Water consumption and annual flow of rivers. Determining the runoff rate in case of lack of data by the method of hydrological analogy

Water discharge is the volume of water flowing through the cross section of a river per unit time. Water flow is usually measured in cubic meters per second (m3/s). The average long-term water flow of the largest rivers of the republic, for example, the Irtysh, is 960 m/s, and the Syr Darya - 730 m/s.

The flow of water in rivers in a year is called the annual flow. For example, the annual flow of the Irtysh is 28,000 million m3. Water runoff determines surface water resources. The runoff is unevenly distributed throughout the territory of Kazakhstan, the volume of surface runoff is 59 km3. The amount of annual river flow depends primarily on the climate. In the flat regions of Kazakhstan, the annual runoff mainly depends on the nature of the distribution of snow cover and water reserves before the snow melts. Rainwater is almost completely used to moisten the topsoil and evaporate.

The main factor influencing the flow of mountain rivers is the relief. As the absolute height increases, the amount of annual precipitation increases. The moisture coefficient in the north of Kazakhstan is about one, and the annual flow is high, and there is more water in the river. The amount of runoff per square kilometer on the territory of Kazakhstan is on average 20,000 m3. Our republic is ahead of only Turkmenistan in terms of river flow. The flow of rivers varies with the seasons of the year. Plain rivers during the winter months provide 1% of the annual flow.

Reservoirs are built to regulate river flows. Water resources are equally used both in winter and in summer for the needs of the national economy. There are 168 reservoirs in our country, the largest of them are Bukhtarma and Kapchagai.

All solid material carried by the river is called solid runoff. The turbidity of the water depends on its volume. It is measured in grams of a substance contained in 1 m³ of water. The turbidity of lowland rivers is 100 g/m3, while in the middle and lower reaches it is 200 g/m3. The rivers of Western Kazakhstan carry a large amount of loose rocks, turbidity reaches 500-700 g/m3. The turbidity of mountain rivers increases downstream. Turbidity in the river is 650 g/m3, in the lower reaches of the Chu - 900 g/m3, in the Syr Darya 1200 g/m3.

Nutrition and river regime

Kazakhstani rivers have different nutrition: snow, rain, glacial and groundwater. There are no rivers with the same nutrition. The rivers of the flat part of the republic are divided into two types according to the nature of the supply: snow-rain and predominantly snow supply.

Snow-rain fed rivers include rivers located in the forest-steppe and steppe zones. The main ones of this type - Ishim and Tobol - overflow their banks in spring, 50% of the annual runoff falls in April-July. Rivers are first fed by melt water, then rain. Since the low water level is observed in January, at this time they feed on groundwater.

Rivers of the second type have exclusively spring flow (85-95% of the annual flow). This type of food includes rivers located in the desert and semi-desert zones - these are Nura, Ural, Sagyz, Turgay and Sarysu. The rise of water in these rivers is observed in the first half of spring. The main source of food is snow. The water level rises sharply in the spring when the snow melts. In the CIS countries, such a regime of rivers is called the Kazakhstani type. For example, 98% of its annual flow flows along the Nura River in a short time in spring. The lowest water level occurs in summer. Some rivers dry up completely. After the autumn rains, the water level in the river rises slightly, and in winter it drops again.

In the high-mountainous regions of Kazakhstan, rivers have a mixed type of food, but snow-glacier prevails. These are the Syrdarya, Ili, Karatal and Irtysh rivers. The level in them rises in late spring. The rivers of the Altai Mountains overflow their banks in spring. But the water level in them remains high until mid-summer, due to non-simultaneous snowmelt.

The rivers of the Tien Shan and Zhungarskiy Alatau are full-flowing in the warm season; In spring and summer. This is explained by the fact that in these mountains the melting of snow stretches until autumn. In spring, snowmelt begins from the lower belt, then during the summer, snow of medium height and highland glaciers melt. In the runoff of mountain rivers, the share of rainwater is insignificant (5-15%), and in low mountains it rises to 20-30%.

The flat rivers of Kazakhstan, due to low water and slow flow, quickly freeze with the onset of winter and are covered with ice at the end of November. The ice thickness reaches 70-90 cm. In frosty winters, the ice thickness in the north of the republic reaches 190 cm, and in the southern rivers 110 cm. second half of April.

The glacial regime of high mountain rivers is different. There is no stable ice cover in mountain rivers due to strong currents and groundwater supply. Coastal ice is observed only in some places. Kazakh rivers gradually erode rocks. Rivers flow, deepening their bottom, destroying their banks, rolling small and large stones. In the flat parts of Kazakhstan, the river flow is slow, and it carries solid materials.

The annual flow rate is its average value over a long period, including several full years (at least two) of fluctuations in the river's water content under unchanged geographical conditions and the same level of economic activity in the river basin.

The annual runoff rate, or the average long-term runoff, is the main and stable characteristic that determines the total flow of rivers and the potential water resources of a given basin or region. It serves as a kind of hydrological “standard” or “benchmark” from which other runoff characteristics are determined, for example, annual values of different availability, seasonal and monthly values, and is very important when designing reservoirs for hydropower, irrigation, water supply and other types of water management construction.

The stability of the annual flow rate is determined by two conditions:

1) as an average long-term value, it almost does not change if a few more years of observations are added to the long-term series;

2) it is a function mainly of climatic factors (precipitation and evaporation), moreover, their average long-term values, which in turn are stable climatic characteristics of the region or basin.

The annual flow rate can be expressed as: average annual water flow Q in m 3 / s; average annual runoff W in m 3; average annual runoff module M in l / (s km 2); middle annual layer Y in mm related to the catchment area.

Expressed as the average annual runoff module M or the average annual layer Y the norm of annual runoff, as well as its climatic components (average annual precipitation and evaporation), varies quite smoothly over the territory and can be mapped. This is well illustrated by the contour map (CH 435-72), which shows that the general distribution of the annual runoff norm has the character of latitudinal zonality in the plains and vertical zonality in the mountainous regions. An increased flow rate is noted on the hills, a lower one - in areas of negative relief forms. The latitudinal zonality of the norm of annual river flow is somewhat disturbed under the influence of the Baltic Sea, Ladoga and Onega lakes.

Depending on the availability of information on the river flow regime, the annual flow rate is calculated:

a) according to the data of direct observations of the river runoff for a sufficiently long period, which makes it possible to determine the rate of annual runoff with a given accuracy;

b) by bringing the average runoff obtained over a short observation period to a long-term runoff along a long series of the analogue river;

c) in the absence of observations - based on the characteristics of the average annual runoff obtained as a result of generalization of observations on other rivers of the given region, and according to the water balance equation.

In general, for direct calculations or a general assessment of the norm of annual runoff, as well as its other characteristics, long-term hydrometric observations of river runoff are of exceptionally great importance. They also serve as the basis for determining the future regime of rivers in the design of reservoirs, dams, bridges and other structures. The characteristics of the runoff are first determined for the natural state of the rivers, then certain corrections are made to them, which should take into account changes in the runoff under the influence of one or another type of economic activity in the river basin. For rivers with a significant artificial flow regulation by reservoirs, withdrawal or transfer of water from other basins, the values of the flow under natural regime are restored.

According to the "Guidelines for the determination of the calculated hydrological characteristics" (SN 435-72), the duration of the observation period is considered sufficient to establish the calculated values of the norm of annual runoff and the average annual runoff of given probabilities, if the period under consideration is representative and the relative mean square error of the long-term value does not exceed 5- 10%, and the coefficient of variation (variability) - 10-15%.

