Spain
Venice
Genoa
Tuscany
Parma
Savoy
Order of Malta Order of Malta
imperial army
Battle of Lepanto 1571, or Third Battle of Lepanto(Spanish) Batalla de Lepanto, Italian Battaglia di Lepanto, tour. İnebahtı Deniz Muharebesi ) - a naval battle that took place on October 7, 1571 in the Gulf of Patras near Cape Scrofa between the fleets of the Holy League and the Ottoman Empire.
background
balance of power
Holy League Forces
The forces of the united Holy League represented the most powerful and numerous fleet Europe had ever seen. In total, a fleet of about 300 different ships gathered, of which 108 Venetian galleys, 81 Spanish galleys, 32 galleys put up at the expense of the Pope and other Italian states, in addition, the fleet included 6 huge Venetian galleasses. The total number of ship crews was about 84 thousand people, of which approximately 20 thousand soldiers were from the boarding teams.
Turkish forces
The course of the battle
The allied fleet blocked the Turkish ships in the Gulf of Patras. The Turkish commander believed that the Allied forces were anchored off the island of Kefalonia, and Don Juan of Austria himself believed that the Turks were at Lepanto.
On the morning of October 7, 1571, both fleets, quite unexpectedly for both sides, met at the entrance to the bay, 60 km from the city of Lepanto (Nafpakt). The shore, which up to the time hid the forces of the opponents, is low, and the Spaniards had seen the sails of the Turkish fleet earlier. It was much more difficult for the Turks to detect the Allied rowing ships. Nevertheless, the Turks noticed the Christians and began to line up in battle order. The sails were lowered and the formations were made at the oars. The battle formation of the Turkish fleet consisted of a center, two wings and a small reserve located behind the center (5 galleys, 25 galliots).
The right wing of the Turks (53 galleys, 3 galliots), led by Mehmet Sirocco, was the weakest. The center (91 galleys, 5 galliots) was commanded by Ali Pasha himself. The left wing (61 galleys, 32 galliots) consisted mainly of Algerian pirate ships, led by Uluj Ali. Uluj Ali, a Calabrian by birth, was preparing for the career of a priest, but was kidnapped by pirates. Once captured, he changed his faith and name (real name - Ochchali), made a career and became the Pasha of Tripoli. Many ships were also led by sailors who had fled from Europe and converted to Islam: a Venetian Hassan, French Jafar, Albanian Dali Mami. The forces of the Turkish fleet stretched for 8-10 km.
The Allied fleet formed up in the same order of battle. The center (62 galleys) was headed by Don Juan of Austria himself. The right wing (58 galleys) was commanded by Giovanni Andrea Doria. The left wing of the allies (53 galleys) was led into battle by a Venetian Barbarigo. 30 galleys under the command of the Marquis of Santa Cruz were placed in reserve. Don Juan ordered the Christian oarsmen to be unchained and armed.
Both fleets moved forward. According to some sources, the allies deliberately pushed forward heavy galleasses, and then pulled the main part of the galleys to them in order to meet the Turks with a united front at the time of the collision. The Turks, on the other hand, moved in one line, and when the moment of collision came, their light galleys were ahead, and their slow galliots fell behind. After the contact of the fleets, three centers of struggle arose simultaneously.
The left wing of the allies, due to ignorance of the terrain and fear of running aground, kept a distance from the coast. The Turks took advantage of this. The galleys from the right wing circled the allies along the coast and attacked from the rear. Part of the Turkish galleys wedged between the center of the enemy and his left wing. As a result, the entire left flank of the Christians was surrounded.
Barbarigo was forced to accept the boarding battle in the environment, but the advantage of the allies in armament and in the number of boarding teams immediately affected. Each Allied galley had at least 150 soldiers, and the Turkish ships in this sector had only 30-40 boarding soldiers on board.
In the afternoon, the Turks, who surrounded the stronger Barbarigo, were defeated. The encirclement of the enemy ships did not give the Turks any benefit, since the enemy turned out to be much stronger in close combat. In the center, where the main forces of the rivals collided, the battle was stubborn. The main targets of the attack were the flagship galleys of Don Juan of Austria ("Real") and Ali Pasha ("Sultana"). Eventually Ali Pasha was killed in a shootout. His head was raised on a long pike, which caused panic among the Turkish sailors. The center of the Turks began to give in and retreat.
The commander of the left wing of the Turkish fleet, Uluj Ali, made the following maneuver - with a large part of his wing, he turned to the center and hit the side of the forces of Juan of Austria. Ali Pasha's flagship galley was already finished, and Huang, breaking the general order, began to turn towards the ships of Uluj Ali. At the same time, the Allied reserve under the command of the Marquis of Santa Cruz entered the battle.
The commander of the right flank of the allies, Doria also turned and began to approach the center of the allied battle formation, directly on Uludzh Ali. Uluj Ali's ships could be surrounded, so he began to withdraw from the battle. However, before leaving the battlefield, he managed to capture the Maltese flagship galley.
Losses
The defeat of the Turkish fleet was complete, historians disagree only in assessing the losses. The following figures are most often given: the Turks lost 224 ships, including 117 were captured by the allies. 12,000 slaves were captured and released on Turkish ships. At least 10 thousand slave rowers (Christians, since Muslims could not be kept in slavery) died along with the sunken ships. Up to 15 thousand Turkish soldiers and sailors were killed. According to various estimates, from 300 to 5 thousand Turks were captured. 30 Turkish cannons were also captured.
Allied losses were much less. dupuis believes that the Allies lost 13 galleys, 7566 people were killed and 8 thousand wounded, although this figure may be somewhat underestimated.
In this battle, 24-year-old Miguel Cervantes distinguished himself (the future famous writer served in the Spanish Marines in Naples since 1570), who commanded a platoon of Spanish soldiers on the Marquise galley. In battle, Cervantes received three gunshot wounds: two in the chest and in the left forearm (then his hand was inactive all his life).
Consequences and assessments
The Battle of Lepanto was the largest naval battle of the 16th century, proving to Europeans that hitherto invincible Turks could be defeated. Venetian historian and diplomat Paolo Paruta expressed public opinion during the funeral speech in the Cathedral of San Marco, dedicated to the fallen in battle, in the following words:
They showed us by their example that the Turks are not as invincible as we thought before ... Thus, we can say that although the beginning of this war was for us the time of sunset, leaving us in endless night, now the courage of these people, as true, life-giving the sun, gave us the most beautiful and most joyful day that this city has ever seen in its entire history.
