In the popular view, the Viking is a fair-haired thug, a dashing fighter. This image has a real basis, but not all Vikings corresponded to it. What were these amazing people really like? Let's trace the entire evolution of the Vikings on the example of twenty legendary warriors.
Legendary Vikings of the early period
Historians trace the beginning of the "Viking Age" from June 8, 793, when a detachment of sea robbers (presumably Norwegians) landed on the British island of Lindisfarne, robbing the monastery of St. Cuthbert. This is the first Viking attack clearly recorded in written sources.
The Viking Age can be divided into three conditional periods. Early period (793–891)- the most romantic, when the risky inhabitants of Denmark, Norway and Sweden put together "free squads" for raids on more prosperous lands. Some managed to make geographical discoveries - for example, the Norwegian Vikings founded several settlements in Iceland. The first large-scale campaign of the Vikings in Western Europe falls on the early period - an attempt by the "great pagan army" to conquer England. The period ends with a temporary attenuation of the external expansion of the Normans (“northern people” - as the Europeans called the Scandinavians), when the Vikings suffered several military defeats: the largest happened in 891 at Leuven, where they were defeated by the Eastern Franks.
Ragnar "Leather Pants" Lodbrok
Ragnar Lodbrok played by Travis Fimmel (Vikings TV series)
Legend: Son of the Swedish king Sigurd Ring and brother of the Danish king Gudfred. The nickname is due to the fact that Ragnar wore leather pants sewn by his wife Lagertha, considering them lucky. From his youth, Ragnar participated in many campaigns, having won the authority of the great "sea king". In 845 he gathered a huge squad for a raid on Western France. March 28 captured Paris, and the king of the Franks Charles the Bald, in order to save the capital from destruction, paid a ransom of seven thousand silver livres. In 865, Ragnar set off to plunder England. But the flotilla was swept away by a storm, and the king's ship ran aground. Ragnar was captured and was taken to the court of King Ella of Northumbria, who ordered the leader of the Normans to be thrown into a pit with poisonous snakes.
Dying, Ragnar exclaimed: “How my own piglets would grunt if they knew what it was like for me, an old hog!”, Alluding to the revenge of his sons. And they did not disappoint - they gathered a huge army, known as the "great pagan army", and in 867 attacked Britain. They captured and cruelly executed King Ella, plundered Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. The expansion of the “great army”, partly by the sword, partly by diplomacy, could only be stopped by the King of Wessex, Alfred the Great.
Ragnar Lodbrok wooing his third wife Aslaug (painting by August Maelström, 1880)
Story: The existence of Ragnar is not fully confirmed, we know about him mainly from the Scandinavian sagas. As for the written chronicles of Western Europeans that tell about events related to the possible deeds of Ragnar, they either do not mention his name, or were created at all in much later times.
Epitaph: Classic viking adventurer. A man of noble birth, he achieved everything himself - thanks to military skills and personal courage. Having obtained enormous wealth in campaigns, Ragnar made his own kingdom, taking control of part of the Danish and Swedish lands. However, he remained a robber at heart. Otherwise, it is difficult to explain his last adventure, when he, already at an advanced age, went to "play pranks" in Northumbria.
Bjorn Ironside
Legend: Son of Ragnar Lothbrok, king of Sweden, founder of the Munsho dynasty (after the name of the hill where he is buried). The nickname is associated with the captured metal armor that Bjorn wore in battle. He became famous for his campaigns in the southern lands: in 860 he ravaged the Mediterranean coast of Morocco, plundered Provence, Spain and Italy. But in a clash with the Saracen squadron, he failed - using the "Greek fire" unknown to the Vikings, the Moors burned forty ships. In 867, Bjorn was one of the commanders of the "great army", but did not stay long in England.
Story: The main source is sagas. However, several Frankish chronicles mention a Viking leader named Berno.
Epitaph: A very sensible Viking. He wore metal armor - and do not care that the Vikings did not do this. Faced with the "Greek fire" of the Moors, he did not ruin the fleet and retreated. “Pie in the sky” (the conquest of England) preferred “a tit in the hands” - dominion over Sweden.