If and exceed the specified limits and the observation period is not representative, the long-term average runoff and coefficient of variation are adjusted to a longer period. If it is impossible to reduce (for example, in the absence of analogue reference sites), instead of the norm of annual runoff and the calculated coefficient of variation, their values are taken, calculated according to the data for the available period, and their relative mean square errors are indicated in the calculation. Representativeness of the observation period P years to calculate the average long-term annual runoff is estimated from analogous rivers with an observation period N>n and N>50 years by constructing and analyzing difference integral curves of annual runoff. Overall representativeness of all statistical parameters (Q, C v and Cs), calculated in a row for P years, is established by comparing the annual runoff probability curves constructed according to the data of the analogous section for the period P and N years.

2.1 Characteristics of river flow.

In hydrological calculations, the following runoff designations are used:

1. Water consumption Q- the amount of water that passed in 1 sec through the cross section of the river. Consumption is expressed in cubic meters per second.

2. Runoff volume W - the amount of water that has passed through the river section for a certain period of time, for example, for a year, m 3.

3. Drain layer Y- the amount of water that has passed through the cross section of the river for a certain period of time (year, month, etc.) and related to the unit of the catchment area, is expressed in millimeters per year.

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SOIL EROSION AND FIGHTING WITH IT IN THE WET AND DRY SUBTROPICS OF THE USSR (BY THE EXAMPLE OF THE BLACK SEA COAST OF THE KRASNODAR TERRITORY AND TAJIKISTAN) ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTOR OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

The main task of the present; work was: 1) to investigate the dynamics of runoff, and. flushing, depending on various natural and economic conditions, and to show how and how some of them can enhance, while others slow down and stop the processes of mountain erosion; 2) to identify the specific features of these processes in the zonal section - in two subtropical areas that are sharply opposite in terms of moisture; 3) on the basis of the conducted studies of the data of best practices and literature sources, to scientifically substantiate and outline the basic principles and ways of combating mountain erosion.

Flush flow (flush flow flow ""flush" Average (M)" of three repetitions 24.3 101.7 37.2 412 49.8 G8I 47.6<...>soils and the experience of their classification. " "." Five-year observations at runoff sites showed that the total average annual<...>But with a small absolute runoff, "Table 10 Average annual runoff and runoff, by land on stationary<...>flush DRAIN ; FLUSH FLOW FLOW FLOW FLOW Rain intensity, . . in mm/min 1" . . . 1.5 * J 17.4 220 47.6<...>At the same.average annual temperature (Sochi-14°, Dushanbe-14.4°), the zones under consideration have sharp.differences

Preview: SOIL EROSION AND FIGHTING WITH IT IN THE WET AND DRY SUBTROPICS OF THE USSR (BY THE EXAMPLE OF THE BLACK SEA COAST OF THE KRASNODAR TERRITORY AND TAJIKISTAN).pdf (0.0 Mb)

STUDY OF WATER-RETAINING METHODS OF TREATMENT OF LIGHT-CHESTNUT SOILS ON SLOPED EARTH OF VOLGOGRAD REGION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND THE ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

The purpose of our work was to study the factors that determine the formation of melt and storm water runoff, to evaluate some moisturizing and anti-erosion methods of soil cultivation and their effect on runoff, washout and yield.

When plowing to a depth of 20-22 cm, the runoff was equal to "5," 4 mm, iipn runoff coefficient 0.112.<...>joclinlo on the river runoff.<...>Na.tacon; but the fall, plowed along the slope, there was a runoff. 2.0 mm, with a drain coefficient of 0.042.<...>runoff 0.324 and. 0.541.<...>For winter crops, the runoff in 1965 was 25.7 mm, and the runoff coefficient was 0.664.

Preview: STUDY OF WATER-RETAINING TECHNIQUES OF TREATMENT OF LIGHT-CHESTNUT SOILS ON SLOPED LANDS OF THE VOLGOGRAD REGION.pdf (0.0 Mb)

INFLUENCE OF SOIL-FORMING ROCKS AND RELIEF ON THE FERTILITY OF SODDY-PODZOLIC SOILS IN THE CENTRAL REGION OF RUSSIA ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTOR OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

M.: ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER SOIL INSTITUTE NAMED AFTER V. V. DOKUCHAEV

The main purpose of the work was to reveal the uniqueness of the agrochemical and other properties of soddy-podzolic soils, which are formed on parent rocks of different genesis and granulometric composition, which also differ in belonging to the territory of a certain age of glaciation; the influence of this peculiarity, as well as the mesorelief, on soil fertility, fertilizer efficiency, some environmental consequences of their systematic application

Under the action of the runoff on the sktons, the mineral nutrients are recycled.<...>more water than watersheds (especially in the absence of tax measures that delay runoff<...>Potorvozbykoy zone (including the Central region) "efsriulu.ro.eash LUEYATK" liquid and solid runoff<...>fertility) significantly affects the mesorelief. " " Under conditions of systematic fertilization under the influence of runoff<...>Determination of standards for the loss of nutrients (asthenia with solid * and liquid runoff as a result of erosion

Preview: INFLUENCE OF SOIL-FORMING ROCKS AND RELIEF ON THE FERTILITY OF SODDY-PODZOLIC SOILS OF THE CENTRAL REGION OF RUSSIA.pdf (0.0 Mb)

Fundamental and applied problems of the hydrosphere. Part 1. Fundamentals of hydrogeology textbook. allowance

The authors focus on solving scientific and industrial hydrogeological problems, theoretical issues of the structure of the hydrosphere in order to rationally use and protect water resources. It is shown that the water shell of the Earth has two areas of supply and discharge of water and water fluids. The unity of natural waters is ensured by the planetary water cycle, the relationship of underground and surface waters, their regime and elements of the water balance. The history of research on the hydrosphere and its role on the planet is briefly covered. The types of water in rocks and their reservoir and water-physical properties are characterized. It is shown that natural waters and aqueous fluids have unique properties and diverse chemical composition. The processes in the water-rock-gas-living matter system are characterized, and the role of the main anionic components in the formation of the chemical composition of natural waters, and the complex nature of aqueous solutions and their movement are shown. Hydrogeology is a fundamental science, and the solution of the most urgent problems of mankind depends on its research: from domestic and drinking water supply and localization of hard-to-clean production wastes to the problems of developing mineral resources.

In the presence of meteorological observations data on the amount of precipitation, average annual temperatures, radiation<...>evaporation rates (mm/year) on the territory of the European part of Russia (World Water Balance, 1974)<...>period of time or the average annual flow from the ratio: , Q N V  (1.9) where Q is the value of the average annual<...>How do the parameters "drain modulus", "drain layer" and "drain coefficient" relate? 7.<...>The thickness of the zone depends on the average annual air temperature, climatic conditions of the area, geological

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The hydrological regime of the lake-river systems of the catchment area of the western part of the White Sea is considered. The influence of artificial regulation and climate change on the hydrological regime of the region's rivers has been studied based on the analysis of long-term observation series (1931–1996) of the main hydrological characteristics. Hydropower development of the region's rivers has led to an increase in low-water runoff and a reduction in the share of runoff during floods in the average annual water runoff. This was also facilitated by climate change that occurred in the region. In the catchment area of the western part of the White Sea, an increase in average annual temperatures and an increase in annual precipitation were observed during the study period. At the same time, the most significant increase in temperatures and an increase in the amount of precipitation occurred in the cold half of the year, contributing to the partial “drawdown” of the snow cover in the winter period. In the territory of the White Sea catchment area, a phase of increased water content and general humidity was noted in the study period. Positive trends in average annual water discharges were noted in all rivers of the region under consideration. According to the estimates of the State Hydrological Institute, the increase in average annual temperatures and the increase in precipitation continues at the present time. Given the persistence of the noted climatic trends, we can assume further smoothing of seasonal fluctuations in runoff characteristics. Conditional water exchange coefficients for large lakes and reservoirs of the region are calculated. Most water bodies are characterized by weak external water exchange, which means that they are able to assimilate a significant amount of pollutants, including those of anthropogenic origin. A large number of such lakes located on river catchments can significantly reduce the input of solid runoff and dissolved chemicals to the sea.