After the battle, Don Juan of Austria and other commanders visited numerous sanctuaries in honor of the Virgin Mary to thank her for the victory. In an urgent message to the Venetian Senate, they said: “Non virtus, non arma, non duces, sed Maria Rosarii victores nos fecit” (“Not force, not weapons and not commanders, but
In the 16th century, there was a struggle between the maritime powers for dominance in the Mediterranean. A particularly sharp rivalry unfolded between Spain and Turkey. In 1570, the Turkish Sultan Selim II unleashed a war with the aim of capturing the island of Cyprus and further expansion into Italy and Spain. The war was called the Cyprus War and lasted from 1570 to 1573. The Spanish-Venetian rivalry at sea contributed to the implementation of the plan of the Turkish Sultan.
Pope Pius V managed to organize an anti-Turkish Spanish-Venetian coalition, called the Holy League. And it included Italy, Spain, the Papal States and the Italian principalities. Juan of Austria was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied fleet. The Turkish fleet was commanded by Muezin-Zade-Ali (Ali Pasha).
On October 7, 1571, at Cape Scrofa, at the entrance to the Gulf of Patras of the Ionian Sea, a naval battle took place, which went down in history under the name of Lepanta. The battle involved a fleet of 250 Spanish and Venetian ships and a Turkish fleet of 275 ships. As much as the Battle of Lepanta was desirable for the Christians, it was just as undesirable for the Turks. The Turkish fleet had already been at sea for 6 months, was weakened after a series of battles against coastal fortified points, and was in great need of boarding troops. The fleet of the Holy Empire was supplied with the best troops in Europe at that time - the Spanish.
Time played into the hands of the Turks, since in October the navigation of the rowing fleet in the Mediterranean ended and the battle became impossible. For this reason, Juan of Austria sought to immediately engage in battle with the Turks.
The Turkish commander-in-chief, in obedience to the order of the Sultan, re to meet the Christian fleet. Intelligence of Juan of Austria noticed the sailing Turkish fleet before the Turks noticed the allies, but reported incorrect data about the Turkish fleet. Don XI gave the signal to "build a line of battle." The Turkish fleet consisted of 210 galleys and 65 galliots. The Allies had 203 galleys and 6 galeas. Qualitative advantages were on the side of the allies: firstly, they cut off the bows of their galleys and arranged shields and traverses on them; secondly, according to tactical and technical data, the Turkish artillery was inferior to the artillery of the allied fleet, thirdly, only 2500 arquebuses were in service with the Janissaries, the rest of the Turks were archers and did not have protective equipment. All the soldiers of the Allies had firearms and protective equipment. On Turkish ships, the number of soldiers was no more than 30-40, and the Allies had at least 150 soldiers in each galley.
The battle order of the Turks consisted of a center, two wings and a small reserve (5 galleys, 25 galliots). The weakest was the right wing (53 galleys, 3 galliots) under the command of the king of Alexandria, Megmet-Sirocco. The strong center (91 galleys, 5 galleys) was led by Ali Pasha, and the left wing (61 galleys, 32 galleys) was led by the Algerian king Ulug Ali.
According to the plan, the battle order of the allies was to consist of the center under the command of don Juan (62 galleys), the right wing led by the Genoese Doria (58 galleys), the left wing led by the Venetian Barbarigo (53 galleys) and the reserve under the command of the Marquis Cardo. The galleys, which had strong artillery and a large number of soldiers, were supposed to move forward in order to repel the first onslaught of the enemy and create favorable conditions for the attack of the Turks by galleys.
The battle began at 11-12 noon with the deployment of the Allied fleet. The right wing of the allies under the command of Doria went far ahead and broke away from the center, and 8 galleys of the Sicilian captain Cardo fell behind. There was a danger of dispersion of forces. Don Juan ordered the Christian oarsmen to be attacked and given weapons. At that time, he himself, in a boat with a raised cross in his hand, passed along the line of courts, trying to raise the morale of the teams with a promise on behalf of the pope of absolution.
After that, the galleasses of the center and the left wing came forward. The wind died down, calm came. Don Juan returned to the flagship tack and raised the signal "to fight." Turks and allies moved forward.
There were three battle centers. The situation required skillful maneuvering and interaction of combat units.
On the left wing, the Turks managed to surround the allies. Due to ignorance of the terrain, the allied fleet was unable to cling to the shallows, and the Turks managed to go around it along the coast and attack from the rear. A boarding battle began, during which the advantages of the allies in numbers and weapons affected. By 1230 hours, the right wing of the Turks was defeated. The environment did not provide success. From 12 o'clock the fighting unfolded in the center. Here the Turks had the best forces, and the battle was especially stubborn. The flagship galleys of Don Juan and Ali Pasha were at the epicenter of the battle, and the Pasha was killed. The outcome of the battle is the victory of the allies. However, she proved unstable.
From 14:00 to 16:00, the defeat of the Turkish fleet was completed. The main maneuvers at this stage were Ulug-Ali and Doria. At the moment of crisis, Ulug-Ali (the left wing of the Turks), with most of his forces, suddenly turned to the center, attacked and crushed his right flank. However, the allies did not lose their heads. Don Juan, having finished with the enemy's flagship lehr, rushed to the aid of the right flank. At the same time, the Allied reserve (Krutz) entered the battle and brought the right wing of Doria closer from the rear. The encirclement of the courts of Ulug-Ali was brewing, the Cahors fled with 13 ships. Another 35 Turkish ships managed to escape and escape. During the battle, the allies sank 20 enemy galleys, and 200 ships turned out to be their trophies. (Razin, p. 365.)
As a result of the defeat of the Turks, 12 thousand slave slaves were freed. The allies lost more than 7 thousand people killed, counting the dead rowers, of whom there were about 2.5 thousand on the Venetian galleys alone, including 15 Venetian captains in this battle, Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, commanded a platoon of Spanish soldiers and was twice wounded. The Turks lost 30 thousand people and 224 ships.