Sword of a warrior of the "great pagan army", found in Repton (former Mercia)
Ivar the Boneless
Legend: Son of Ragnar Lothbrok. Almost the only leader known as a berserker. As for the nickname, there are two versions: the first is associated with an ailment (perhaps impotence or bone disease), the second is with Ivar's combat skills, dexterous and flexible, like a snake. He was one of the commanders of the "great army", distinguished by military talents and cruelty. Tortured and then killed King Ella. In 870 he ordered the assassination of King Edmund of East Anglia. He died in 873, being the ruler of the Irish city of Dublin.
Story: In addition to the sagas and Anglo-Saxon chronicles, it is mentioned in the Annals of Ireland, where the date of his death is indicated - moreover, from a “terrible illness”.
Epitaph: Viking maniac, inhumanly cruel barbarian. Western chroniclers depict him as a lover of the famous "bloody eagle" execution - although modern historians refute its existence.
Sigurd the Serpent-Eyed
Legend: Son of Ragnar Lothbrok. The nickname arose due to the fact that Sigurd was born with a mark in his eye (a ring around the pupil), which evoked associations with Ouroboros, a mythological snake that swallows its own tail. Ragnar's favorite, after the death of his father, inherited a fair amount of his lands. He was one of the leaders of the "great army". He married Blaya, daughter of King Ella, the murderer of Ragnar Lothbrok. It is difficult to say how voluntary the marriage was, because Blaya was captured after the death of her father. However, Sigurd was with her for many years, having made four legitimate children. After returning from Britain, he quarreled with King Ernulf and died in battle in 890.
Story: Known only from the sagas.
Epitaph: A "soft" variant of the Viking. A dashing fighter, but became famous as a zealous landowner and a good family man.
Capture of Paris by Ragnar Lodbrok (19th century painting)
Halfdan Ragnarsson
Legend: Son of Ragnar Lothbrok (possibly by a concubine). In 870 he became the sole commander of the "great army" and tried to conquer Wessex, but failed. In 874, he captured the West Anglian kingdom of Mercia. After that, the "great army" disintegrated, and Halfdan with half the troops went to Scotland, and then to Ireland, where he declared himself king of Dublin. Constantly organized new trips. During one of them, a rebellion of the Vikings who remained there broke out in Ireland. In 877, Halfdan fought the rebels at Strangford Lough, was defeated and killed.
Story: In addition to sagas, it is mentioned in Anglo-Saxon and Irish chronicles.
Epitaph: Ambitious Viking, overwhelmed by the thirst for great things. Perhaps his fierce desire to rise is due precisely to his "illegal" origin (even his name means "half-Dane" - a hint that Halfdan's mother was a foreigner, not from Scandinavia).
"Vikings": a collection of delusions
The Canadian-Irish TV series Vikings, which is filmed for the History channel, is considered by many to be . Alas, it is not. The authors attributed the deeds of other Vikings to the semi-legendary Ragnar Lothbrok, mixing together events of about two centuries. They distorted the ideas of modern historical science about the manners and customs of the Vikings. And although the weapons, clothing and architecture shown in the series more or less correspond to the era, it is also full of anachronisms. In general, in terms of "historicity" the series is inferior even to the novels of Alexandre Dumas.
So the most authentic films about the Vikings are still the Soviet-Norwegian film by Stanislav Rostotsky “And Trees Grow on the Stones ...” and a series of paintings by the Icelandic director Hrabn Gydnløigsson (“Flight of the Raven”, “Shadow of the Raven”, “White Viking”).
In addition, you can read about Ragnar and especially about the campaign of his sons from Maria Semyonova (“Two Kings”) and Harry Harrison (“Hammer and Cross”). Many songs are also dedicated to the Ragnarson family, especially metal ones - for example, on the Doomsword album "Let Battle Commence":
Guthrum Old
Legend: Danish Viking, participant in the campaign of the "great army", during which he gained considerable fame, so that when the army split in 875, he led half of it. He successfully fought with Wessex, but after the defeat at Ethandun, he chose to make peace and was baptized under the name Æthelstan. In 880 he became king of East Anglia. He ruled until his death in 890, having managed to transfer the throne to his son Eohric.