per flood in the average annual water flow.<...>In the catchment area of the western part of the White Sea, an increase in average annual<...>Positive trends in average annual water discharges were noted on all rivers of the region under consideration.<...>An intensive and statistically significant increase in the average annual surface air temperature occurred<...>Reducing the share of runoff during floods in the average annual water runoff is a consequence of climate trends

To solve the problem associated with the water supply of mining enterprises within the Yenisei Ridge, the Olimpiada area was zoned according to the availability of natural groundwater resources. The article presents data on the assessment of natural resources by the hydrometric method. The rationale is given for the use of the average annual module of underground runoff into rivers of 95% security for the assessment of natural resources.

The rationale is given for the use of the average annual module of underground runoff into rivers with 95% security.<...>Table 3 shows the calculated values of the average annual modules of underground runoff and calculated from them<...>Comparison of the average annual module of underground runoff 95% probability with the value of the module of operation<...>Table 3 Calculation of natural groundwater resources based on the average annual module of groundwater runoff Average annual<...>The average annual groundwater runoff module of 95% probability is comparable to the operation module, and can

The North-East of Russia is a region with water supply in terms of average annual runoff, but every year in winter it becomes water-deficient. In order to develop measures to reduce the effect of this negative hydroecological factor, it is necessary to study the patterns of changes in river runoff in winter low water. The aim of the work is to obtain a mathematical model of runoff depletion curves for non-freezing rivers of the North-East of Russia in winter low water and apply it to predict daily water discharges. Based on the analysis of hydrographs of winter runoff of non-freezing rivers in the North-East of Russia, differences in the nature of runoff depletion on both sides of the Earth's Main Watershed, due to climatic conditions, are revealed. Winter runoff depletion curves are well described by an exponential function. The runoff depletion coefficient is related to the thermal runoff of the river, which indirectly characterizes the mode of heat and moisture supply to the watershed. For unstudied rivers, an index of heat and water supply of the basin is proposed, which is the product of the norm of the annual runoff layer and the average annual air temperature in Celsius, increased by 20 °C. The resulting mathematical model makes it possible to predict daily water discharges for six months in advance (mid-October - mid-April) not only at operating hydrological posts, but also on unexplored rivers. To do this, it is necessary to measure the water discharge in mid-October, or to determine it by the modulus of the discharge of the nearest analogue river. The verification of the model was carried out according to the data of two hydrological stations that were not used in the development of the calculation scheme, i.e., on independent material. The accuracy of calculation of mean long-term curves for winter runoff is 11.4–14.7%, and for curves of specific years, 3.3–16.7%.

Magadan) North-East of Russia - a region with water supply in terms of average annual runoff, but annually<...>The region under consideration is water-supplied in terms of average annual runoff (for example, water supply<...>S is the norm of the annual runoff layer, mm; ty is the average annual air temperature, °C; term 20 is introduced for<...>bringing the average annual air temperature to positive values.<...>The norm of the layer of annual runoff for unstudied rivers in formula (6) can be calculated according to SP 33-101–20035, and the average annual

The data of a quantitative assessment of the dynamics of the level of the Caspian Sea depending on a number of hydrometeorological indicators of the components of the natural environment are presented. Analysis of the results of the study confirms not only the hydrological, but also the tectonic concept of sea level change

compiled matrix of literary and stock data, in which by years from 1878 to 2007. included annual average<...>underground runoff (r= 0.3)3.<...>river runoff<...>Volga River -0.31 1 Average annual expenses r. Volga River -0.36 1.0 1<...>Volga in low water (r = 0.82), which is associated with the regulation of the river flow and a gradual increase in the average annual

In the long-term changes in the runoff of the mountain rivers of the Caucasus, an alternation of high-water and low-water periods is traced, associated with cyclic climate changes. A significant increase in costs has been observed in the last decade and is associated with an increase in precipitation. The effect of glacier melting on the water content of rivers is ambiguous along the length of the river and manifests itself in a change in flow at a short distance from the glacier. Climate change has practically no effect on the intensity of horizontal deformations of mountain river beds.

As a result of assessing the general trend in the change in the runoff of the rivers of the Caucasus according to the difference integral curves of the average annual<...>Change in the average annual water flow of the rivers of the Caucasus: 1 - r. Baksan, town of settlement Zayukovo; 2 - p.<...>outlines coincide with the periods identified by the integral curves of the average annual runoff.<...>According to the integral curves of the values of the mean annual air temperature in the river basins of both groups,<...>Integral curves of average annual water discharges and annual precipitation amounts: water discharges: 1 - r.

River basin Alei is one of the most developed territories in Western Siberia. Initially, the development was associated with the development of mining in Altai, at present - mainly with the agricultural direction of economic development. The intensive involvement of the basin lands in economic turnover over the past 100 years has contributed to the formation of a number of environmental problems: water and wind erosion, loss of soil fertility and salinization, and desertification of the territory. The average annual water content of the river is decreasing. Aley for reasons that are both natural and anthropogenic. A feature of water use in the basin is a significant amount of water resources used for irrigation and agricultural water supply. Two water reservoirs and a network of ponds have been built and are functioning here to ensure that household and drinking needs are met. The forest ecosystems of the basin are considered in the article from the standpoint of conservation and restoration of the runoff of small rivers. The ability of the forest to accumulate solid precipitation and retain it for a longer time during snowmelt is shown, which reduces the surface runoff of melt water, increases subsoil runoff, and has a significant effect on the average long-term values of the water content of permanent streams. The state of protective forest plantations in the river basin is analyzed. Aley. A comparative analysis of the tributaries of the main river in terms of area, length of watercourses, and forest cover of basins is carried out. It is proposed to stabilize the average long-term value of the river runoff (ie, the water content of the river (Snakin, Akimov, 2004)) by taking radical measures to increase the forest cover of the plain and mountainous parts of the basin. Measures have been developed to increase the area of water protection zones of small rivers, afforestate temporary and permanent watercourses, and protect soil fertility of agricultural land.

Ob: length 858 km, basin area 21.1 thous.<...>The average annual water content of the river is decreasing.<...>Makarycheva (2010) found that the average annual runoff of the tributaries of the river.<...>The natural factors for reducing the water content of the river can be illustrated by the following example of average annual indicators<...>Only for the period 1990–2010. the average annual runoff of the Alei's tributaries decreased by 20%.

Anthropogenic changes in the average long-term annual runoff and water quality of the river are analyzed. Hens. A comprehensive statistical analysis of long-term series of the river's annual runoff showed that the trends in its changes are complex and ambiguous. Spatial and interannual changes in the composition of water under the influence of economic activity are revealed.

The runoff linear trend equation has the form: Yt=Yav+α(t-tav), (1) where Yt is the calculated value of the average annual<...>t=YÂÝÕ =YavÂÝÕ avg+ÂÝÕ +αÂÝÕ α(t-tÂÝÕ (t-tavÂÝÕ avg), (1)ÂÝÕ), (1)<...>hundred-ÂÝÕ - calculated value of the average annual runoff at time t, YÂÝÕka at time t, YavÂÝÕm<...>The average annual content of phenols and oil products fluctuates, respectively, within 0.006-0.009<...>Saatly, the average annual concentration of nitrate nitrogen is 2 MPC (maximum 6 Fig. 1.