The Battle of Lepanto ended the dominance of the Turkish fleet in the Mediterranean. The allied fleet won a victory, but its results were not used to the full. Instead of vigorous action, there were disputes about future plans. After losing a whole month, the Allied fleets dispersed to ports. The Turkish Sultan was given the opportunity to restore his fleet, and by the spring of next year, the Turks had built 220 galleys. The fleet went to sea under the command of Ulug-Ali, who, acting very carefully, won the campaign in 1572.
The Holy League broke up, and in March 1573 the government of Venice signed an agreement with Turkey, according to which they conceded to the Turks and paid a large indemnity. The Turks reasserted their dominance in the eastern Mediterranean.
38.2 , 21.31. Military encyclopedic lexicon published by the society of military men and writers. - Ed. 2nd. - In 14 volumes - St. Petersburg, 1855. - V.8. pp. 176–179.
2. History of naval art / Ed. ed. R. N. Mordvinov. M, 1953. -T.1.-S. 115–116.
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5. Marine atlas / Ed. ed. G. I. Levchenko. - M., 1958. - T.Z, part 1.
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| Battle of Lepanto | |
| Parties | |
| Holy League (1571): Spain Venice papal states Malta Genoa Sicily Naples Tuscany Parma imperial army |
Ottoman Empire, Algerian Pirates |
| Commanders | |
| Juan of Austria Gianandrea Doria |
Ali Pasha† |
| Side forces | |
| 206 galleys 6 galeas |
220-230 galleys 50-60 galliots |
| Losses | |
| 9,000 killed and wounded 12 galleys |
30,000 killed and wounded 240 ships |
Battle of Lepanto 1571 or Third Battle of Lepanto- a naval battle that took place on October 7 in the Gulf of Patras, near Cape Scrofa, between the combined forces of the Holy League, which included Spain, the Venetian Republic, the Pope, the Order of Malta, Genoa, Sicily, Naples, Savoy, Tuscany and Parma and the Ottoman fleet empires.
Prerequisites
League Forces
A. B. Snisarenko, describing the review of the fleet, gives a slightly different composition: 81 galleys and 12 Spanish warships under the command of the Genoese Gian Doria, 12 papal galleys led by the Vatican admiral Marcantonio Colonna, 108 galleys, 6 galleasses and 2 warships of the Venetian admiral Sebastian Venier, 3 Maltese galleys, 3 galleys of the Duke of Savoy and a number of other small vessels.
In addition to ship teams, the fleet included boarding teams of 12 thousand Italians, 5 thousand Spaniards, 3 thousand Germans and 3 thousand volunteers from other countries and regions, among whom was the future author of Don Quixote Miguel Cervantes.
Turkish forces
The Turkish fleet consisted of a roughly equal number of ships, about 210 galleys and 66 galleots. The total number of teams and boarding detachments could reach 88 thousand people (of which about 16 thousand were in boarding teams). Ali Pasha Muezzinzade was at the head of the Turkish fleet.
Battle
The allied fleet blockaded Turkish ships in the Gulf of Patras. The Turkish commander believed that the Allied forces were anchored off the island of Kefalonia, and Don Juan of Austria himself believed that the Turks were in Lepanto.
In general, the forces of the Turkish fleet stretched for 8 - 10 km.
The Allied fleet formed up in the same order of battle. The center was headed by Don Juan of Austria himself (62 galleys). The right wing (58 galleys) was under the command of the Genoese Giovanni Andrea Doria, great-nephew of the famous admiral Andrea Doria, who smashed the Turks and Algerian pirates many times. The left wing of the allies (53 galleys) was under the command of the Venetian Barbarigo. The reserve of 30 galleys was under the command of the Marquis Cruz. Don Juan also ordered the Christian oarsmen to be unchained and armed.
The battle began with the advancement of both the Turks and the allies forward. Judging by some sources, the allies deliberately pushed forward heavy galleasses, and then pulled the main part of the galleys to them in order to meet the Turks with a united front at the time of the collision. The Turks, on the other hand, moved in one line, and when the moment came to collide, their light galleys were in front, and the slow galleys fell behind. The forces of both sides met and at the same time three centers of struggle arose.
The left wing of the allies, due to ignorance of the terrain and fear of running aground, kept a distance from the coast. The Turks took advantage of this. The galleys from the right wing circled the allies along the coast and attacked from the rear. Part of the Turkish galleys wedged between the center of the enemy and his left wing. As a result, the entire left flank of the Christians was surrounded.
Barbarigo was forced to accept the boarding battle in the environment, but the advantage of the allies in armament and in the number of boarding teams immediately affected. Each Allied galley had at least 150 soldiers, and Turkish ships in this area had 30 to 40 boarding soldiers on board.
In the afternoon, the Turks, who surrounded the stronger Barbarigo, were defeated. The encirclement of the enemy gave nothing. In the center, where the main forces of the rivals collided, the battle was stubborn. The main objects were the flagship galleys of Don Juan of Austria and Ali Pasha. Eventually Ali Pasha was killed in a shootout. His head was raised on a long pike, which caused panic among the Turkish sailors. The center of the Turks began to give in and retreat.
The commander of the left wing of the Turkish fleet, Uluj Ali, made the following maneuver - with a large part of his wing, he turned to the center and hit the side of the forces of Juan of Austria. Ali Pasha's flagship galley was already finished, and Huang, breaking the general order, began to turn towards the ships of Uluj Ali. At the same time, the Allied reserve under the command of the Marquis Cruz entered the battle.
The commander of the right flank of the allies, Doria also turned and began to approach the center of the allied battle formation, directly on Uludzh Ali.
In the 20th century, G.K. Chesterton wrote the ballad “Lepanto” dedicated to the battle (Russian translation by M. Froman,), in which don Juan of Austria is called “the last
Battle of Lepanto. Unknown artist of the late 16th century
On September 6, 1566, when the Turkish Janissaries marched to storm the small town of Sziget (later known as Shigetvar) to the beat of their famous drums, Suleiman the Magnificent died in his tent at the age of 73 on the road between Belgrade and Vienna. The bright era of the reign of one of the most famous rulers of the Ottoman Empire has ended. After conducting 13 military companies, personally participating in each, the old warrior died of illness and old age. The Janissaries took Sziget, being unaware that their leader was no longer alive. Personally devoted to the deceased sultan, the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha hid the news from the army for several days that Suleiman was no more, sending messengers to Istanbul. Timely transmitted news allowed Selim, the son of the Sultan from his beloved wife Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska, to establish himself on the throne and take full power in the country. It was the chain of decisions taken by the new ruler, known as Selim II the Drunkard, and his entourage that led to the largest naval battle of the late Middle Ages - the Battle of Lepanto.