Story: In addition to the sagas, it is repeatedly mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon chronicles, the coins minted under him have also been preserved. The nickname "Old" was given to him by modern historians to distinguish him from another king of East Anglia, Guthrum, who ruled at the beginning of the 10th century.
Epitaph: Viking of humble origin, who managed to rise thanks to the mind and military talents. As a result, he became king and passed power by inheritance.
Real Viking ship in the Oslo Museum
Ubba Ragnarsson
Legend: Son of Ragnar Lothbrok. One of the leaders of the "great army", a participant in the assassination of King Edmund of East Anglia. He was a good fighter, but he did not differ in other talents. When the “great army” split, he remained under the command of Guthrum. In 878 he went to Somerset. After the landing, he was defeated at the Battle of Kinvint, where he died.
Story: Mentioned in the sagas, as well as in the Anglo-Saxon chronicles.
Epitaph: A brave and cruel fighter "without a king in his head", able only to fight.
Gutfried of Frisia
Legend: Danish jarl, participant in the campaign of the "great army". Having obtained a lot of good in England, he gathered a squad, with the help of which in 880 he captured Frisia (a province on the border with Denmark). In 882 he ravaged Maastricht, Liege, Cologne, Trier, Metz and Aachen. Emperor Charles III Tolstoy made peace with Gutfried, granted him the title of Duke of Frisia, after which the seasoned robber took a vassal oath and was baptized. However, Gutfried turned a blind eye to the raids of other Vikings. The patience of the emperor snapped, and in 885 he accused Gutfried of treason, after which he was killed by a group of Frisian nobles.
Story: Often mentioned in the chronicles - so the person is historical.
Epitaph: Viking condottiere. He got rich with robberies, gathered a squad, seized lands, began to serve the emperor ... And then he betrayed - or was accused of betrayal. And he was killed - the famous mercenary Albrecht Wallenstein finished in the same way.
Vikings on a campaign (painting by Nicholas Roerich "Overseas guests", 1901)
Hastein
Legend: Probably Dane. According to one version - the son of a small farmer, according to another - a relative of Ragnar Lothbrok. An experienced warrior, he was the mentor of Bjorn Ironside, with whom he plundered France, Spain, Italy and Morocco. Then, already alone, he returned to France, where he became a mercenary of the Duke of Brittany. In 866 he defeated the Franks at Brissart. In 890 he moved to Flanders. Two years later, he led the Viking army, which again tried to conquer England. He plundered many English lands, but, deciding not to try his luck anymore, he returned to France, where he died a few years later.
Story: About Hastein there are many records in the Frankish and Anglo-Saxon chronicles, so his reality has been proven. True, there is a possibility that there were two people with that name. If Hastein, who fought with Alfred the Great, was the mentor of Bjorn Ironside, then during the English campaign he should have been already over seventy (at that time, very old age). However, this is possible.
Epitaph: One of the greatest "sea kings" - robbed for a long time and with impunity, stuffed his pockets and died in his bed.
Rorik of Jutland (painting by Willem Kukkoek, 1912)
Legend: Nephew (according to another version - brother) of King Harald Klak of Jutland. From a young age he was a mercenary in the service of King Lothair of the Franks, who fought against his father and brothers. After the strife between the Franks subsided, Lothair decided to get rid of Rorik and threw him into prison. But he fled and in 850 captured Dorestad and Utrecht. Lothair was forced to make peace - on the condition that the formidable Dane would defend the northern lands of the Franks from other Vikings. Around 857-862, Rorik conquered the Wendish Slavs, and also captured part of Lorraine. Died between 879 and 882.
Story: Rorik of Jutland is repeatedly mentioned in the Frankish annals. Since the 19th century, a number of historians have identified him with Rurik, a Varangian known from The Tale of Bygone Years, who founded the Old Russian princely dynasty. After all, Rorik is the only famous Viking with a similar name who lived in the same period. In addition, in 863-870, the name of Rorik disappeared from the Frankish chronicles - at the same time, according to Russian chronicles, Rurik of Novgorod appeared. Among modern Russian historians, the version has both supporters and opponents.
