Emperor Alexander II (nicknamed the Liberator) carried out a number of liberal reforms in Russia. The reason for their was the backwardness of the state system, its inflexibility and injustice. The Russian economy and the authority of the state suffered from it. Orders and instructions from the authorities practically did not reach their destinations.
The aim of the reforms there was also a release of tension in society, the indignation that was caused by the too tough policy of the state and those in power. So, before you is a table with a list of reforms.
Abolition of serfdom
1. Landlords are deprived of the right to own peasants. Now you can not sell, buy peasants, separate their families, prevent them from leaving the village, and so on.
2. The peasants were obliged to buy their land plots from the landlords (at high prices) or rented it.
3. For renting land from a landowner, a peasant was obliged to serve a corvée or bring quitrent, but this corvee was now limited.
4. A peasant who used a leased plot of land from a landowner did not have the right to leave the village for 9 years.
Significance of the peasant reform did not appear immediately. Although formally people became free, the landowners continued to treat them like serfs for a long time, punished them with rods, and so on. The peasants did not receive land. Nevertheless, the reform was the first step in overcoming slavery and violence against the person.
Judicial reform
An elective position of justice of the peace is introduced. From now on, he is elected by the representatives of the population, and not appointed "from above".
The court becomes legally independent of the administrative authorities.
The court becomes public, that is, it is obliged to give the population access to its decisions and processes.
Established District Jury Court.
The Importance of Judicial Reform was the protection of the judiciary from the arbitrariness of the authorities and the possessors, the protection of the honesty of justice.
Zemstvo reform
The establishment of the zemstvo as a body of power to which the local population elected representatives.
Peasants could also participate in the Zemstvo elections.
The value of Zemstvo reform was the strengthening of local self-government and the participation of citizens of all classes in the life of society.
urban reform
City self-government bodies have been established, whose members are elected by city residents.
They receive the name of city councils and city dumas.
Reduced local taxes.
The police have been placed under the control of the central government.
The Importance of Urban Reform was the strengthening of local self-government and at the same time limiting the arbitrariness of local authorities.
Education reform
1. It is allowed to elect deans and rectors in universities.
2. The first university for women was opened.
3. Real schools were founded, where the emphasis was on teaching technical and natural sciences.
The Importance of Education Reform was the improvement of technical and women's education in the country.
Military reform
1. Reduced service life from 25 years to 7 years.
2. Limitation of the term of military service to 7 years.
3. Now not only recruits are called for military service (previously these were the poorest segments of the population, forcibly driven), but also representatives of all classes. Including the nobles.
4. Previously bloated, incapacitated army reduced by almost half.
5. A number of military schools have been set up to train officers.
6. Corporal punishment has been abolished, except for whipping in special cases.
Importance of military reform very large. A modern combat-ready army has been created that does not consume many resources. The military became motivated to serve (previously, recruiting was considered a curse, it completely broke the life of a conscript).
By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lagging behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy field as well. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the 19th century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time.
In the domestic policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. there are three stages:
1) the second half of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s - the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform;
2) - 60-70s carrying out liberal reforms;
3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability by traditional conservative administrative methods.
Defeat in the Crimean War played the role of an important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the socio-political system of the country. Russia has lost international prestige and almost lost influence in Europe. The eldest son of Nicholas 1 - Alexander 11 came to the throne in 1855, went down in history as the tsar "Liberator". His phrase about “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to be abolished from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of the need to reform the state.
Members of the royal family, representatives of the highest bureaucracy took part in the preparation of the reforms - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev. After the abolition of the kr.prav, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curia. 1 curia - landowners with > 2 acres of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2 curia - urban, urban industrialists and merchants with a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles / year were allowed here; 3 curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multistage. The curiae were dominated by landlords. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activities was limited to solving economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, the zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became the centers of the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. The structure of zemstvo institutions: It is a legislative and executive body. The chairmen were local marshals of the nobility. Provincial and county assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district councils were elected at zemstvo meetings. Solved the problem of tax collection, while a certain% remained in place. Zemstvo institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.
Positivity in the reform:
omnisoslovnost
Disadvantages:
election
the beginning of the separation of powers is admitted to the center of the state institution,
the beginning of the formation of civil society consciousness could not influence the policy of the center
Unequal voting rights were delivered
contacts between zemstvos were prohibited
urban reform. (1870) "City Regulations" created all-estate bodies in the cities - city dumas and city councils headed by the mayor. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under the strict control of the government administration.
The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.