It would be gold in the purse, and the clouds are not afraid of us
By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire was at the peak of its power and had virtually no enemies in the eastern Mediterranean basin. She had all the proper tools to satisfy her foreign policy ambitions: a huge, well-trained army and a large navy. The Christian states opposing it not only failed to form even a pitiful semblance of some kind of coalition, but were also engaged in a showdown among themselves with might and main. The Holy Roman Empire was in fact a huge collection of small Germanic states. Mighty Spain fought with France for control of Italy, the result was the Battle of Pavia (1525), the defeat of the French and the capture of King Francis I. After that, the losers turned to growing internal problems. The Spanish monarchy, absorbed in the development of the newly discovered New World, paid less and less attention to Mediterranean problems. The safe crossing of the Atlantic by ships laden with gold and silver was an increasingly important factor in the well-being of Madrid. Another major political player of that time - the Venetian Republic - did its best not to quarrel with the Turks, turned a blind eye to the frequent seizures of their ships by Barbary pirates, vassals of Istanbul, and other similar dirty tricks. All the welfare of the Venetians was based on sea communications and the ability to receive goods from the East.
In 1565, the Turks undertake a military expedition against the island of Malta, but suffer a painful setback. The very fact of the appearance of the Ottoman fleet in the center of the Mediterranean Sea and the growing excesses of Algerian and Tunisian pirates began to cause concern "among pragmatic people who follow politics." In 1566, Pius V became the new Pope, who was known as a pious man, who at the same time considered the restoration of Christian control over the Mediterranean the most important task and put a lot of effort into creating a coalition called the Holy League.
The enthusiasm of the new pontiff initially did not find support. The Austrian Archduke Maximilian II adhered to the peace signed with the Ottomans, the south of Spain was engulfed in an uprising of the Moriscos (the so-called Arabs who remained on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula and for one reason or another converted to Christianity). The Venetian Republic did not at all want any turbidity on the horizon - the basis of its existence was based on the slogan: the tranquility of trade is above all. But, as Rudyard Kipling accurately noted, among the metals there is one that "rules over everything", even over gold - cold iron, which will soon again say its weighty word.
Isn't it time for a little stretch? or an island on fire
Having entrenched himself on the throne, Selim inherited from his father only military ambitions, but not the talent of a military leader. He aspired to his father's glory, without possessing any noticeable talents for achieving it. The stormy temperament craved activity, and the new sultan began to consult with those close to him on the topic “Where would we go to war?”. Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, to whom Selim delegated such a troublesome thing as government, insisted on a blow to Spain, which was busy suppressing the uprising of the Moriscos. The sudden transfer to the Pyrenees (with an emphasis on the North African coast controlled by the Berbers) of a large army, which the rebels would willingly replenish, would create, in his opinion, a mortal danger for the Habsburg monarchy. But Selim did not dare to undertake such a large-scale expedition, but directed the vizier to something closer. Closer were the rich Venetian colonies, namely the island of Cyprus, already in the depths of Turkish possessions. However, in relations with the Venetians there was such an inconvenient thing as a peace treaty. I needed a reason. What will the ruler, who so wants to make war, go to! As a casus belli, a tough argument was put forward: since the island was already owned twice by devout Arabs, it just needs to be freed from enemy occupation. Mufti Ibn Said, at the suggestion of Selim, prepared an "ideological platform" for this purpose in the form of an appropriate firman.
The commander of the fleet and the entire expedition, Piali Pasha, guaranteed the success of the enterprise. And not without reason. In 1569, a great fire caused great damage to the Venetian Arsenal, and Cyprus itself was located at a distance of 2 thousand km from the metropolis. In February 1570, Sultan Selim declares a holy war against the infidels. On July 1, 1570, a 56,000-strong Turkish army lands in Cyprus.
The governor of Cyprus, Niccolo Dandolo, could oppose such hordes with no more than 10 thousand people and considered the battle in the open area impossible. The Venetians took refuge in the well-fortified capital of Nicosia and in the small town of Famagusta. High-speed ships were sent to the metropolis with a request for help. The news of the Turkish landing on Cyprus takes the commercial republic by surprise. On September 3, 1570, Nicosia fell. New fortifications and bastions, for which huge sums of money were spent, did not help. Having failed in two assaults and in digging tunnels, the Turks launched an attack along the entire perimeter of the walls, preventing the enemy from maneuvering reserves. The garrison almost completely died, the inhabitants were partially destroyed, partially sold into slavery. Famagusta, with its old walls, held up remarkably well. The rocky soil prevented large-scale siege work, and at first the Turks limited themselves to blocking the fortress. The commander of the garrison, Marco Antonio Bragadino, skillfully led the defense, even managing to organize a breakthrough of several galleys from the harbor asking for help.
Dad speaks persuasively
Of course, Venice alone, despite its financial capabilities and powerful fleet, could not withstand the full power of the Ottoman Empire - the difference in the weight category was too big. The active 85th Venetian Doge Alvise I Mocenigo begins major foreign policy events in search of allies. Ambassadors and emissaries are sent to the capitals of European states to carry out soundings on the subject of "help in any way you can." At first, the mission of the Venetian diplomats looked more like the ordeals of Gauf's Little Muck - they listened carefully, nodded sympathetically, shed sincere tears, but at the same time they complained about the difficult times and advised them to turn to someone else. After all, the very recent dismissive, even negative, attitude of Venice itself to possible anti-Turkish "sanctions" because of the threat of losing profits from trade was well known. Now circumstances have taken the “trading corporation” from the Adriatic by the throat.
