light is a stream of indivisible light quanta - photons. A. Einstein's hypothesis made it possible to explain the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect - the knocking out of electrons from a substance under the influence of electromagnetic waves. It became clear that an electron is knocked out by a photon only if the photon energy is sufficient to overcome the force of interaction of electrons with the atomic nucleus. In 1922, A. Einstein received the Nobel Prize for the creation of the quantum theory of light.

The explanation of the process of the photoelectric effect was based, in addition to the quantum hypothesis of M. Planck, also on new ideas about the structure of the atom. In 1911 English physicist E. Rutherford proposed a planetary model of the atom. The model represented an atom as a positively charged nucleus around which negatively charged electrons revolve. The force arising from the movement of electrons in orbits is balanced by the attraction between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons. The total charge of an atom is zero because the charges of the nucleus and electrons are equal to each other. Almost the entire mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus, and the mass of electrons is negligible. Using the planetary model of the atom, the phenomenon of deflection of alpha particles when passing through the atom was explained. Since the size of the atom is large compared to the size of the electrons and the nucleus, the alpha particle passes through it without obstacles. The deflection is observed only when the alpha particle passes close to the nucleus, in which case the electrical repulsion causes it to veer sharply from its original path. In 1913 Danish physicist N. Bohr proposed a more perfect model of the atom, supplementing the ideas of E. Rutherford with new hypotheses. The postulates of N. Bohr were as follows:

1. Postulate of stationary states. An electron makes stable orbital motions in stationary orbits in an atom, neither emitting nor absorbing energy.

2. Rule of frequencies. An electron is able to move from one stationary orbit to another, while emitting or absorbing energy. Since the energies of the orbits are discrete and constant, when moving from one of them to another, a certain portion of energy is always emitted or absorbed.

The first postulate made it possible to answer the question: why do electrons, when moving in circular orbits around the nucleus, do not fall on it, i.e. Why does an atom remain stable?

The second postulate explained the discontinuity of the electron emission spectrum. The quantum postulates of N. Bohr meant the rejection of classical physical concepts, which until that time were considered absolutely true.

Despite the rapid recognition, N. Bohr's theory still did not give answers to many questions. In particular, scientists have not been able to accurately describe multi-electron atoms. It turned out that this is due to the wave nature of electrons, which are erroneous to represent as solid particles moving in certain orbits.

In reality, the states of an electron can change. N. Bohr suggested that microparticles are neither a wave nor a corpuscle. With one type of measuring instruments, they behave like a continuous field, with another - like discrete material particles. It turned out that the idea of ​​the exact orbits of the movement of electrons is also erroneous. Due to their wave nature, the electrons are rather "smeared" over the atom, and rather unevenly. At certain points, their charge density reaches a maximum. The curve connecting the points of maximum electron charge density is its "orbit".

In the 20-30s. W. Heisenberg and L. de Broglie laid the foundations of a new theory - quantum mechanics. In 1924 in "Light and Matter"

L. de Broglie suggested the universality of wave-particle duality, according to which all micro-objects can behave both as waves and as particles. Based on the already established dual (corpuscular and wave) nature of light, he expressed the idea of ​​the wave properties of any material particles. So, for example, an electron behaves like a particle when it moves in an electromagnetic field, and like a wave when it passes through a crystal. This idea is called corpuscular-wave dualism. The principle of corpuscular-wave dualism establishes the unity of discreteness and continuity of matter.

In 1926 E. Schrödinger, based on the ideas of L. de Broglie, built wave mechanics. In his opinion, quantum processes are wave processes, therefore the classical image of a material point occupying a certain place in space is adequate only for macroprocesses and is completely wrong for the microworld. In the microcosm, a particle exists both as a wave and as a corpuscle. In quantum mechanics, an electron can be thought of as a wave whose length depends on its speed. E. Schrödinger's equation describes the motion of microparticles in force fields and takes into account their wave properties.