The article provides a brief analysis of the transboundary aspects of runoff regulation in the basin of the river. Ural. The features and degree of transformation of the hydrological regime in different parts of the river are noted. An analysis is being made of the location of hydraulic structures within the transboundary basin

drain .<...>Stoke river<...>parts of the basin) and its main tributaries Average long-term discharge, m3/s Watercourse, observation point Average annual<...>Most (up to 50%) of the average annual runoff of the river. Ural, arriving to the city of<...>Shiklomanov, indicate a decrease in the average annual runoff in the basin of the river.

This article presents the hydrological characteristics of surface waters in the southeast of the Voronezh region, data on the anthropogenic impact on them, as well as data on the state of the watershed spaces in the study area

Thus, the average annual air temperature is around +7°C, and the average July temperature is +22°C.<...>The average annual flow is 55 mm, spring - 50 mm, summer-autumn - 7 mm, winter - 8 mm.<...>Air humidity deficit for June - 9 mm, for July - 8.7 mm, the average annual deficit - 3.75 mm<...>The river retains flow throughout the year. The flow of the river is regulated.<...>This index comprehensively characterizes the sum of normalized (according to MPC) average annual concentration values

HYDROLOGICAL FEATURES AND MAIN HYDROTECHNICAL STRUCTURES OF THE TIGER-EUPHRATS RIVER SYSTEM [Electronic resource] / Ali, Yurchenko, Zvolinsky // Bulletin of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia. Series: Ecology and life safety.- 2013 .- No. 1 .- P. 75-81 .- Access mode: https://site/efd/417316

The article discusses the impact of the construction of large dams on river systems, describes the features of hydrology and the largest hydraulic structures of the Tigris-Euphrates river system.

Three flow regimes can be distinguished: high - from February to June (about 75% of the annual flow); short<...>Average annual rainfall in the Tigris-Euphrates Basin (2009) The Euphrates is formed by the confluence<...>The runoff of the Tigris River in Baghdad ranged from 49.2 to 52.6 km3, which is significantly higher than the Euphrates<...>According to the Iraqi Ministry of Water Resources, the average annual flow of the Euphrates in 2009 was 19.34 km3<...>According to forecasts for 2025, the river flow of the Euphrates will decrease to 8.45 km3, and the Tigris - to 19.6 km3.

The results of ecogeochemical and ecomineralogical studies of bottom sediments of the rivers of the territory of the Sochi Olympics 2014 are presented. The processes of natural self-purification and methods of rehabilitation of ecoanomalies are considered. An original approach to the post-treatment of wastewater using natural materials as a final post-treatment, in particular schungite rocks of Karelia, which have a unique combination of properties of mineral and synthetic sorbents, is proposed.

The average annual flow of the river. Sochi - 1477 million m3. There are no large industrial enterprises within its borders.<...>The average annual flow of the river. Tsemes - 70 million m3. It flows into the Novorossiysk Bay.<...>The average annual flow of the river. Shapsugo - 222.4 million m3. At the mouth of the river is a resort village. Dzhubga.<...>Shakhe is a large river with an average annual flow of 1062 million m3, at the mouth of which the village of the same name is located<...>Filtration pools are recommended to be used in places where polluted effluents are discharged.

The results of a study of the heterogeneities of the thermohaline structure of the surface layer of the Arctic Ocean are considered according to data from various measuring platforms, including those from the North Pole drifting stations and autonomous ITP (Ice-Tethered Profiler) buoys. Characteristics of inhomogeneities of the thermohaline structure and mechanisms of their transfer are given. Qualitative conclusions are proposed regarding the types of eddy formations identified on the basis of observational results, and a classification of dynamic systems carrying water masses.

elements of the climate system ocean - atmosphere. taking part in the circulation of water, it regulates the inflow, flow<...>this carry fresh water in the amount of up to 64.7 km3. for comparison, we can cite the data of the work on the average annual<...>runoff of large rivers of Siberia. Thus, from 1948 to 1993 their average annual runoff into the Kara Sea was 1326<...>therefore, an average of 98.7 km3 of fresh water was transferred per year. this volume, although not exceeding the average annual<...>the flow of Siberian rivers into the Arctic basin, however, is comparable and significant for the freshwater balance

For the first time, an assessment of the long-term variability of the annual runoff of water and chemicals in the Norilo-Pyasinsky water system under the conditions of anthropogenic impact for the period 1980-2003 was made. A comparative analysis of water and chemical runoff in the whole system and its part, not subject to the direct influence of industry, has been carried out. A significant anthropogenic load on the water system in terms of chemicals, especially heavy metal compounds, nitrates and oil products, has been identified.

At the same time, the water runoff of NSAIDs is approximately 20% of the total runoff of the river. Pyasina in the Kara Sea.<...>the volume of water runoff from the lake.<...>It should be emphasized that the estimates of the average annual water runoff confirm the anomaly of its distribution<...>hydrological cycle, transport and fallout of pollutants from the atmosphere and improvement of the methodology for estimating average annual<...>Average annual surface runoff in the Arctic // Tr. AARI. 1976. V. 323. S. 101-114. 9. Evseev A.V.

The Southern and North Caucasian Federal Districts are characterized by a relatively high population density and a high degree of use of surface water resources, mainly for irrigation and watering of arid territories. Such use of water resources has developed historically and is conditioned by the natural conditions of the North Caucasus: fertile lands and an abundance of heat against the background of limited own water resources As early as the beginning of the last century, the territories of Northern Dagestan, Eastern Stavropol, Kalmykia, the lower reaches of the Kuban and the Don suffered from drought for three years out of five.

in NB CGU 10.54 km3; runoff to the Sea of Azov 15.37 km3.<...> <...>river runoff.<...>In modern conditions, irretrievable water withdrawal from the Upper Kuban in some years reaches 17% of the average annual<...>river runoff.

#11 [Legality, 2015]

As you know, in the last decade and a half, legislation has been actively updated in Russia, on some issues - radically, many legal institutions are undergoing significant changes, new ones are being introduced. During this time, many discussion articles have been published on the pages of the journal about the place and role of the prosecutor's office in our society and state, devoted to judicial reform, the new Code of Criminal Procedure, jury trials, the reform of the investigation in the prosecutor's office, etc. But this has never been to the detriment of materials about the exchange experience and comments on legislation, complex issues of law enforcement practice. Essays on well-known prosecutors are also regularly published. The journal has a well-established team of authors, which includes well-known scientists and law enforcement officers from almost all regions of Russia who are passionate about their cause.

Ibragimov, who points out that “the average annual rate of crime victims in Russia exceeds

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Hydrology

VSU Publishing House

The educational and methodical manual contains the program of the theoretical course "Hydrology", methodological developments for performing laboratory work, questions and exercises for independent work of the student, maps, tables and nomograms necessary for performing laboratory work, as well as a list of mandatory and additional literature, Internet resources , electronic libraries at the rate. To use a number of sections of this manual, you must be able to work with a text editor, spreadsheet and graphics editor at the level of a novice user.

Construct a graph of fluctuations in average monthly expenses with drawing a line of average annual consumption. 4.<...>water vapor pressure (eg, mb) and average annual air temperature (tg, °C).<...>Calculation of the average annual water discharge (Qg)<...>, °C) and average annual water vapor pressure (eg, mb). ten.<...>= 4.8 °C) and the average annual water vapor pressure (eg = 7.9 mb), then Ec = 490 mm. eleven.