The situation changed when the energetic Pius V took over all organizational issues, who, in order to make the anti-Turkish coalition more dynamic, started sending out letters of instructive content: “Would you be kind…” The pontiff was especially successful in eloquence addressed to Philip II, King of Spain. He appealed to the religious feelings of the monarch, called to remember the glorious deeds of the kings of the Reconquista period. And in general, he made it clear in florid terms that while the ships of the Muslim barbarians plow the expanses of the Mediterranean Sea, it is worthless for the keeper of the faith, the support of the Holy See, to count peacocks in the garden of the Escorial carelessly. It was fraught to quarrel with Rome, and Philip II sent 50 galleys under the command of the Sicilian condottiere Andrea Doria to help the Venetians. Pius V also equips a small squadron. On September 1, 1570, these forces join the Venetian fleet of 120 galleys, stationed in Candia (Crete) under the command of Girolamo Zana. At the military council, it was decided to go to Cyprus and release it, if necessary, engaging in battle with the enemy. In mid-September, the combined fleet (180 galleys) reaches Asia Minor in the Anatolia region, where it receives two unpleasant news: Nicosia has fallen, and Piali Pasha is based on Rhodes with two hundred galleys, threatening the communications of the allies. In the end, it was decided to return to Kandia. Only the fortress of Famagusta continued to hold on stubbornly.
It is easier to beat a team and a father, or the Creation of a Holy League
The unsuccessful outcome of the company in 1570 in Venice was perceived extremely painfully. Girolamo Zana was removed from the post of commander, and his place was taken by the more determined Sebastiano Venier. Istanbul also considered Piali Pasha's actions to be indecisive ("he sat out in Rhodes"), and he was replaced by the favorite of the Sultan's wife, Ali Pasha. The campaign of 1571 was to become intense.
Meanwhile, the restless Pius sought to breathe into his enterprise the epic spirit of the Crusades, fueling enthusiasm with powerful sermons and, as they now say, "tough statements". The winter of 1570-71 was spent productively by papal and Venetian diplomats in creating a single anti-Turkish coalition, the members of which were supposed to take on specific responsibilities, and not just be observer countries with a vague status. The rulers of Austria and France, citing a very difficult domestic political situation and crisis, declined to participate. But with regard to Philip II, the exhortations of the Pope were successful. Reluctantly and grimacing at the increasing reports of attacks on Spanish convoys in the Atlantic by vile English heretics, the king agreed to participate in the campaign of almost his entire Mediterranean fleet.
Don Juan the Austrian
On May 25, 1571, in St. Peter's Cathedral, representatives of Philip II, Pius V and the Doge of Venice signed a document on the creation of the Holy League - a military-political alliance directed against the Ottoman Empire. The signatories pledged to field military contingents totaling 200 galleys and 50,000 soldiers. The command of the armed forces of the Holy League was taken over by the half-brother of the king, don Juan of Austria. It was decided that the first active steps would be taken in the summer of 1571.
Final in Cyprus. "And the sea boiled with a thousand oars." The fleet goes to sea
From about mid-June, allied squadrons begin to stay in the port of Messina (Sicily). The Spanish contingent also included the galleys of Genoa, which was dependent on Spain. In September 1571, news reached the allies of the tragic end of the siege, which had not received help from the fortress of Famagusta. Since the spring, the Turks have taken seriously this last stronghold of the Venetians on the island. Pulling up artillery, they undertook a massive bombardment of the fortress, followed by two unsuccessful assaults. The defenders held out bravely, but by the end of the summer food supplies came to an end, by August the commandant of the garrison, Marco Antonio Bragadino, had no more than 500 combat-ready soldiers. The commander of the Turkish army, Mustafa Pasha, offered honorable terms of surrender. But during the signing of the agreement, the Turks suddenly began a massacre, killing many Christians. Bragadino himself was put to a painful death: they flayed his skin alive.
The news of the Famagusta massacre infuriated not only the Venetians, but the entire allied fleet. Now there was an incentive more substantial than papal proclamations to go to sea and take revenge. Don Juan of Austria became aware of the appearance of enemy ships in the southern sector of the Adriatic Sea. It was now a matter of honor to go out to sea and give battle.
On September 16, the fleet of the Holy League left Messina. On September 27, he reached Corfu, whose governor reported that a Turkish fleet was seen from the island, which was heading south towards the port of Lepanto (Strait of Corinth). Seeing that battle was inevitable, don Juan redistributed the personnel from the approaching transports. He reinforces the crews of the Venetian galleys with Spanish and Genoese soldiers. This leads to friction between the allies - several people are hanged for fighting. The entire expedition is under threat. But thanks to the diplomatic talents of Marco Antonio Colonna, the commander of the papal squadron, he manages to keep the situation under control. The brave, but too hot-tempered Sebastiano Venier as commander of the Venetian squadron is replaced by the more restrained 70-year-old Agostino Barbarigo. Soon, high-speed reconnaissance galleys reported that an enemy fleet had been sighted in the Corinthian Gulf.
The Turks, meanwhile, were in Lepanto, where Ali Pasha's ships took on board 12,000 people for resupply, mostly dismounted sipahis, the elite heavy cavalry. The flagship of Ali Pasha, the Sultana galley, took on board 200 Janissaries. Information about the approaching enemy reached the Turkish commander, and on October 4 he gathers a military council. The problem was that Selim II, who imagines himself a grandiose strategist and brilliant tactician, from Istanbul was incomparably more aware of how to properly wage a war. Therefore, he sent Ali Pasha an order to "seek meetings and give battle to the enemy." History shows that when incompetent and frankly incompetent rulers enroll themselves in the club named after Caesar and Bonaparte, this always leads to disaster. The bigger the country, the bigger the disaster.
Uluj Ali, pirate and admiral
The opinions of the flagships of the Turkish fleet were divided. The junior commander, cautious Mehemed Sulik Pasha (nicknamed Sirocco) rightly pointed out that autumn storms would soon begin and the allies would retreat to the bases, so we had to wait. The second flagship, the commander of the Berber squadron, Uludzh Ali Pasha, who had become adept at maneuvering operations, on the contrary, stood up for the battle, because it was enough to follow the women of Lepanto. In the end, waving the Sultan's instructions to those present, Ali Pasha announced that he had decided to give battle. The die was cast.