Judicial reform :
1864 - New court statutes promulgated.
Provisions:
the estate system of courts was abolished
all were declared equal before the law
publicity was introduced
competitiveness of legal proceedings
presumption of innocence
irremovability of judges
unified system of justice
There are two types of courts:
1. Magistrates' courts - considered minor civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at county assemblies and approved by the senate.
2. General courts were of 3 types: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court was Senate. Judges in general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were elected at provincial assemblies.
Disadvantages: small estate courts continued to exist - for the peasants. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, meetings were held behind closed doors, which violated the attack of publicity.
Military reform :
1874 - Charter on military service on the all-class military service of men who have reached the age of 20. The term of active service was set in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruiting was abolished. The terms of active military service were determined by the educational qualification. Persons with higher education served 0.5 years. To raise the competence of the top military leadership, the military ministry was transformed into general staff. The whole country was divided into 6 military regions. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of steel artillery pieces, the improvement of the horse park, the development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and, at the same time, to increase its combat effectiveness.
They were exempted from military duty if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if elderly parents were on his payroll. Cane discipline was abolished. Humanization of relations in the army has passed.
Reform in the field of education :
1864 In fact, an accessible all-estate education was introduced. Zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose along with state schools. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession. During this period, secondary education for women was developed, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free students. University arr.: Alexander 2 gave the universities more freedom:
students could create student orgs
received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship
all volunteers were admitted to the universities
students were given the right to choose a rector
stud self-management was introduced in the form of a council of a fact
corporative systems of students and teachers were created.
Significance of reforms:
contributed to the more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.
contributed to the beginning of the formation of bourgeois freedoms in the Russian society (freedom of speech, personality, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.
contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.
contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.
The initiators of the reforms were some top government officials, the “liberal bureaucracy”. This explained the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most of the reforms. The assassination of Alexander II changed the course of the government. And the proposal of Loris-Melikov was rejected.
The implementation of reforms gave impetus to the rapid growth of capitalism in all areas of industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation became more active, the domestic market expanded and ties with the world grew.
Features of the development of capitalism in the industry of Russia had a number of features:
1)Industry wear multilayered character, i.e. large-scale machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production.
2) uneven distribution of industry across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas of St. Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0 - highly developed and undeveloped - Siberia, Central Asia, Far East.
3)Uneven development by industry. Textile production was the most advanced in terms of technical equipment, heavy industry (mining, metallurgical, oil) was rapidly gaining momentum. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. Characteristic for the country was state intervention in the industrial sector through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policies. This laid the foundation for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The insufficiency of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, consequently, the possibility of making high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century completed the formation of the all-Russian market. The main commodity was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in manufactured goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore and coal were widely sold. Wood, oil. Foreign trade - bread (export). Cotton was imported (imported) from America, metals and cars, luxury goods from Europe. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. State funds were distributed only by the Ministry of Finance. A private and state credit system was formed, it contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 years were the 1st stage, when the restructuring of industry was going on. 80-90 economic recovery.
By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lagging behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy field as well. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the 19th century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time. In the domestic policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. three stages are distinguished: 1) the second half of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s - the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform; 2) - 60-70s carrying out liberal reforms; 3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability by traditional conservative administrative methods. The defeat in the Crimean War played the role of an important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the country's socio-political system. Russia has lost international prestige and almost lost influence in Europe. Eldest son of Nicholas 1 - Alexander 11 ascended the throne in 1855. He was quite well prepared for the management of the state. He received an excellent education and upbringing. His mentor was the poet Zhukovsky and he influenced the formation of the personality of the future tsar. From a young age, Alexander joined the military service and by the age of 26 he became a “full general”. Traveling in Russia and Europe expanded the horizons of the heir. His father attracted him to public service. He was in charge of the activities of the Secret Committees on the Peasant Question.
And the 36-year-old emperor was psychologically and practically prepared to become the initiator of the liberation of the peasants as the first person in the state. That's why he went down in history as tsar "Liberator". His phrase about “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to be abolished from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of the need to reform the state. Members of the royal family, representatives of the highest bureaucracy took part in the preparation of the reforms - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev. After the abolition of the kr.prav, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curia. 1 curia - landowners with > 2 acres of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2 curia - urban, urban industrialists and merchants with a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles / year were allowed here; 3 curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multistage. The curiae were dominated by landlords. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions.