Preview: Hydrology.pdf (1.1 Mb)

The article “Lessons of flooding on the Amur” presents an analysis of the flood situation in the Far East of the Russian Federation in the summer of 2013, identifies the most dangerous zones for flooding, shows the state of flood control measures and the reasons for insufficient flood protection, and proposes specific measures to reduce risks and damage from floods in territory of Russia

The average annual flow of the river. cupid near the city<...> <...>Zeya (length L = 1242 km, catchment area a = 233 thousand km2, runoff W = 60.2 km3, average annual discharge<...>Bureya (length L = 626 km, catchment area a = 70.7 thousand km2, runoff W = 28.1 km3, average annual<...>Zeya (length L = 1242 km, catchment area a = 233 thousand km2, runoff W = 60.2 km3, average annual discharge

<...> <...> <...> <...>

Since the middle of the XX century. the anthropogenic impact on the natural environment has sharply increased, which has led to a deterioration in the conditions of human existence and a decrease in the biological productivity of landscapes. In this regard, it became necessary to organize and monitor the impact factors (primarily anthropogenic) and the state of ecosystems, forecast their future state, analyze the correspondence between the predicted and actual state of the natural environment. For the lower reaches of the Volga, monitoring of the soil and vegetation cover is required, as the main energy block and indicator of the state of ecosystems. Without monitoring coverage of plant communities, it is impossible to make environmentally justified economic decisions, i.e. constant adjustment of the characteristics of the exploitation of the natural resources of the valley and the actual unification of the system for the use and protection of ecosystems. The paper shows the main trends in the dynamics of the vegetation cover of the delta of the river. Volga in the period from 1979 to 2011. During the monitoring period, changes in the leading environmental factors that determine the main ecological features of the vegetation cover of delta landscapes are considered: some climatic characteristics (average annual air temperature, average sum of temperatures and total precipitation during the growing season), changes in the hydrological regime of the river. of the Volga River and floodplain conditions, features of vegetation cover differentiation depending on the deltaic relief and the processes confined to it.

ecological features of the vegetation cover of delta landscapes: some climatic characteristics (average annual<...>20th century the average volume of water runoff equaled and even slightly exceeded the amount of water runoff in the natural<...>water runoff at the Volgograd HPP site for the second quarter, km3 Average annual air temperature, °С<...>Over the last period of research (2002-2011) there was a decrease in the average annual runoff by 7% compared to<...>At the same time, due to a significant increase in the average annual air temperature, evaporation increased

FGBOU VPO "SHGPU"

The guidelines include materials necessary for field practice in geography (section Hydrology). The plans for describing hydrological objects and the main methods of conducting field hydrological research aimed at determining the place of water bodies in complex natural systems and understanding their relationship with other components of the geographical envelope are given. Information about the hydrography of the Ivanovo region is given. The program of work at a stationary post and the technology of work at a key site are described. The rules for keeping a field diary and writing a practice report are given.

The average annual pressure varies from 745.7 to 752.5 mm. rt. Art.<...>The average annual wind speed is 4.3 m/s (southern and western) and 3.4 m/s (eastern).<...>The average annual runoff is on average 5.5-7 l / s from 1 km 2.<...>The average annual runoff is 5.5-7 l / s from 1 km 2.<...>The average annual water consumption near the city of Nizhny Novgorod is 2,970 m³/s.

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WATER REGIME AND MOISTURE BALANCE OF THE SANDY LAND OF THE LOWER DON (BY THE EXAMPLE OF THE UST-KUNDRYUCHEN SAND MASSIF) ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

ALL-RUSSIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE AG

Purpose and tasks of the work. The purpose of the research was to obtain an integral assessment of the Ust - Kundryuchensky sandy massif as an object of stable, inexhaustible water supply of river systems, as well as to develop a conceptual model for its forestry and agricultural development. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set: - dividing the territory of the Ust - Kundryuchensky sand massif into the main types of sand and collecting information on these types; - obtaining water regime and water balance characteristics of individual types of sands by types of land; - study of groundwater and determination of their role in the water supply of forest biogeocenoses;

mm stock mm | % settlement, mm Year stock mm | % Open l g l 6 1 5 ?<...>The territory of the Ust-Kundryuchensky sands receives 85 million m3 according to the average annual precipitation (538 mm)<...>Their average annual inflow is estimated at 1 million m3 with an annual surface runoff of 29 mm<...>and runoff along the coastline.<...>, both indicators are comparable to each other and give reason to use the calculation method and evaluate the average annual

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No. 3 [Water resources, 2017]

with an increase in the minimum runoff (by 30%), a decrease in average annual precipitation (by 12%) and an increase in<...>Estimates show that the reduction in the average annual runoff occurs mainly due to a decrease in<...>For research, materials from Roshydromet on the average annual runoff and maximum discharges were used.<...>For fluctuations in the average annual water content and the runoff of the spring flood, the most noticeable trend is to reduce<...>Orkhon is estimated at ~1% of the average annual runoff at the mouth of the river. Selengi. Because r.

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Educational geological practice for construction specialties studies. allowance

Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBCOM & LLC Agency Book-Service 63 Average annual runoff - 3.4 km 3 /year, and below<...>In high-water years, the volume of runoff can be ten times greater than the total runoff in dry years.<...>The average annual sediment runoff of the Urals at the confluence with Sakmara reaches 1480 thousand tons. Freezing on the river.<...>The average annual rainfall is uneven 185-731 mm, averaging 343 mm.<...>The average annual sediment runoff of the Urals at the confluence with Sakmara reaches 1480 thousand tons. Freezing on the river.

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No. 8 [Natural and technical sciences, 2017]

The journal Natural and Technical Sciences is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications in which the main scientific results of a dissertation for the degree of Doctor and Candidate of Science (as amended in July 2007) should be published in accordance with the decision of the Higher Attestation Commission (List of VAK ). Publications of the results of scientific research by applicants for the degree of candidate of sciences can be placed in the journal in accordance with the subject of the journal, i.e. in natural and technical sciences. Publications of the results of scientific research by applicants for the degree of Doctor of Science may be placed in a journal on geosciences; in biological sciences; in electronics, measuring technology, radio engineering and communication.

annual runoff and runoff for the spring period (March-April) and increase in runoff for the summer-autumn-winter period<...>Length of series, years 50 32 82 Average annual runoff, million m3 234.6 235.5 234.9 CV 0.38 0.38 0.37 Copyright JSC<...>minimum average monthly low-water flows in the downstream of the Belgorod Reservoir Regulated average annual<...>natural average annual runoff at the site of the hydroelectric complex (235 million m3).<...>The excess of the regulated average annual flow in the downstream of the hydroelectric complex over the natural average annual

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Estuary ecosystems of large Russian rivers: anthropogenic load and ecological state monograph

Rostov

The monograph is a generalizing work on the assessment of the anthropogenic load and the ecological state of the estuarine ecosystems of large Russian rivers. The study was carried out on the basis of the analysis of long-term regime hydrological, hydrochemical and hydrobiological information of the State System for Observing the State of the Environment (GOS) of Roshydromet. On the example of large rivers of the European North, Siberia, the South of Russia, and the Far East, in a long-term aspect (1980–2012), the variability of the component composition of the aquatic environment and regional features of the functioning of estuarine ecosystems under the conditions of modern anthropogenic impact are considered. Data were obtained on the spatial and temporal variability of the influx of dissolved chemicals, on the level of anthropogenic load on the estuarine areas due to river runoff, and on the ecological state of estuarine ecosystems in terms of hydrochemical and hydrobiological indicators. These data make it possible to estimate the removal of components of the chemical composition of river waters, including pollutants, and to obtain reliable information about their impact on coastal areas of marine ecosystems.