Crimson waves. Battle
Battle Diagram (Naval Atlas, Volume III, Part 1)
On the morning of October 7, 1571, at about 7 am, the opponents visually discovered each other. On that day, the allied fleet had 206 galleys and 6 galleasses. The latter were a kind of hybrid of a sailing and rowing ship, were well armed and had large teams. The personnel of the Holy League fleet consisted of more than 40 thousand sailors and crew members and 28 thousand soldiers of boarding teams. The opposing Turkish fleet had 208 galleys, 56 galliots and 64 fustas. The last two types are small vessels that were used to transfer personnel from ship to ship. There were approximately 50,000 rowers and 27,000 troops on the ships (of which 10,000 Janissaries and 2,000 Sipahs). Most of the rowers in the Turkish galleys were slaves, and during the battle, soldiers had to be allocated to keep them in obedience. Ali Pasha's ships had, on average, fewer cannons than their European opponents, the Ottoman combat teams had more archers, and the Europeans more arquebusiers. In general, the Allied fleet had superior firepower.
Approximately two hours the opponents spent on building their battle formations. By analogy with ground battles, the right and left wings, the center and the reserve were clearly distinguished. The disposition at the beginning of the case was as follows. Among the Allies, the left wing, resting against the coast, was led by Agostino Barbarigo (53 galleys, 2 galleasses). The center was headed directly by Juan of Austria on the flagship galley "Real" (62 galleys, 2 galleasses). The left wing (53 galleys, 2 galleasses) was commanded by Andea Doria. The rear guard, also known as the reserve, included 38 galleys under the flag of Don Alvaro de Bazan. Intelligence from 8 high-speed galleys (Giovanni di Cardonna) also belonged there.
The Turkish fleet was divided similarly. The right flank consisted of 60 galleys, 2 galliots under the leadership of Mehmed Sulik Pasha. Ali Pasha had 87 galleys - these were the main forces. And, finally, the left flank included the daring fellows Uluj Ali in 67 galleys and 32 galliots. In the rear guard was Dragut Reis with 8 small fast galleys and 22 galliots.
By 9 a.m. the building was generally over. The fleets were separated by about 6 kilometers. Due to the haste caused by the desire of the Allied galleys to quickly take places in the ranks, the heavy galleasses fell behind and did not have time to advance to their positions ahead of the battle formations. The opposing fleets lined up in front formation against each other. It soon became clear that Turkish forces were hanging over both flanks of the Holy League.
By order of their commanders, both armadas prepared for battle began to approach. According to the testimonies of the participants, it was a majestic spectacle. Hundreds of ships, lined up in rows, went towards the battle - over the water there was a measured creak of galley oars, a clang, shouts of commands and the roar of drums, counting the rhythm for the rowers. Juan of Austria, on the flagship Real, ordered a cannon to be fired to identify himself - he deliberately sought a meeting with the enemy commander. In response, a return shot rang out from the Sultana. At this "gentleman's stage" of the battle began and ended. Ali Pasha, an excellent archer, took his place among the combat crew of his flagship. At about 10 o'clock in the morning, the fleets were in the zone of destruction by artillery fire. At 1020 hours, one of the heavy galleasses that were ahead of the main body opened fire. The third volley has already given cover - one of the large galleys of the Turks received a hole and began to sink. At half past eleven the northern wing of the Christian fleet was already drawn into the battle. The two galleasses, which were ahead of the Barbarigo galleys, like heavy horsemen, began to screw into the Turkish formations, conducting constant fire on the Ottoman galleys trying to go around them. The system of Mehmed Sulik Pasha was mixed up. Considering that a frontal attack would not be effective enough, he begins to make a detour maneuver with part of his forces on the move, trying to bypass the enemy along the coast. A desperate scuffle began, its center was the flagship lantern (heavy galley) Barbarigo, which was attacked by five galleys of the Turks. The brave old man led the fight from the mainmast until he lifted his helmet visor to issue another order. At that moment, an arrow hit him in the eye. The seriously wounded Barbarigo was carried to the hold. Seeing the wound of their commander, the team hesitated, but at that moment galleys from the reserve approached, and the onslaught of the Turks was repelled. Mehmed Sulik Pasha's flank maneuver was initially quite successful and threatened to envelop the Christian flank, but one of Barbarigo's junior commanders, who took command, Marco Quirini, made a bold decision to outflank the encircling enemy and hit the rear. This maneuver to encircle others led to success - the Turkish galleys were pressed against the shallows of the marshy shore and were under heavy fire from the forces of the Holy League. The crews began to massively abandon their ships and tried to swim to the shore. Christian slaves mutinied in many galleys, which hastened the end of the Turkish right flank. By one o'clock in the afternoon, it was practically destroyed - hundreds of Turks were captured, including the badly burned Sirocco Mehmed Sulik Pasha.
In the center, after the "gentleman's shots", the main forces at 11 o'clock began to exchange volleys, reducing the distance. And then the Venetian galleasses pretty much spoiled the harmony of the ranks for the Turks. Ali Pasha was even forced to order a slowdown in order to even out his orders. The flagship "Real" and "Sultana" came closer to each other. Around both commanders were the largest galleys with large crews, since it was clear that this would be the epicenter of the battle. At 11.40, the flagships met in a boarding battle: the Christians fired heavily from arquebuses - the Turks responded with a shower of arrows. Selected Janissaries rushed to the attack on the deck of the Real, but they were also met by selected Spanish infantry. And again, Toledo steel resumed its dispute with Damascus damask steel. The Turks managed to take the forecastle, but they did not advance further. More and more galleys approached the grappling flagships from both sides, trying to provide support. Soon it was already a tangle of almost 30 ships, on the decks of which desperate battles took place. Small-tonnage Turkish galliots and maneuverable fusts tried to transfer reinforcements from the reserve to the galleys fighting near the Sultana. Christians did the same. Don Alvaro de Bazan threw into the battle the reserves reserved for emergencies. The Spaniards, who received reinforcements, cleared the deck of the Real from the Turks by noon, and the battle had already moved to the Sultana. In the midst of a merciless battle, the galley "Captain" Marco Antonio Colonna was able to break through to the Turkish flagship and crash into its stern. The crew of the flagship of the Turks fought desperately, Ali Pasha himself shot from a bow, like a simple warrior. But by one in the afternoon, the Sultana was captured - Ali Pasha died in battle. According to one version, he was cut off his head and impaled on a pike. The capture of the flagship had a depressing effect on the Turkish main forces, the resistance of the Ottomans began to weaken. The formation fell apart - a disorderly retreat began. By half past one, the center of the Turkish fleet was completely destroyed.