The scope of their activities was limited to solving economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, the zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became the centers of the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. The structure of zemstvo institutions: It is a legislative and executive body. The chairmen were local marshals of the nobility. Provincial and county assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district councils were elected at zemstvo meetings. Solved the problem of tax collection, while a certain% remained in place. Zemstvo institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.
urban reform. (1870) "City Regulations" created in the cities all-estate bodies - city dumas and city councils headed by the city head. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under the strict control of the government administration.
The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.
Electivity was granted for 3 curiae: 1 - industrialists and merchants (1/3 of taxes), 2 - medium-sized entrepreneurs (1/3), 3 - all the population of the mountains. Of the 707 provinces, 621 received a ref. MSU. The competencies are the same, the disadvantages are the same.
Judicial reform:
1864 - New court statutes promulgated.
Provisions:
the estate system of courts was abolished
all were declared equal before the law
publicity was introduced
competitiveness of legal proceedings
presumption of innocence
irremovability of judges
unified system of justice
a court of two types was created: 1. Magistrates' courts - they considered minor civil cases, the damage in which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at county assemblies and approved by the senate. 2. General courts were of 3 types: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court was Senate. Judges in general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were elected at provincial assemblies.
Disadvantages: small class courts continued to exist - for the peasants. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, meetings were held behind closed doors, which violated the attack of publicity.
Military reform: 1874 - Charter on military service on the all-class military service of men who have reached the age of 20. The term of active service was established in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruiting was abolished. The terms of active military service were determined by the educational qualification. Persons with higher education served 0.5 years. To raise the competence of the top military leadership, the military ministry was transformed into general staff. The whole country was divided into 6 military regions. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of steel artillery pieces, the improvement of the horse park, the development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and, at the same time, to increase its combat effectiveness.
They were exempted from military duty if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if elderly parents were on his payroll. Cane discipline was abolished. Humanization of relations in the army has passed.
Reform in the field of education: 1864 In fact, an accessible all-estate education was introduced. Zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose along with state schools. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession. During this period, secondary education for women was developed, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free students. University arr.: Alexander 2 gave the universities more freedom:
students could create student orgs
received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship
all volunteers were admitted to the universities
students were given the right to choose a rector
stud self-management was introduced in the form of a council of a fact
corporative systems of students and teachers were created.
Significance of reforms:
contributed to the more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.
contributed to the beginning of the formation of bourgeois freedoms in the Russian society (freedom of speech, personality, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.
contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.
contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.
The initiators of the reforms were some top government officials, the “liberal bureaucracy”. This explained the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most of the reforms. The logical continuation of the reforms of 60-70 could be the adoption of moderate constitutional proposals developed in 1881 by the Minister of Internal Affairs Loris-Melikov. They assumed the development of local self-government, the involvement of zemstvos and cities (with an advisory vote) in the discussion of national issues. But the assassination of Alexander II changed the course of the government. And the proposal of Loris-Melikov was rejected. The reforms gave impetus to the rapid growth of capitalism in all areas industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation became more active, the domestic market expanded and ties with the world grew. Features of the development of capitalism in the industry of Russia had a number of features: 1) Industry wore multilayered character, i.e. large-scale machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production. Also observed 2) uneven distribution of industry across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas of St. Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0 - highly developed and undeveloped - Siberia, Central Asia, Far East. 3) Uneven development by industry. Textile production was the most advanced in terms of technical equipment, heavy industry (mining, metallurgical, oil) was rapidly gaining momentum. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. Characteristic for the country was state intervention in the industrial sector through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policy. This laid the foundation for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The insufficiency of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, consequently, the possibility of making high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century completed the formation of the all-Russian market. The main commodity was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in manufactured goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore and coal were widely sold. Wood, oil. Foreign trade - bread (export). Cotton was imported (imported) from America, metals and cars, luxury goods from Europe. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. State funds were distributed only by the Ministry of Finance. A private and state credit system was formed, it contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 years were the 1st stage, when the restructuring of industry was going on. 80-90 economic recovery.
Transformations in the Russian Empire in the 60-70s of the century before last are called liberal reforms. The pivotal event of the long-term process was the Great Peasant Reform of 1861. It determined the course of further bourgeois reconstructions and reorganizations taken by the government of Alexander II. It was necessary to reorganize the political superstructure, rebuild the court, the army, and much more.
Thus, Alexander II's understanding of the urgent need for a peasant reform led him, in the course of implementing the plan, to carry out a complex of transformations in all spheres of Russian public life. Unwittingly, the emperor himself took steps towards a bourgeois monarchy, which was based on the transition to an industrial society, a market economy and parliamentarism. The assassination of the king in March 1881 turned the country's movement in a different direction.