Epitaph: The most successful Viking who served the Carolingians. Starting as a mercenary, he made his own state. In general, life was a success - even if we do not take into account the hypothesis that he was the founder of the Rurik dynasty.
Legendary Vikings of the Middle Period
The middle period of the Viking Age (891-980) is associated with the formation of centralized states in Scandinavia. At that time, the Normans fought with each other - the more successful became kings, the defeated sought their fortune in other lands. The end of the period is considered to be the year 980, when the Normans, having overcome internal unrest, resumed expansion, but in a more “state” format.
Harald Fairhair
Statue of Harald Fairhair in Oslo (sculptor Nils Aas)
Legend: Son of Halfdan the Black, king of the province of Vestfold. His youth was spent in endless battles with local jarls, the apotheosis of which was the battle of Hafsfjord (872). After the victory, Harald declared himself king of a united Norway, subsequently subjugated the Orkney and Shetland Islands, and fought with the Swedes. He died in 933 (according to other sources - in 940). The nickname appeared because of the chic hair, which Harald was proud of.
Story: Although only sagas tell about the life of Harald, scientists recognize him as a real figure.
Epitaph: The first Scandinavian king who can be compared with the kings of Western Europe. So, he organized a full-fledged tax system, because of which, by the way, Norwegians dissatisfied with this fled en masse to Iceland.
Statue of Rollo on the facade of Rouen Cathedral, where his tomb is located
Legend: The son of the Norwegian jarl Rognvald, real name Rolf (or Hrolf) - the Franks called him Rollon. He was nicknamed the Pedestrian because no horse could bear his massive carcass. Rolf's father lost his lands during the unification of Norway under Harald Fairhair, but became Jarl of Orkney and Shetland. Rolf was the youngest son, so he decided to try his luck as a Viking and gathered a squad with which he plundered Western France for many years. In 911, King Charles III the Simple gave Rollon Rouen, Brittany, Caen, Er and gave his daughter Gisela as his wife. In return, Rollo was baptized under the name of Robert, recognizing the King of France as his liege. This is how the Duchy of Normandy appeared, which became hereditary. Rollo died about 932 and was buried in Rouen Cathedral.
Story: A real character that has many references in written sources.
Epitaph: Viking ideal. Thanks to dashing and intelligence, he founded the ruling dynasty, whose members played a significant role in Western European politics for many centuries.
Eric Bloodaxe
Legend: King of Norway, favorite son and heir of Harald Fairhair. He became famous for both military exploits and atrocities. He killed three of his brothers, but lost the war with the fourth, after which he fled from Norway to Britain, where he became king of Northumbria. In 954, he tried to conquer Ireland, but was defeated and died in battle (according to another version, he was killed by conspirators in York).
Story: Mentioned both in the sagas and in the chronicles, where he is called "fratricide". There are also coins minted in Northumbria bearing the name of Eric. However, some information about him contradicts each other.
Epitaph: The "dark lord" of the Vikings, a cruel tyrant capable of any atrocity.
Eric the Red
Legend: A Norwegian Viking, distinguished by a violent temper, several times committed murders of other Normans. He was expelled first from Norway, then from Iceland. In 980, he sailed west, where he discovered the land, which he named Greenland. Returning to Iceland, he recruited settlers and, together with them, again sailed to Greenland. There he founded the settlement of Brattalid (near the modern village of Narsarsuaq), where he died in 1003.
Story: In addition to the sagas, the story of Eric the Red is confirmed by archaeological finds.
Epitaph: Vikings are not necessarily robbers, there were many brave pioneers among them. Eric the Red is just such an explorer, albeit reluctantly.
Farm of Eric the Red in Greenland (modern reconstruction)
Egil Skallagrimsson
Legend: Great Icelandic skald, son of a Norwegian settler. Considered a berserker, he repeatedly fought holmgangs (Viking duels). He killed several Normans, in particular, the brother of Gunnhilda, the wife of Erik the Bloody Ax, who outlawed Egil. Pirated in the Baltic lands, then moved to England. He distinguished himself in the battle of Brunanburg (937), where he fought for the English king Ettelstan. Having lived a long life, he died around 990 in his native Iceland.