Interesting actions took place in the south, where desperate sea cutters, professionals in their field, Andrea Doria and Uludzh Ali met. The Barbary admiral was a man with a biography. An Italian by birth, Giovanni Dirnigi Galeni, at the age of 17, was captured by pirates, converted to Islam and made a brilliant career, rising to the rank of governor of Algeria. The Italian was not inferior in experience to his counterpart. With the beginning of the battle, Uluj Ali sought to bypass the left flank of the Christians in order to hit them from the rear - most of the Turkish galleys here were small fast ships of the Barbary pirates. Doria, in order not to be bypassed, was forced to repeat the maneuver of his opponent. Both wings broke away from their main body. At 12 o'clock, realizing that it would not be possible to bypass the Italian, Uluj Ali orders his forces to turn to the north-west in order to enter the gap between the center and the right wing of the Christian fleet. Andrea Doria immediately dispatches the 16 fastest galleys from his forces under the command of Giovanni di Cardonna to prevent this maneuver. Seeing the division of his opponent's forces, Uluj Ali falls upon Cardonna with all his ships. The Berbers began to take up. Uluj Ali boarded the galley of the Knights of Malta, which was desperately resisting, and eventually captured it. From the complete destruction of di Cardonna, the approach of the main forces of Andrea Doria and the huge galleass Andrea de Cesaro, who supported their fire, saved the approach of the main forces. Uluj Ali left the bulk of his forces to fight Doria, and he himself went to the aid of Ali Pasha with 30 galleys. But it was already too late. The flagship died, the Turkish center was defeated. The detachment of Cardonna, at the cost of huge losses, completed its task - to distract the Berbers. The private success of Uluja Ali no longer decided anything. He ordered his ships to retreat. As a consolation prize, the corsair took in tow the Maltese galley he had captured, which, however, had to be abandoned soon after. To "troll" his opponents, Uluj Ali tied the Maltese flag to the mast of his flagship. However, the battle was hopelessly lost. Approximately 30 fast galleys managed to escape along with the Barbary admiral, who left the battlefield at about 2 pm. The battle continued for about an hour, but it was more like finishing off an already defeated enemy. In the heat of battle, don Juan wanted to pursue Uluja Ali, but his flagships reported heavy ship damage and losses. The Christians were exhausted from the battle, which lasted almost 4 hours.
Flight of Uluj Ali (drawing from the book by A. Konstam “Lepanto 1571. The greatest naval battle of the Renaissance”)
The Turkish fleet was completely destroyed. The trophies of the Holy League were 170 ships. The losses of the Turks in personnel amounted to almost 30 thousand people. The prisoners were taken reluctantly - there were no more than 3000 of them. 15 thousand Christian slaves were freed. The Holy League lost 10 galleys, 10,000 killed and 21,000 wounded. The Allied fleet was able to leave the battlefield only with the help of the released rowers. Seriously wounded, Sirocco Mehmed Sulik Pasha asked to be shot to save him from suffering, and the victors generously fulfilled his request. His opponent, also seriously wounded, Barbarigo, having learned about the victory, died of exhaustion. On October 9, don Juan gave the order to move north. On October 23, the ships of the Christian fleet, filled with groaning wounded, arrived in Corfu, where the victors were divided: the Venetians went north, and the rest of the forces went to Messina.
How many wounded died along the way at the then level of medicine - no one counted.
Coalition with a broken trough
Standard of Don Juan of Austria
A brilliant victory at Lepanto led nowhere. The destruction of the fleet was a painful but not fatal blow for the Ottoman Empire. Returning to Istanbul, Uluj Ali told Selim II his version of the events that had unfolded, after which he was treated kindly, appointed a hero and received the post of commander of the fleet, which was successfully rebuilt in the near future. In May 1572, Pius V, the main ideologue of the Holy League, died, and its members lost inspiration and interest in this political enterprise. Juan of Austria concentrated his efforts on operations against Tunisia, which he managed to recapture in the same 1573, but in the next, 1574, Uluj Ali will return it no less successfully. Spain was more interested in the problems in the Netherlands and the activities of the English pirates than in the fuss in the eastern Mediterranean. Left virtually alone with the Ottoman Empire, Venice was forced to sign the peace proposed by the Turks. She renounced her rights to Cyprus and had to pay the Sultan 300,000 ducats over three years. The signing of the peace caused a storm of indignation in Spain, which became more and more bogged down in confrontation with England. In Madrid, it was believed that Venice had treacherously surrendered all the results of the victory at Lepanto, while the Spaniards themselves no longer wanted to fight the Turks. Selim II, nicknamed "The Drunkard", briefly outlived his enemy, Pius V - on December 15, he died in the harem of Topkapı Palace. Father's glory from never won.
Almost 500 years have passed since the biggest battle of the Renaissance at Lepanto. The galley as a class of ship will be actively used for another two and a half centuries. The thunder of Gangut and Grengam, the First and Second Rochensalm battles, has not yet sounded.
Archaeological research at the site of the Battle of Lepanto is not carried out due to restrictions imposed by the Greek government. No one disturbs the peace of thousands of Muslim and Christian warriors who have found their last refuge at the bottom of the sea. Time and waves have reconciled the dead, but not the living.