Based on these ideas in 1927. the principle of complementarity was formulated, according to which wave and corpuscular descriptions of processes in the microcosm do not exclude, but complement each other, and only in unity give a complete description. When accurately measuring one of the additional quantities, the other undergoes an uncontrolled change. The concepts of particle and wave not only complement each other, but at the same time contradict each other. They are complementary pictures of what is happening. The statement of corpuscular-wave dualism became the basis of quantum physics.

In 1927 German physicist W. Heisenberg came to the conclusion that it is impossible to simultaneously, accurately measure the coordinates of a particle and its momentum, which depends on the speed, we can determine these quantities only with a certain degree of probability. In classical physics, it is assumed that the coordinates of a moving object can be determined with absolute accuracy. Quantum mechanics severely limits this possibility. W. Heisenberg in his work "Physics of the Atomic Nucleus" outlined his ideas.

W. Heisenberg's conclusion is called the principle of the uncertainty relation, which underlies the physical interpretation of quantum mechanics. Its essence is as follows: it is impossible to simultaneously have exact values ​​of different physical characteristics of a microparticle - coordinate and momentum. If we get the exact value of one quantity, then the other remains completely uncertain, there are fundamental limitations on the measurement of physical quantities that characterize the behavior of a micro-object.

Thus, W. Heisenberg concluded, reality differs depending on whether we observe it or not. "Quantum theory no longer allows a completely objective description of nature," he wrote. The measuring device influences the measurement results, i.e. in a scientific experiment, the influence of a person turns out to be irremovable. In the situation of the experiment, we are faced with the subject-object unity of the measuring device and the reality under study.

It is important to note that this circumstance is not related to the imperfection of measuring instruments, but is a consequence of the objective, corpuscular-wave properties of micro-objects. As the physicist M. Born stated, waves and particles are only "projections" of physical reality onto the experimental situation.

Two fundamental principles of quantum physics - the principle of the uncertainty relation and the principle of complementarity - indicate that science refuses to describe only dynamic laws. The laws of quantum physics are statistical. As V. Heisenberg writes, “in experiments with atomic processes, we are dealing with things and facts that are as real as any phenomena of everyday life are real. But atoms or elementary particles are not real to that extent. They rather form a world of tendencies or possibilities than the world of things and facts." Subsequently, quantum theory became the basis for nuclear physics, and in 1928. P. Dirac laid the foundations of relativistic quantum mechanics.

3. Mechanics. Mainth laws of classical mechanics

natural science science mechanics quantum

Classical mechanics is a physical theory that establishes the laws of motion of macroscopic bodies with velocities much less than the speed of light in vacuum.

Classical mechanics is subdivided into:

Statics (which considers the equilibrium of bodies)

Kinematics (which studies the geometric property of motion without considering its causes)

Dynamics (which considers the movement of bodies).

Newton's three laws form the basis of classical mechanics:

Newton's first law postulates the existence of special frames of reference, called intercial ones, in which any body maintains a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion until forces from other bodies act on it (the law of inertia).

Newton's second law states that in inertial reference frames, the acceleration of any body is proportional to the sum of the forces acting on it and inversely proportional to the body's mass (F = ma).

Newton's third law states that when any two bodies interact, they experience forces from each other that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction (action is equal to reaction).

In order to calculate the motion of physical bodies on the basis of these basic laws of Newtonian mechanics, they must be supplemented with a description of the forces that arise between bodies in various ways of interaction. In modern physics, many different forces are considered: gravity, friction, pressure, tension, Archimedes, lift, Coulomb (electrostatic), Lorentz (magnetic), etc. All these forces depend on the relative position and speed of interacting bodies.