Military, educational, peasant and judicial reforms were the main transformations carried out in Russia in the 60s and 70s of the century, and thanks to them the country overcame its significant backwardness from the advanced powers.
However, the reforms of Alexander II were not as ideal and did not go as smoothly as it should have been. The aristocratic character of Russian society to a certain extent persisted even after the much-desired liberal reforms were carried out.
What is liberalism
Liberalism is a direction of socio-political and philosophical thought that proclaims human rights and freedoms as the highest value. The influence of the state and other structures, including religion, on a person in a liberal society is usually limited by the constitution. In the economy, liberalism is expressed in the inviolability of private property, freedom of trade and entrepreneurship.
Reasons for liberal reforms
The main reason for liberal reforms is Russia's lagging behind the advanced European countries, which became especially noticeable by the middle of the 19th century. Another reason is the peasant uprisings, the number of which increased sharply by the mid-1850s; popular uprisings threatened the existing state system and autocratic power, so the situation had to be saved.
Prerequisites for reforms
Russian society in all periods of the New Age was very colorful. Completed conservatives here side by side with liberals, zealots of antiquity - with innovators, people with free views; supporters of autocracy tried to get along with adherents of a limited monarchy and republicans. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the contradictions between the "old" and "new" Russians escalated, as a whole galaxy of enlightened nobles grew up, longing for large-scale changes in the country. The imperial house had to make concessions in order to maintain supreme power.
Reform Objectives
The main task of liberal reforms is to overcome the social, political, military and intellectual backwardness of the Russian Empire. Particularly acute was the task of abolishing serfdom, which by that time was morally very outdated, and hindered the economic development of the country. Another task is to show activity precisely “from above”, on the part of the tsarist authorities, until the revolutionaries undertake radical transformations.
Reform of administration of zemstvos and cities
The nobility after the abolition of serfdom was concerned about the strengthening of its role in the political life of the country. The government of the reformers sensitively caught the mood of the ruling class and developed the zemstvo, and a little later, the city reforms.
The reforms were carried out in accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district local institutions” of January 1, 1864 in 34 provinces of the European part of the empire and the “City Regulations” of June 16, 1870.
Zemstvo reform | urban reform |
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Governing bodies |
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Members of the zemstvo assembly (vowels) were elected every three years by groups of voters (curia):
| Vowels were elected every four years. Three-digit electoral system (small, medium and large taxpayers). Electoral rights had institutions and departments, secular and religious institutions that contributed fees to the city budget. |
The main principles of the zemstvo and city reforms were:
- Separation of local self-government from administrative power.
- Election of governing bodies and all-class representation.
- Independence in financial and economic matters.
Democratic judicial reform
The judiciary, of all liberal reforms, is considered the most consistent. Since 1861, work began on the "Basic provisions for the transformation of the judicial part of Russia." In 1864, the sovereign approved modern judicial charters that defined new principles of legal proceedings:
Organizational principles of the court | The dishonesty of the court. |
Irremovability and independence of judges. |
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Publicity. |
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Delimitation of the powers of the courts. |
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Introduction to the institution of jurors. |
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Establishment of the institute of forensic investigators. |
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Introduction to the Institute of Notaries. |
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Election of individual judicial bodies. |
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Political investigations are the prerogative of the gendarmerie. |
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Death sentences can be passed by the Senate and a military court. |
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Changing the system of punishments (cancellation of stigmatization and corporal punishment for women). |
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Court system | |
Special. |
The emperor had the right to correct the decisions of all courts through administrative measures.
The overdue reform of the army
The experience of the Crimean War showed that Russia needed a massive army with the necessary reserves and a trained officer corps. The rearmament of the army and the reorganization of the military command and control system are urgently needed. The reform began to be prepared as early as 1861 and was implemented in 1874 with the following steps:
- 15 military districts have been created.
- Establishment of a network of military educational institutions.
- New military regulations have been introduced.
- Equipping the army with new models of weapons.
- Cancellation of the recruiting system.
- The introduction of universal conscription for the recruitment of the army.
As a result, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army increased significantly.
Education reform
The establishment of the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1864 and the Charter of the Secondary School solved the following problems:
- accessibility of education for all classes;
- monopolies of the state and church in the field of education, permission for zemstvos, public associations and individuals to open educational institutions;
- gender equality, the opening of higher courses for women;
- expanding the autonomy of universities.