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1571) In the 16th century, there was a struggle between the maritime powers for dominance in the Mediterranean. A particularly sharp rivalry unfolded between Spain and Turkey. In 1570, the Turkish Sultan Selim II unleashed a war with the aim of capturing the island of Cyprus and further expansion into Italy and Spain. The war was called the Cyprus War and lasted from 1570 to 1573. The Spanish-Venetian rivalry at sea contributed to the implementation of the plan of the Turkish Sultan. Pope Pius V managed to organize an anti-Turkish Spanish-Venetian coalition, called the Holy League. And it included Italy, Spain, the Papal States and the Italian principalities. Juan of Austria was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied fleet. The Turkish fleet was commanded by Muezin-Zade-Ali (Ali Pasha). On October 7, 1571, at Cape Scrofa, at the entrance to the Gulf of Patras of the Ionian Sea, a naval battle took place, which went down in history under the name of Lepanta. The battle involved a fleet of 250 Spanish and Venetian ships and a Turkish fleet of 275 ships. As much as the Battle of Lepanta was desirable for the Christians, it was just as undesirable for the Turks. The Turkish fleet had already been at sea for 6 months, was weakened after a series of battles against coastal fortified points, and was in great need of boarding troops. The fleet of the Holy Empire was supplied with the best troops in Europe at that time - the Spanish. Time played into the hands of the Turks, since in October the navigation of the rowing fleet in the Mediterranean ended and the battle became impossible. For this reason, Juan of Austria sought to immediately engage in battle with the Turks. The Turkish commander-in-chief, in obedience to the order of the Sultan, re to meet the Christian fleet. Intelligence of Juan of Austria noticed the sailing Turkish fleet before the Turks noticed the allies, but reported incorrect data about the Turkish fleet. Don XI gave the signal to "build a line of battle." The Turkish fleet consisted of 210 galleys and 65 galliots. The Allies had 203 galleys and 6 galeas. Qualitative advantages were on the side of the allies: firstly, they cut off the bows of their galleys and arranged shields and traverses on them; secondly, according to tactical and technical data, the Turkish artillery was inferior to the artillery of the allied fleet, thirdly, only 2500 arquebuses were in service with the Janissaries, the rest of the Turks were archers and did not have protective equipment. All the soldiers of the Allies had firearms and protective equipment. On Turkish ships, the number of soldiers was no more than 30-40, and the Allies had at least 150 soldiers in each galley. The battle order of the Turks consisted of a center, two wings and a small reserve (5 galleys, 25 galliots). The weakest was the right wing (53 galleys, 3 galliots) under the command of the king of Alexandria, Megmet-Sirocco. The strong center (91 galleys, 5 galleys) was led by Ali Pasha, and the left wing (61 galleys, 32 galleys) was led by the Algerian king Ulug Ali. According to the plan, the battle order of the allies was to consist of the center under the command of don Juan (62 galleys), the right wing led by the Genoese Doria (58 galleys), the left wing led by the Venetian Barbarigo (53 galleys) and the reserve under the command of the Marquis Cardo. The galleys, which had strong artillery and a large number of soldiers, were supposed to move forward in order to repel the first onslaught of the enemy and create favorable conditions for the attack of the Turks by galleys. The battle began at 11-12 noon with the deployment of the Allied fleet. The right wing of the allies under the command of Doria went far ahead and broke away from the center, and 8 galleys of the Sicilian captain Cardo fell behind. There was a danger of dispersion of forces. Don Juan ordered the Christian oarsmen to be attacked and given weapons. At that time, he himself, in a boat with a raised cross in his hand, passed along the line of courts, trying to raise the morale of the teams with a promise on behalf of the pope of absolution. After that, the galleasses of the center and the left wing came forward. The wind died down, calm came. Don Juan returned to the flagship tack and raised the signal "to fight." Turks and allies moved forward. There were three battle centers. The situation required skillful maneuvering and interaction of combat units. On the left wing, the Turks managed to surround the allies. Due to ignorance of the terrain, the allied fleet was unable to cling to the shallows, and the Turks managed to go around it along the coast and attack from the rear. A boarding battle began, during which the advantages of the allies in numbers and weapons affected. By 1230 hours, the right wing of the Turks was defeated. The environment did not provide success. From 12 o'clock the fighting unfolded in the center. Here the Turks had the best forces, and the battle was especially stubborn. The flagship galleys of Don Juan and Ali Pasha were at the epicenter of the battle, and the Pasha was killed. The outcome of the battle is the victory of the allies. However, she proved unstable. From 14:00 to 16:00, the defeat of the Turkish fleet was completed. The main maneuvers at this stage were Ulug-Ali and Doria. At the moment of crisis, Ulug-Ali (the left wing of the Turks), with most of his forces, suddenly turned to the center, attacked and crushed his right flank. However, the allies did not lose their heads. Don Juan, having finished with the enemy's flagship lehr, rushed to the aid of the right flank. At the same time, the Allied reserve (Krutz) entered the battle and brought the right wing of Doria closer from the rear. The encirclement of the courts of Ulug-Ali was brewing, the Cahors fled with 13 ships. Another 35 Turkish ships managed to escape and escape. During the battle, the allies sank 20 enemy galleys, and 200 ships turned out to be their trophies. (Razin, p. 365.) As a result of the defeat of the Turks, 12 thousand slave slaves were freed. The allies lost more than 7 thousand people killed, counting the dead rowers, of whom there were about 2.5 thousand on the Venetian galleys alone, including 15 Venetian captains in this battle, Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, commanded a platoon of Spanish soldiers and was twice wounded. The Turks lost 30 thousand people and 224 ships. The Battle of Lepanto ended the dominance of the Turkish fleet in the Mediterranean. The allied fleet won a victory, but its results were not used to the full. Instead of vigorous action, there were disputes about future plans. After losing a whole month, the Allied fleets dispersed to ports. The Turkish Sultan was given the opportunity to restore his fleet, and by the spring of next year, the Turks had built 220 galleys. The fleet went to sea under the command of Ulug-Ali, who, acting very carefully, won the campaign in 1572. The Holy League broke up, and in March 1573 the government of Venice signed an agreement with Turkey, according to which they conceded to the Turks and paid a large indemnity. The Turks reasserted their dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. List of recommended literature and sources 1. Military encyclopedic lexicon published by the society of military men and writers. - Ed. 2nd. - In 14 volumes - St. Petersburg, 1855. - V.8. pp. 176–179. 2. History of naval art / Ed. ed. R. N. Mordvinov. M, 1953. -T.1.-S. 115–116. 3. Treasure N. L. History of naval art. Lectures. - Lithograph. SPb., . - Issues 1–2. - S. 66–73. 4. Marine atlas. Descriptions for cards. - M., 1959. -T.Z, part 1. - S. 109–111 5. Marine Atlas / Resp. ed. G. I. Levchenko. - M., 1958. - T.Z, part 1. 6. Shcheglov AN. History of naval art. - SPb., 1908. S. 47–52. 7. Encyclopedia of military and marine sciences: In 8 volumes / Under the general. ed. G. A. Leera. - St. Petersburg, 1889. - V.4. - S. 544–545.