Story: The main sources are sagas, including his own.
Epitaph: Considered the greatest poet of the Viking Age. The first of the skalds used the final rhyme. Three sagas of Egil, several poetic fragments and about fifty vis (small poems) have survived.
Legendary Vikings of the late period
The late period of the Viking Age (980-1066) is called the "era of the Viking kings", as the military expeditions of the Normans turned into large-scale conquests. The Viking Age ended when the Normans who converted to Christianity ceased to differ significantly from other inhabitants of Western Europe. Even the “Viking” itself (a campaign for the purpose of extraction) ceased to be a traditional way for the Scandinavians to achieve success.
Legend: Icelandic navigator, son of Eric the Red. Around the year 1000, Leif heard the story of the merchant Bjarni Herjulfssen, who saw an unknown land in the west of Greenland. Having bought a ship from Bjarni, Leif set sail in search of it. He discovered and explored three regions: Helluland (probably Baffin Island), Markland (probably Labrador) and Vinland (Newfoundland coast). Leif founded several settlements in Vinland.
Story In: Sagas and archaeological finds.
Epitaph: A European who discovered America five centuries before Christopher Columbus.
Leif the Happy discovers America (painting by Christian Krogh, 1893)
Olaf Tryggvasson
Monument to Olaf Trygvasson in Trondheim
Legend: Norwegian Viking, kinsman of King Harald Grayskin. For about ten years he was a combatant of the Russian prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. There is a version that it was Olaf who pushed Vladimir, with whom he was friendly, to be baptized. When an uprising broke out in Norway against Jarl Hakon the Mighty, Olaf joined the rebels. In 995, he became king of Norway, declaring independence from Denmark. He pursued a violent policy of Christianization. In 1000, jarls dissatisfied with the king, united with the Danes and Swedes, defeated Olaf's fleet in the battle near the island of Svolder. Not wanting to give up, the king jumped into the sea and drowned.
Story: In addition to the sagas, Olaf is mentioned in English and German chronicles. It is considered a real person, but many information about him is contradictory.
Epitaph: Adventurer, revered in Norway as a promoter of Christianity and a fighter for national independence.
Sven Forkbeard
Legend: He got his nickname because of the exotic shape of the beard and mustache. The son of the Danish king Harald Blue-toothed, who planted Christianity. Sven was a pagan and a supporter of the old customs, therefore he overthrew his father. After the death of Olaf Trygvasson, he became king of Norway. On November 13, 1002, in England, on the orders of King Ethelred II, an attempt was made to kill all the Danes. During the massacre, Sven's sister died. In retaliation, he organized several raids on England, and in 1013 he launched a large-scale invasion, during which he captured London and became king. However, soon, on February 2, 1014, he died in terrible agony - perhaps he was poisoned.
Story In: Sagas and Numerous Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.
Epitaph: Fulfilled the long-held dream of the Vikings, becoming the English king.
Canute the Great
Legend: Youngest son of Sven Forkbeard. Accompanied his father during the conquest of England. After the death of Sven, the army proclaimed Canute (the Anglo-Saxons called him Canute) king, but he was forced to sail to Denmark when the English nobility supported the returned Æthelred. Having gathered a new army, Canute again conquered England in 1016, dividing it into counties. He also created the tinglid - a squad of the most noble families, the basis of chivalry. In 1017 he subjugated part of Scotland. The following year, after the death of his older brother, he inherited the Danish crown. In 1026, having defeated the Norwegian-Swedish fleet at Helgeo, he became king of Norway and part of Sweden. He contributed to the spread of Christianity, endowed the church with land holdings. He died November 12, 1035 in Dorset, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral.
Story: Sagas, chronicles, archaeological finds - the reality is indisputable.
Epitaph: The greatest Viking king in history, uniting almost all of Scandinavia. At the zenith of his power, his power was not inferior to the Holy Roman Empire. True, after the death of Knud, it quickly fell apart.