Classical mechanics is a kind of mechanics (a branch of physics that studies the laws of change in the positions of bodies and the causes that cause it), based on Newton's 3 laws and Galileo's principle of relativity. Therefore, it is often called "Newtonian mechanics". An important place in classical mechanics is occupied by the existence of inertial systems. Classical mechanics is divided into statics (which considers the equilibrium of bodies) and dynamics (which considers the movement of bodies). Classical mechanics gives very accurate results within everyday experience. But for systems moving at high speeds approaching the speed of light, relativistic mechanics gives more accurate results, for systems of microscopic dimensions - quantum mechanics, and for systems with both characteristics - quantum field theory. Nevertheless, classical mechanics retains its value because it is much easier to understand and use than other theories, and in a wide range it approximates reality quite well. Classical mechanics can be used to describe the motion of objects such as tops and baseballs, many astronomical objects (such as planets and galaxies), and even many microscopic objects such as organic molecules. Although classical mechanics is broadly compatible with other "classical theories" such as classical electrodynamics and thermodynamics, inconsistencies were found in the late 19th century that could only be resolved within more modern physical theories. In particular, classical electrodynamics predicts that the speed of light is constant for all observers, which is difficult to reconcile with classical mechanics, and which led to the creation of a special theory of relativity. When considered together with classical thermodynamics, classical mechanics leads to the Gibbs paradox in which it is impossible to accurately determine the amount of entropy and to the ultraviolet catastrophe in which a blackbody must radiate an infinite amount of energy. Attempts to solve these problems led to the development of quantum mechanics.

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System of natural science knowledge

natural science is one of the components of the system of modern scientific knowledge, which also includes complexes of technical and human sciences. Natural science is an evolving system of ordered information about the laws of motion of matter.

The objects of study of individual natural sciences, the totality of which as early as the beginning of the 20th century. bore the name of natural history, from the time of their inception to the present day they have been and remain: matter, life, man, Earth, the Universe. Accordingly, modern natural science groups the main natural sciences as follows:

• physics, chemistry, physical chemistry;
• biology, botany, zoology;
• anatomy, physiology, genetics (the doctrine of heredity);
• geology, mineralogy, paleontology, meteorology, physical geography;
• astronomy, cosmology, astrophysics, astrochemistry.

Of course, only the main natural ones are listed here, in fact modern natural science is a complex and branched complex, including hundreds of scientific disciplines. Physics alone unites a whole family of sciences (mechanics, thermodynamics, optics, electrodynamics, etc.). As the volume of scientific knowledge grew, certain sections of sciences acquired the status of scientific disciplines with their own conceptual apparatus, specific research methods, which often makes them difficult to access for specialists involved in other sections of the same, say, physics.

Such differentiation in the natural sciences (as, indeed, in science in general) is a natural and inevitable consequence of ever narrower specialization.

At the same time, counter processes also occur naturally in the development of science, in particular, natural science disciplines are formed and formed, as they often say, “at the junctions” of sciences: chemical physics, biochemistry, biophysics, biogeochemistry and many others. As a result, the boundaries that were once defined between individual scientific disciplines and their sections become very conditional, mobile and, one might say, transparent.

These processes, leading, on the one hand, to a further increase in the number of scientific disciplines, but, on the other hand, to their convergence and interpenetration, are one of the evidence of the integration of the natural sciences, which reflects the general trend in modern science.

It is here, perhaps, that it is appropriate to turn to such a scientific discipline, which, of course, has a special place as mathematics, which is a research tool and a universal language not only of the natural sciences, but also of many others - those in which quantitative patterns can be seen.

Depending on the methods underlying research, we can talk about the natural sciences:

• descriptive (exploring factual data and relationships between them);
• exact (building mathematical models for expressing established facts and relationships, i.e. patterns);
• applied (using the systematics and models of descriptive and exact natural sciences for the development and transformation of nature).

Nevertheless, a common generic feature of all sciences that study nature and technology is the conscious activity of professional scientists aimed at describing, explaining and predicting the behavior of the objects under study and the nature of the phenomena being studied. The humanities are distinguished by the fact that the explanation and prediction of phenomena (events) is based, as a rule, not on an explanation, but on an understanding of reality.