The reform affected all three educational levels and was significant for the development of the country.
Accompanying reforms
In addition to the landmark reforms, the following were carried out along the way:
The financial reform of 1860 - 1864, which consisted in the transformation of the banking system and the strengthening of the role of the Ministry of Finance.
The tax reform was manifested in the abolition of wine farming, the introduction of indirect taxes and the determination of the limits of zemstvo taxation.
The censorship reform abolished the preview of works, but introduced a system of sanctions after publication.
Liberal reforms of Alexander II: pros and cons
Name of the reform | Essence of reform | ||
|---|---|---|---|
Judicial reform | A unified system of courts was created, while all estates were equal before the law. Court hearings became public and also received media coverage. The parties now had the right to use the services of non-state lawyers. | The reform proclaimed the equality of all groups of the population in rights. The attitude of the state towards a person was now formed on the basis of his actions, and not on the origin. | The reform was inconsistent. For the peasants, special volost courts were created with their own system of punishments, which included beatings. If political cases were considered, then administrative repressions were applied even if the verdict was acquittal. |
Zemstvo reform | Changes were made to the system of local self-government. Elections were scheduled for zemstvo and district councils, which were held in two stages. The local government was appointed for a four-year term. | Zemstvos dealt with issues of primary education, health care, taxation, etc. Local authorities were given a certain autonomy. | Most of the seats in the zemstvo authorities were occupied by nobles, there were few peasants and merchants. As a result, all issues affecting the interests of the peasants were resolved in favor of the landowners. |
Military reform | Recruitment has been replaced by universal military service, covering all classes. Military districts were created, the main headquarters was founded. | The new system made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and quickly raise a large army if necessary. A large-scale rearmament has been carried out. A network of military schools was created, education in which was available to representatives of all classes. Corporal punishment in the army has been abolished. | In some cases, corporal punishment was retained - for "fined" soldiers. |
Peasant reform | The personal independence of the peasant was legally established, and he was also given a certain allotment of land for permanent use with the subsequent right of redemption. | The obsolete and obsolete serfdom was finally abolished. There was an opportunity to significantly raise the standard of living of the rural population. Thanks to this, it was possible to eliminate the danger of peasant riots, which became a common occurrence in the country in the 1850s. The reform made it possible to negotiate with the landowners, who remained full owners of all their land, with the exception of small plots allocated for peasants. | The quitrent was preserved, which the peasants were obliged to pay to the landowner for several years for the right to use the land; |
educational reform | A system of real schools was introduced, in which, unlike classical gymnasiums, the emphasis was on teaching mathematics and the natural sciences. A significant number of research laboratories have been established. | The people had the opportunity to receive a versatile and more secular education, to master the sciences in their modern (at that time) state. In addition, higher education courses for women began to open. The advantage for the ruling class was the elimination of the danger of the spread of revolutionary ideas, since young people were now educated in Russia, and not in the west. | Graduates of real schools were restricted from entering higher specialized educational institutions, and they could not enter the university at all. |
urban reform | A system of city self-government was introduced, including city Duma, council and electoral assembly. | The reform allowed the population of cities to equip their urban economy: build roads, infrastructure, credit institutions, marinas, etc. This made it possible to revive the country's commercial and industrial development, as well as to introduce the population to civilian life. | The urban reform was openly nationalistic and confessional in nature. Among the deputies of the city duma, the number of non-Christians should not exceed a third, and the mayor should not have been a Jew. |
Results of reforms
The "Great Reforms", as they are usually called in historical science, significantly modernized and modernized the Russian Empire. The class and property inequality of various segments of the population was significantly smoothed out, although it persisted until the October Revolution. The level of education of the population, including the lower classes, has noticeably increased.
At the same time, clashes escalated between the "enlightened bureaucrats" who developed and implemented reforms, and the aristocratic nobility, who wanted to preserve the old order and their influence in the country. Because of this, Alexander II was forced to maneuver, removing the "enlightened bureaucrats" from business and reappointing them to their posts if necessary.
Significance of reforms
The "great reforms" had a dual meaning, which was originally planned by the tsarist government. On the one hand, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens has improved the social situation in the country; the widespread dissemination of education had a positive impact on the modernization of the Russian economy and contributed to the development of science; military reform made it possible to replace the old, expensive and inefficient army with a more modern one, fully meeting its main tasks and causing minimal harm to the personality of a soldier in peacetime. The "Great Reforms" contributed to the disintegration of the remnants of the feudal system and the development of capitalism in Russia.