Monument in honor of Harald the Severe as the founder of Oslo
Legend: Son of King Sigurd of Eastern Norway, younger brother of King Olaf II of Norway the Saint. After the death of his brother, when Knud the Great took possession of Norway, the fifteen-year-old Harald became an exile. In 1031 he entered the service of the Kiev prince Yaroslav the Wise. In 1034 he went to Byzantium, where his detachment became the basis of the Varangian Guard. Having distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of the Bulgarians, in 1041 he led the guards and a year later helped to overthrow Emperor Michael V. Having fallen into disgrace, he fled to Kyiv, where his future wife, the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Elizabeth, lived. In 1045, he forced his nephew, King Magnus the Good of Norway, to make him his co-ruler. After the death of Magnus, he became king of Norway. He won a series of victories over the Danes and the Swedes. He took care of the development of trade and crafts, founded Oslo, finally approved Christianity in Norway. Trying to capture England, on September 25, 1066, he died at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.
Story: Sagas, chronicles, objects of material culture - without a doubt, a historical figure.
Epitaph: "The Last Viking" whose life resembles an adventurous romance. He was a very efficient king, but the passion for adventure turned out to be the strongest.
* * *
The arrow that hit the throat of Harald the Severe ended the Viking Age. Why? It's simple - Harald was the last Scandinavian ruler who used grandfather's methods. And William the Conqueror, who became the English king a month after the death of Harald, was a Norman only in name - and his campaign was not a “Viking”, but an ordinary feudal war. From now on, the Scandinavians were no different from other inhabitants of Europe. Their dashing raids remained in the legends of the skalds and on the fragile pages of the monastery chronicles. And, of course, in human memory ...
SCANDINAVIAN SAGA
PART ONE. TALES ABOUT THE GODS
CREATING THE WORLD
At first there was nothing: no earth, no sand, no cold waves. There was only one black abyss, Ginnungagap. To the north of it lay the realm of mists Niflheim, and to the south the realm of fire Muspelheim. It was quiet, light and hot in Muspelheim, so hot that no one but the children of this country, the fiery giants, could live there, in Niflheim, on the contrary, eternal cold and darkness dominated.
But in the realm of fogs, the Gergelmir spring began to spring. Twelve powerful streams, Elivagar, took their source from it and flowed swiftly southward, plunging into the abyss of Ginnungagap. The bitter frost of the realm of fogs turned the water of these streams into ice, but the source of Gergelmir beat without ceasing, blocks of ice grew and moved closer and closer to Muspelheim. Finally, the ice came so close to the realm of fire that it began to melt. The sparks flying out of Muspelheim mixed with the melted ice and breathed life into it. And then a gigantic figure suddenly rose from the abyss of Ginnungagap over the endless expanses of ice. It was the giant Ymir, the first living creature in the world.
On the same day, a boy and a girl appeared under Ymir's left hand, and the six-headed giant Trudgelmir was born from his feet. Thus was the beginning of the family of giants - Grimtursen, cruel and treacherous, like ice and flame, who created them.
At the same time as the giants, the giant cow Audumbla arose from the melting ice. Four rivers of milk flowed from the teats of her udder, feeding Ymir and his children. There were no green pastures yet, and Audumbla grazed on the ice, licking the salty ice blocks. By the end of the first day, hair appeared on the top of one of these blocks, the next day - a whole head, by the end of the third day, the mighty giant Buri emerged from the block. His son Ber married the giantess Besla, and she bore him three sons-gods: Odin, Vili and Ve.
The god brothers did not like the world in which they lived, they did not want to demolish the domination of the cruel Ymir. They rebelled against the first of the giants, and after a long and bitter struggle, they killed him.
Ymir was so huge that all the other giants drowned in the blood gushing from his wounds, and the cow Audumbla also drowned. Only one of Ymir's grandsons, Bergelmir, managed to build a boat, on which he escaped with his wife.