The formation of river runoff, channel and estuarine processes is influenced by the severity of the climate (average annual<...>The fluctuation range of average annual values reached 19.6–57.1 km3.<...>Runoff regulation affected not only its annual volume (the average annual runoff is<...>The regulation of the river flow was reflected both in the value of its annual volume (the average annual flow is<...>The fluctuation ranges and average annual values for the outlets of the rivers are given in Table 34.

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HYDROLOGICAL ROLE FORESTS OF THE MIDDLE VOLGA REGION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES

KAZAN ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V. I. ULYANOV-LENIN

The purpose of this work is to show the need for forest hydrological research, which should be carried out in close relationship with the geographical environment.

about an increase in the average annual water content of rivers with an increase in the percentage of forest cover.<...>methods used in assessing the hydrological role of the forest, one should also include the operation with the value of the average annual<...>High runoff on the river.<...>Loss of runoff in the river basin.<...>Very low runoff.

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No. 9 [Nature, 2017]

Even if the average annual river flow is increased to the previous level, the complete restoration of the lake will take approximately<...>Consequently, the average annual runoff of the Syr Darya should be at least 3.2–3.3 km3.<...>Even if the average annual river runoff is increased to the previous 56 km3, then for the complete restoration of the lake<...>In the period 2001–2010 the average annual flow of the Amudarya and Syrdarya was only 11 km3, i.e. only 20%<...>But in this case, a larger minimum average annual runoff of the Syr Darya is required - at least 4 km3.

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PLANT DEVELOPMENT OF TAKYRS AND TAKYRO SOILS USING LOCAL SURFACE. STOKA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE TURKMEN SSR

Crop development of takyrs and takyr-like soils by the method of furrowing, using local surface runoff for moisture charging, is an economically profitable measure that allows you to turn now empty territories into productive agricultural, pasture and forest lands. The developed method can be implemented with great success in any farms with such a category of land, which will create a basis for obtaining a variety of additional products.

Local surface runoff. IV.<...>LOCAL SURFACE RUNOFF.<...>The average annual runoff varies from 94 m3/ha (BayramAli) to 260 m3/ha (Knzyl-Atrek), and the maximum<...>The volume of the average annual runoff per hectare of takyr, depending on the area of work; 2.<...>The volume of the average one-time runoff, or runoff, formed during the period of one rainfall; 3.

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Guidelines for the implementation of the course project "Project for the creation of field-protective forest plantations"

FSBEI HPE Orenburg State Agrarian University

The guidelines provide the structure of the course project, its sections with a consistent description of the implementation of each of them. Particular attention is paid to the economic justification of the project, the calculations of technological maps for the creation of protective forest plantations, the cost of 1 quintal are presented. grain, profitability and payback period strips. The guidelines are addressed to full-time and part-time students of agricultural universities, and are also of interest to specialists in agricultural enterprises.

Characteristics of the climate of the design area: 1) the average annual air temperature and by months during<...>air temperature through + 5 °, and its beginning is taken as the beginning of spring silvicultural work); 3) average annual<...>evaporation, mm; 5) average annual runoff, mm; 6) thickness, mm and density of snow cover, g/cm3, character<...>Here, the main mass of surface water runoff enters the ravine through the top.<...>; continuous afforestation of the bottom is carried out if the runoff along the bottom is negligible.

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Improvement of the theory of formation of elements of the water balance of river basins

An analytical review of the theory of water balance is presented. Experimental and theoretical studies are considered, as well as ways to improve the accuracy of determining the elements of the water balance. The theoretical foundations and the linear-correlation model of the water balance are disclosed. The evaluation of the quality of correlation links of variables consisting of equally supported values is characterized. A comparative analysis of the results of calculating the parameters of the water balance based on the complete control of the water balance and the three-term equation is presented. The possibilities of practical application of the linear-correlation model are highlighted. Applications of the linear correlation model are given.

In conclusion, let us consider a numerical example of the correlation between the average annual runoff layer and the annual sum<...>Here σФ is the root-mean-square deviation of average monthly water discharges from average annual ones: σФ = = −()<...>∑100 100 12 2 σQ i Q Q Q Q , (8.17) where Qi is the average monthly and Q is the average annual water flow.<...>Batista for CV: CV = 0.573 - 0.000193R, where R is the average annual runoff.<...>These data on the average annual river flow and the amount of precipitation for each watershed are given here.

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No. 1 [Water resources, 2017]

Materials are published on the assessment of water resources, the integrated use of water resources, water quality and environmental protection. The journal covers many areas of research, including the prevention of changes in the state of continental water resources and their regime; hydrophysical and hydrodynamic processes; environmental aspects of water quality and protection of water resources; economic, social, legal aspects of water resources development; water resources outside the territory of Russia; experimental research methods.

This value is very close to the average annual rate of water consumption; by , for 1930–1980 – 31.7 m3/s.<...>., characterized by a relatively stable average annual runoff (37.6 m3/s); 1931–1978<...>The average annual air temperature, according to long-term data for 1891–1980, changed in the territory<...>Until the late 1980s - mid 1990s. average annual concentrations of ammonium N in the water of the river.<...>Changes in the sum of the average annual concentrations N of ammonium in the water of the river.

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For the European territory of the Russian Federation, the spatial distribution of drainageless periods is analyzed in detail: their duration and frequency, the maximum area of watersheds, where the absence of runoff can be observed at a given moistening of the territory. The zoning of the territory was carried out according to some indicators characterizing the absence of runoff. For the Don basin, a number of empirical dependences of the characteristics of the endorheic period on the hydrometeorological conditions of the year are proposed. Statistical analysis of the series of air temperature and precipitation for the cold (November-March) period of the year showed the presence in most cases of statistically significant increasing trends. The dynamics of the absence of runoff under the conditions of modern climate change is considered.

Chusovoy); 2) with episodic cessation of flow and 3) with permanent cessation of flow of part of small rivers<...>runoff depletion conditions.<...>For most rivers, as well as for the Don itself, there is a slight decrease in the average annual runoff<...>and increased low flow.<...>Thus, the analysis of the series of the annual runoff of the river.

The characteristic of water resources of the territory of the Irkutsk region is given, taking into account the hydrological and ecological features of the region. The problems of anthropogenic impact on the qualitative and quantitative indicators of water resources are discussed.

Less than 1% of the total river flow is used for economic needs.<...>The flow regime of the Angara River from Irkutsk to the Bratskaya HPP depends on the operating mode of the Irkutsk HPP.<...>shores of Lake Baikal Length from source to mouth 4270 km, total catchment area - 2425 km2, average annual<...>runoff - 1400 m3 / s.<...>Urban areas are distinguished by a fundamentally different nature of erosion and an increase in solid runoff.

No. 1 [Bulletin of Tomsk State University, 2001]

The journal is a multidisciplinary periodical. Initially (since 1889) it was published under the name "News of the Tomsk University", then - "Proceedings of the Tomsk State University", in 1998 the publication of the university journal was resumed under the modern name. Currently published monthly. Included in the VAK List.