This is the fundamental difference between the sciences that have objects of study that allow systematic observation, multiple experimental verification and reproducible experiments, and the sciences that study essentially unique, non-repeating situations that, as a rule, do not allow an exact repetition of an experiment, conducting more than once of some kind. or experiment.

Modern culture seeks to overcome the differentiation of knowledge into many independent areas and disciplines, primarily the split between the natural and human sciences, which clearly emerged at the end of the 19th century. After all, the world is one in all its infinite diversity, therefore, relatively independent areas of a single system of human knowledge are organically interconnected; difference here is transient, unity is absolute.

Nowadays, the integration of natural science knowledge has clearly been outlined, which manifests itself in many forms and becomes the most pronounced trend in its development. Increasingly, this trend is also manifested in the interaction of the natural sciences with the humanities. Evidence of this is the advancement of the principles of systemicity, self-organization and global evolutionism to the forefront of modern science, opening up the possibility of combining a wide variety of scientific knowledge into an integral and consistent system, united by common laws of evolution of objects of different nature.

There is every reason to believe that we are witnessing an ever-increasing convergence and mutual integration of the natural and human sciences. This is confirmed by the widespread use in humanitarian research not only of technical means and information technologies used in the natural and technical sciences, but also of general scientific research methods developed in the process of the development of natural science.

The subject of this course is the concepts related to the forms of existence and movement of living and inanimate matter, while the laws that determine the course of social phenomena are the subject of the humanities. However, it should be borne in mind that, no matter how different the natural and human sciences are, they have a generic unity, which is the logic of science. It is the submission to this logic that makes science a sphere of human activity aimed at revealing and theoretically systematizing objective knowledge about reality.

The natural-scientific picture of the world is created and modified by scientists of different nationalities, among whom are convinced atheists and believers of various faiths and denominations. However, in their professional activities, they all proceed from the fact that the world is material, that is, it exists objectively, regardless of the people who study it. Note, however, that the process of cognition itself can influence the studied objects of the material world and how a person imagines them, depending on the level of development of research tools. In addition, every scientist proceeds from the fact that the world is fundamentally cognizable.

The process of scientific knowledge is the search for truth. However, absolute truth in science is incomprehensible, and with each step along the path of knowledge, it moves further and deeper. Thus, at each stage of cognition, scientists establish a relative truth, realizing that at the next stage knowledge will be achieved more accurate, more adequate to reality. And this is another evidence that the process of cognition is objective and inexhaustible.

NATURAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITARIAN CULTURE

Culture is one of the most important characteristics of human life. Each individual is a complex biosocial system that exists through interaction with the environment. The necessary natural connections with the environment determine its needs, which are important for its normal functioning, life and development. Most human needs are met through labor.

Thus, the system of human culture can be understood as the world of things, objects created by man (his activity, labor) in the course of his historical development. Leaving aside the question of the complexity and ambiguity of the concept of culture, we can dwell on one of its simplest definitions. Culture is a set of material and spiritual values ​​created by man, as well as the very human ability to produce and use these values.

As we can see, the concept of culture is very broad. It, in fact, covers an infinite number of the most diverse things and processes associated with human activity and its results. The diverse system of modern culture, depending on the goals of the activity, is usually divided into two large and closely related areas - material (scientific) and spiritual (humanitarian) culture. .

The subject area of ​​the first is purely natural phenomena and properties, connections and relations of things that “work” in the world of human culture in the form of natural sciences, technical inventions and devices, industrial relations, etc. The second type of culture (humanitarian) covers the area of ​​phenomena, in which represent the properties, connections and relationships of the people themselves, both social and spiritual (religion, morality, law, etc.).

Page 7

The phenomena of human consciousness, psyche (thinking, knowledge, evaluation, will, feelings, experiences, etc.) belong to the ideal, spiritual world. Consciousness, spiritual is very important, but only one of the properties of a complex system, which is a person. However, a person must exist materially in order to manifest his ability to produce ideal, spiritual things. The material life of people is an area of ​​human activity, which is associated with the production of objects, things that ensure the very existence, the life of a person and satisfy his needs (food, clothing, housing, etc.).