On the other hand, the liberal reforms strengthened the strength and authority of autocratic power and made it possible to combat the spread of radical revolutionary ideas. It just so happened that the most faithful supporters of unlimited tsarist power were precisely the liberal “enlightened bureaucrats”, and not the arrogant aristocratic elite. Education had a special role to play: young people had to be taught to think seriously in order to prevent the formation of superficial radical views in their minds.
History of Russia from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century Bokhanov Alexander Nikolaevich
§ 4. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s
Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they used to say) economy. Medical assistance in the village was practically non-existent. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the elementary rules of hygiene. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Individual landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was exhausted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the needs of the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.
On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established to manage economic affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, to organize food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.
The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were district and provincial zemstvo councils. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.
Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, three electoral congresses were created to elect deputies of the county zemstvo assembly. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatins. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by elected representatives from volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors.
As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liberal landlords, the autocracy considered the local nobility to be its main support. Therefore, the Zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.
Zemstvos have played a large positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.
With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has unfolded, a “third element” has appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians have come to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. They were trusted by peasants, councils listened to their advice. Government officials watched with concern the growing influence of the "third element".
According to the law, the Zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But soon they began to play an important political role. In those years, the most enlightened and humane landowners usually went to the zemstvo service. They became vowels of zemstvo assemblies, members and chairmen of administrations. They stood at the origins of the zemstvo liberal movement. And the representatives of the "third element" were attracted to the left, democratic, currents of social thought.
On similar grounds, in 1870, a reform of city self-government was carried out. The issues of improvement, as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs, were subject to the patronage of city dumas and councils. Elections to the City Duma were held in three electoral congresses (small, medium and large taxpayers). Workers who did not pay taxes did not participate in the elections. The mayor and the council were elected by the Duma. The mayor headed both the Duma and the Council, coordinating their activities. City dumas carried out a lot of work on the improvement and development of cities, but in the social movement they were not as noticeable as the zemstvos. This was due to the long-standing political inertia of the merchants and the business class.
Simultaneously with the Zemstvo reform, in 1864, a judicial reform was carried out. Russia received a new court: classless, public, competitive, independent of the administration. Court hearings became open to the public.
The central element of the new judicial system was the district court with jurors. The prosecution was supported by the prosecutor. The defender objected. Jurors, 12 people, were appointed by lot from representatives of all classes. After hearing the arguments, the jury returned a verdict (“guilty”, “not guilty”, or “guilty but deserves leniency”). Based on the verdict, the court issued a sentence. Russian general criminal law at that time did not know such a measure of punishment as the death penalty. Only special judicial bodies (military courts, the Special Presence of the Senate) could sentence to death.
Small cases were dealt with by the world court, which consisted of one person. The magistrate was elected by the zemstvo assemblies or city dumas for three years. The government could not by its power remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district court). The principle of irremovability of judges ensured their independence from the administration. The judicial reform was one of the most consistent and radical transformations of the 60s and 70s.
Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained unfinished. To resolve conflicts among the peasantry, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly due to the fact that peasant legal concepts were very different from general civil ones. A magistrate with a "Code of Laws" would often be powerless to judge the peasants. The volost court, which consisted of peasants, judged on the basis of the customs existing in the area. But he was too exposed to the influence of the wealthy upper classes of the village and all sorts of bosses. The volost court and the mediator had the right to award corporal punishment. This shameful phenomenon existed in Russia until 1904.
In 1861, General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912) was appointed minister of war. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, he carried out a number of important reforms. They had the goal of creating large trained reserves with a limited peacetime army. At the final stage of these reforms, in 1874, a law was passed that abolished recruitment and extended the obligation to serve in the army to men of all classes who had reached the age of 20 and were fit for health reasons. In the infantry, the service life was set at 6 years, in the navy - at 7 years. For those who graduated from higher educational institutions, the term of service was reduced to six months. These benefits have become an additional incentive for the dissemination of education. The abolition of recruitment, along with the abolition of serfdom, significantly increased the popularity of Alexander II among the peasantry.
The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s are a major phenomenon in the history of Russia. New, modern self-government bodies and courts contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, the development of civil consciousness of the population, the spread of education, and the improvement of the quality of life. Russia joined the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood based on the self-activity of the population and its will. But these were only the first steps. The remnants of serfdom were strong in local government, and many noble privileges remained intact. The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s did not affect the upper levels of power. The autocracy and the police system, inherited from past eras, were preserved.
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