The average annual temperature is -4.6°C, the annual precipitation is 184 mm, 64% of the precipitation falls on<...>the amount of precipitation is 1000–1200 mm and the average annual temperature is about +6°C.<...>Period variability of water runoff (Q) and suspended sediment runoff (W) r. Khoper at the<...>Greater sediment runoff.<...>Tendencies to reduce melt runoff, average annual rates of erosion and accumulation of its products were traced

Preview: Soil science №12 2018.pdf (0.0 Mb)

The hydrological regime of water bodies in years of different water content (low-water, medium-water, high-water) has a decisive influence on the size of the commercial stock and the qualitative composition of ichthyocenoses. As a result, in 2015-2016 a retrospective analysis and ranking of the influence of the hydrological regime on these indicators were carried out. An assessment of the catches and commercial stock of fish was carried out under various scenarios of water availability of the main fishing reservoirs of the Republic of Kazakhstan, giving a total of about 80% of the total annual fish catch in the country's inland waters (excluding the Caspian Sea). In total, 2000 indicators of the hydrological regime (water level, annual runoff) and 1845 indicators of the commercial stock (catches, abundance, fish biomass) were analyzed. The critical values of water content for the commercial stock of fish have been determined. A number of management decisions and actions are proposed when the water content approaches critical levels: reduction of limits (quotas) for fishing in the next calendar year;

Average annual volume of runoff, km 3 Medium water High water Low water k m 3 one.<...> <...>Average annual volume of runoff, km 3 2.<...>The average annual long-term flow of the river.<...>Esil from the average annual water level - a high (p > 99%) correlation was obtained between the average annual

INFLUENCE OF ANTI-EROSION TREATMENTS ON AGROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SODDY-PODZOLIC MEDIUM LOSSED SOIL AND PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS OF SOIL-PROTECTIVE CROPTATION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

Research objectives. In order to study the patterns of formation of meltwater runoff and the effectiveness of soil protection measures in its regulation in the conditions of the Non-Chernozem Zone of RUSSIA, a stationary field experiment was laid and the following tasks were set: 1. To establish the role of meteorological conditions in the development of soil erosion. 2. To study the effect of anti-erosion treatments on surface and subsoil runoff, soil runoff and productivity of field crops. 3. Determine the effect of anti-erosion treatments on the water regime of sloping lands. 4. To study the agrophysical properties, anti-erosion resistance of soddy-podzolic moderately eroded soil and methods for restoring its fertility. 5. To study the effect of soil protection tillage at different depths on the weed component of sloping lands. 6. Determine the bioenergy efficiency of anti-erosion tillage.

Here, with an average annual flow of melt water of 90-100 mm, 21.8 million tons are lost annually. soil (bt/ha) from which<...>In order to study the patterns of formation of melt water runoff and the effectiveness of soil protection measures<...>The dependence of the distribution of weeds on sloping lands on the intensity of the runoff of thawed<...>Water-balance sites (200 m2) were laid out to study the subsoil runoff.<...>Thus, the maximum runoff of melt water (9.2 mm), with a runoff coefficient of 0.18 and soil sludge (0.04 t/ha) was noted

Preview: INFLUENCE OF ANTI-EROSION TREATMENTS ON THE AGROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SODDY-PODZOLIC SOIL AND THE PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS OF A SOIL-PROTECTIVE CROPTATION.pdf (0.0 Mb)

Thing. The problem of desertification has been recognized as one of the urgent ones. The article discusses the geoinformation features of water supply, calculates capital investments for the compared options for the logistics of water delivery by water carriers to the Karakum Desert. Goals. Determine the capital and specific investments for the delivery of fresh water to the Karakum desert and the production of distillate using greenhouse solar desalination plants, the required dimensions of artificial sites for collecting atmospheric precipitation and the volume of storage tanks for distillate production. Methodology. With the help of mathematical and technical-economic methods, various aspects of investment activity in the desert region are analyzed, the most energy-efficient water supply systems are identified. Results. The technical and economic efficiency of water supply methods in the desert zone is analyzed. The performance indicators of watering, water delivery by water carriers, collection of atmospheric precipitation, their cost for the development of animal husbandry and the development of the desert zone are given. Findings. The proposed method makes it possible to choose an economically viable method of water supply for a particular area.

Surface runoff is the most ancient and easily accessible source of water supply in deserts.<...>Their volume must be calculated depending on the area of takyrs and the magnitude of the largest annual runoff.<...>The average annual desert productivity of the Karakum pasture is 3.5 c/ha, according to the Desert Institute<...>to transfer about 25 km3 of water, and in the future to increase it to 75–80 km3 per year, which exceeds the total average annual<...>flow of the Amudarya river.

WAYS OF INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF THE USE OF WINTER PRECITATIONS IN THE FOREST-STEPPE OF WESTERN SIBERIA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

SVERDLOVSK AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE

Conclusions 1. In the drained forest-steppe of the Novosibirsk Ob region, the precipitation of the cold period is about a quarter of the annual. However, most of them are carried away from the fields, go to surface runoff and evaporate from thawing to sowing ....

Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBCOM & LLC Agency Book-Service Average annual runoff in the area of Novosibirsk<...>The flow rate of the Tula River shows that tas kozvy&shch s "; t of spring" runoff is 0.44, and the average long-term layer<...>drain 41 mm "p. stake “.lower io year and st 9 to 130 mm.<...>The runoff for the flood is more than. 7С# annual.<...>PAINSH OF SOIL TREATMENT AND FLOW OF MELT WATER.

Preview: WAYS TO INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE USE OF WINTER PRECITATION IN THE FOREST-STEPPE OF WESTERN SIBERIA.pdf (0.0 Mb)

Empirical morphometric relationships are used in the geomorphological approach to restoring the flow of ancient rivers from the morphology of modern rivers. They must meet the following requirements: 1) cover as wide a range of conditions as possible, so that the conditions for the formation of ancient rivers also fall into it; 2) be constructed for a small number of variables, the choice of which is dictated by the task; 3) give the opportunity to choose such a dependence that would be suitable for the conditions of the formation of an ancient river. The application of these principles to restore the flow of large Late Glacial paleo-rivers with a channel width 5–15 times greater than the modern one showed that the average annual discharges of paleo-rivers were only 2–4 times greater than the discharges of modern rivers. Such a large flow was formed at an annual rainfall approximately equal to or only slightly higher than the current one. Therefore, complex climatic hypotheses are not required to explain the vast amount of water in the past. The main conditions for the formation of a large runoff were: 1) a long winter period with the accumulation of sufficient (300–700 mm) moisture reserves in the snow; 2) a short and friendly flood with maximum flows 5–10 times higher than the average annual ones; 3) very little runoff loss during this flood; 4) long low water, when the channels were practically dry. At high flood discharges that formed large paleochannels, the average annual water discharge was significantly less than the flood discharge.

5–15 times higher than the modern one showed that the average annual flow of paleo-rivers was only 2–4 times<...>At high flood discharges that formed large paleochannels, the average annual water discharge was significantly<...>Formula (9) makes it possible to estimate the average annual water discharge in the ancient channel based on the measured width<...>Such a characteristic is the intra-annual variability of water runoff - the ratio of the average annual and average maximum<...>during this flood and the maximum flow is 5–10 times higher than the average annual.

The article is devoted to assessing the impact of climate change on the rate of linear growth of ravines in the Vyatka-Kama interfluve (Republic of Udmurtia), established on the basis of monitoring 120 peaks located in 28 areas within the study area, over the observation period 1978–2014. The main attention is paid to the change in the contribution of snowmelt and storm runoff to the linear growth of ravines over the entire monitoring period, as well as a detailed analysis of the role of individual soil and climatic factors on the growth of ravines for 1998–2014. It has been established that the average annual rate of linear growth of ravines decreased from 1.3 m/year in 1978–1997 to 1.3 m/year. up to 0.3 m/year in 1998–2014 The fall in rates is mainly caused by a sharp reduction in water runoff from the slopes of catchment areas during the spring snowmelt. Based on detailed observations (repeated measurements twice a year after spring snowmelt and in autumn at the end of the rainy season) of the growth of ravines in areas located near the city of Izhevsk, it was established that if in 1978–1998. 80% of the increase in ravines was due to melt runoff, then in the period 1998–2014. the contribution of snowmelt runoff to the total increase decreased to 53%. The main reduction in the growth of ravines in length during the period of melt runoff is caused by a significant decrease in the frequency of winters with a depth of soil freezing over 50 cm. which allows us to state that the contribution of storm runoff to the linear growth of ravines was below 20% until the early 1980s. Significant changes in the frequency of heavy rainfall during 1983–2014. Did not happen. It has been established that the main contribution to the growth of ravines in the warm season is made by the runoff of water from the catchment area, which is formed during the fall of more than 40 mm of heavy rainfall.