Over the course of human history, a colossal world of material culture has been created by many generations. Houses, streets, plants, factories, transport, communication infrastructure, household institutions, the supply of food, clothing, etc. - all these are the most important indicators of the nature and level of development of society. Based on the remains of material culture, archaeologists manage to quite accurately determine the stages of historical development, the characteristics of societies, states, peoples, ethnic groups, and civilizations.

Spiritual culture is associated with activities aimed at satisfying not the material, but the spiritual needs of the individual, that is, the needs for development, improvement of the inner world of a person, his consciousness, psychology, thinking, knowledge, emotions, experiences, etc. The existence of spiritual needs and distinguishes man from animal. These needs are satisfied in the course of not material, but spiritual production, in the process of spiritual activity.

The products of spiritual production are ideas, concepts, ideas, scientific hypotheses, theories, artistic images, moral norms and legal laws, religious beliefs, etc., which are embodied in their special material carriers. Such carriers are language, books, works of art, graphics, drawings, etc.

Analysis of the system of spiritual culture as a whole makes it possible to single out the following main components: political consciousness, morality, art, religion, philosophy, legal awareness, and science. Each of these components has a specific subject, its own way of reflection, performs specific social functions in the life of society, contains cognitive and evaluative moments - a system of knowledge and a system of assessments.

Page eight

Science is one of the most important components of material and spiritual culture. Its special place in spiritual culture is determined by the value of knowledge in the way of being of a person in the world, in practice, material and objective transformation of the world.

Science is a historically established system of knowledge of the objective laws of the world. Scientific knowledge obtained on the basis of cognition methods tested by practice is expressed in various forms: in concepts, categories, laws, hypotheses, theories, a scientific picture of the world, etc. It makes it possible to predict and transform reality in the interests of society and man.

Modern science is a complex and diverse system of individual scientific disciplines, of which there are several thousand and which can be combined into two areas: fundamental and applied sciences.

Fundamental sciences aim at the knowledge of the objective laws of the world that exist regardless of the interests and needs of man. These include mathematical sciences, natural (mechanics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, geography, etc.), humanitarian (psychology, logic, linguistics, philology, etc.). Fundamental sciences are called fundamental because their conclusions, results, theories determine the content of the scientific picture of the world.

Applied sciences are aimed at developing ways to apply the knowledge obtained by fundamental sciences about the objective laws of the world to meet the needs and interests of people. Applied sciences include cybernetics, technical sciences (applied mechanics, technology of machines and mechanisms, strength of materials, metallurgy, mining, electrical engineering, nuclear energy, astronautics, etc.), agricultural, medical, and pedagogical sciences. In applied sciences, fundamental knowledge acquires practical significance, is used to develop the productive forces of society, improve the subject sphere of human existence, and material culture.

The concept of "two cultures" is widespread in science - the natural sciences and the humanities. According to the English historian and writer C. Snow, there is a huge gap between these cultures, and scientists studying the humanitarian and exact branches of knowledge do not understand each other more and more (disputes between "physicists" and "lyricists").

There are two aspects to this problem. The first is connected with the patterns of interaction between science and art, the second - with the problem of the unity of science.

Page 9

In the system of spiritual culture, science and art do not exclude, but presuppose and complement each other when it comes to the formation of a holistic, harmonious personality, the completeness of the human worldview.

Natural science, being the basis of all knowledge, has always influenced the development of the humanities (through methodology, worldview ideas, images, ideas, etc.). Without the application of the methods of the natural sciences, the outstanding achievements of modern science on the origin of man and society, history, psychology, etc. would be unthinkable. New prospects for the mutual enrichment of natural science and humanitarian knowledge open up with the creation of the theory of self-organization - synergetics.

Thus, not the confrontation of different "cultures in science", but their close unity, interaction, interpenetration is a natural trend of modern scientific knowledge.