It was established that the average annual rate of linear growth of ravines decreased from 1.3 m/year in 1978–1997<...>The average annual temperature varies in the range of +2.3 - +3.5 °C, with average annual temperatures in January<...>A stable snow cover lasts for almost half a year 155–175 days, and the average annual precipitation is<...>during the snowmelt period, the average annual growth rate of ravines of “warm” and “cold” points is practically<...>Adamka

The results of long-term monitoring (period 1978–2015) of the linear increase in the tops of ravines in the Udmurt Republic are presented. The monitoring network includes 168 peaks of ravines. All of them are located in the most agriculturally developed parts of the Vyatka-Kama interfluve. The main attention is paid to the dynamics of ravine erosion in the period 1997–2015, which is characterized by significant changes in climate and land use. It was found that the rate of regressive retreat of the ravine tops gradually decreased in the period 1997–2003, with subsequent stabilization at a fairly low level (0.2–0.3 m/year). As a result, in 1997–2015. the average annual growth rates of ravines decreased by 3–5 times for various types of ravines compared with the growth rates in the previous observation period (1978–1997). Some differences are revealed in the growth rates of primary and secondary ravines. The average annual growth rate of bottom ravines was 0.55 m/year, while the growth of various types of primary ravines was 0.31, 0.22 and 0.16 m/year, respectively. In addition, a distinct positive trend in the growth rate of bottom ravines was revealed for the period after 2008, which led to an increase in the average growth rate in 2015 to 0.8 m/year. The lithology of the rocks on which the growth of ravine tops occurs has practically no effect on the linear growth rates of ravines.

reliable indicators of the impact of climate change and land-use transformation on runoff changes<...>As a result, in 1997–2015. the average annual growth rate of ravines decreased by 3–5 times for various<...>The average annual temperature varies from +2.3°C in the north to 3.5°C in the south of the republic.<...>The average annual precipitation is 500–650 mm.<...>and, conversely, its increase for the period of storm runoff.

In this article, we will consider in detail the question of what is the annual flow of the river. We will also find out what affects this indicator, which determines the fullness of the river. We list the most significant rivers of the planet, leading in annual flow.

river runoff

The most important part of the planetary water cycle - this guarantee of life on Earth - are rivers. The movement of water in their networks occurs under the influence of a gravitational gradient, that is, due to the height difference between two points on the earth's surface. Water moves from a higher area to a lower area.

Fed by melting glaciers, precipitation, and groundwater that has come to the surface, rivers carry their waters at their mouths - usually into one of the seas.

They differ from each other both in the length, density and branching of the river network, and in the flow of water over a certain period of time - in the amount that passes through the section or alignment of the river per unit of time. In this case, the key parameter will be the water flow in the river section at the mouth, since the saturation or full flow changes upward from the source to the mouth.

The annual flow of a river in geography is an indicator, to determine which it is necessary to take into account the amount of water flowing per second per square meter of the territory under consideration, as well as the ratio of water flow to the volume of precipitation.

annual runoff

So, the annual flow of the river is, first of all, the volume of water that the river throws out when it falls into its mouth. You can also say it a little differently. The amount of water that passes during the named period of time through the section of the river at its confluence is the annual flow of the river.

The definition of this parameter helps to characterize the full flow of a particular river. Accordingly, the rivers with the highest rate of annual flow will be the most full-flowing. The unit of measurement of the latter is the volume, expressed in cubic meters or cubic kilometers, per year.

solid stock

When taking into account the magnitude of the annual runoff, it must be taken into account that the river does not carry clean, distilled water. River water, both in dissolved and suspended form, contains a huge amount of solids. Some of them - in the form of insoluble particles - strongly affect the index of its transparency (turbidity).

Solid waste is divided into two types:

weighted - a suspension of relatively light particles;
bottom - relatively heavy particles that are drawn along the bottom to the place of confluence.

In addition, solid runoff consists of products of weathering, leaching, erosion, etc. of soils, soils, and rocks. The indicator of solid runoff can reach, depending on the fullness and turbidity of the river, tens, and sometimes hundreds of millions of tons (for example, the Yellow River - 1500, the Indus - 450 million tons).

Climatic factors determining the parameter of annual river runoff

The climatic factors that determine the annual flow of the river are, first of all, the annual amount of precipitation, the catchment area of the river system and the evaporation of water from the surface (mirror) of the river. The latter factor directly depends on the number of sunny days, the average annual temperature, the transparency of river water, as well as on numerous other factors. An important role is also played by the time period in which the greatest amount of precipitation falls. If it is hotter, then this will reduce the annual runoff, and vice versa. Humidity also plays a huge role.

The nature of the relief

Rivers that flow mostly on flat terrain, other things being equal, are less watery than predominantly mountain rivers. In terms of annual runoff, the latter can exceed the flat ones by several times.

There are many reasons for this:

mountain rivers, which have a much greater slope, flow faster, which means that river water has less time to evaporate;
in the mountains, the temperature is always much lower, and, therefore, evaporation is weaker;
in mountainous areas, there is more precipitation and more rivers, which means that the annual flow of the river is higher.

This, running a little ahead, is enhanced by the fact that the nature of soils in mountainous areas has less absorption, respectively, a larger volume of water comes to the mouth.

The nature of soils, soil cover, vegetation

River runoff is largely determined by the nature of the surface over which the river carries its waters. The annual river flow is an indicator that is primarily influenced by the nature of the soil.

Rocks, clay, stony soil, sand greatly differ in their carrying capacity in relation to water. Highly absorbent surfaces (e.g. sand, dry soil) will drastically reduce the volume of the annual flow of the river flowing through them, while almost water-impervious surface types (protruding rocks, dense clays) will have practically no effect on river flow parameters. , passing river waters through its territory without any losses.

Soil water saturation is also an extremely important factor. So, abundantly moistened soils will not only not “take away” melt water during spring snowmelt, but are also able to “share” excess water.

The nature of the vegetation cover of the banks of the river under study is also important. For example, those that flow through wooded areas are more watery, all other things being equal, compared with rivers in the steppe or forest-steppe zone. In particular, this is due to the ability of vegetation to reduce the total evaporation of moisture from the earth's surface.

The largest rivers in the world

Consider the rivers with the most abundant flow. To do this, we bring to your attention a table.

Hemisphere		river name	Annual river runoff, thousand cubic meters km
	South America	R. Amazon

Northern
	South America	R. Rio Negro
Northern	South America	R. Orinoco
Northern		R. Yenisei
Northern	Sev. America	R. Mississippi
	South America	R. Paraná
Northern
	South America	R. Tocantins
		R. Zambezi
Northern
Northern

After analyzing this data, one can understand that the annual flow of Russian rivers, such as the Lena or the Yenisei, is quite large, but it still cannot be compared with the annual flow of such powerful full-flowing rivers as the Amazon or the Congo, located in the southern hemisphere.

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