Now no one prevented the gods from arranging the world as they wished. They made earth from Ymir's body, in the form of a flat circle, and placed it in the middle of a huge sea, which was formed from his blood. The gods named the land "Mitgard", which means "middle country". Then the brothers took Ymir's skull and made the vault of heaven out of it, they made mountains out of his bones, trees out of his hair, stones out of his teeth, and clouds out of his brain. Each of the four corners of the vault of heaven was folded by the gods in the form of a horn and planted in each horn according to the wind: in the north - Nordri, in the south - Sudri, in the west - Vestri and in the east - Austria. From the sparks that flew out of Muspelheim, the gods made stars and decorated the firmament with them. They fixed some of the stars motionless, while others, in order to find out the time, placed them so that they move in a circle, bypassing it in one year.
Having created the world, Odin and his brothers decided to populate it. One day, on the seashore, they found two trees: an ash and an alder. The gods cut them down and made a man out of ash and a woman out of alder. Then one of the gods breathed life into them, another gave them intelligence, and a third gave them blood and rosy cheeks. So the first people appeared, and they were called: the man - Ask, and the woman - Embla.
The gods and giants have not forgotten. Across the sea, east of Mitgard, they created the country of Jotunheim and gave it to the possession of Bergelmir and his descendants.
Over time, there were more gods: the eldest of the brothers, Odin, had many children, they built a country for themselves high above the earth and called it Asgard, and themselves Ases, but we will tell you about Asgard and Ases later, but now listen to how the moon and sun were created.
MUNDILFERI AND HIS CHILDREN
The life of the first people was unhappy. Eternal night reigned throughout the world, and only the dim, flickering light of the stars dispelled the darkness a little. The sun and the moon were not yet there, and without them the crops would not be green in the fields, and the trees would not bloom in the gardens. Then, in order to lighten the earth, Odin and his brothers got a fire in Muspelheim and made of it the moon and the sun, the best and most beautiful thing that they ever managed to create. The gods were very pleased with the fruits of their labor, but could not figure out who would carry the sun and moon across the sky.
At this very time there lived on earth a man named Mundilferi, and he had a daughter and a son of extraordinary beauty. Mundilferi was so proud of them that, having heard about the wonderful creations of the gods, he named his daughter Sul, which means the sun, and his son Mani, that is, the moon.
“Let everyone know that the gods themselves cannot create anything more beautiful than my children,” he thought in his arrogance. But, however, it soon seemed to him that this was not enough. Learning that in one of the villages nearby lives a young man whose face is so beautiful that it shines like the brightest star, for which he was nicknamed Glen, which is “shine”, Mundilferi decided to marry him to his daughter so that the children of Glen and Sul were even more beautiful than their father and mother, and all other people on earth worshiped them. The idea of the proud man became known to the gods, and on the very day when he was going to marry his daughter, Odin suddenly appeared before him.
You are very proud, Mundilferi,” he said, “so proud that you want to compare yourself with the gods. You want people to worship not us, but your children and your children's children and serve them. For this, we decided to punish you, and from now on, Sul and Mani will serve people, carrying the moon and the sun across the sky, whose names they are named. Then everyone will see if their beauty can outshine the beauty of what is created by the hands of the gods.
Struck with horror and grief, Mundilferi could not utter a word. One took Sul and Mani and ascended with them to heaven. There, the gods put Sul in a chariot drawn by a pair of white horses, on the front seat of which the sun was fixed, and ordered her to ride through the sky all day, stopping only at night. So that the sun would not burn the girl, the god brothers covered her with a large round shield, and so that the horses would not be hot, they hung bellows on their chests, from which a cold wind blows all the time. Mani was also given a chariot, in which he was supposed to carry the moon at night. Since then, the brother and sister have faithfully served the people, illuminating the earth: she during the day, and he at night. Bread is merrily turning green in the fields, fruits are pouring juice in the gardens, and no one remembers the time when darkness reigned in the world and all this did not exist.
ELVES AND GNOMS
From the day when the sun first lit up in the sky, life on earth has become more cheerful and joyful. All people worked peacefully in their fields, everyone was happy, no one wanted to become more noble and richer than the other. In those days, the gods often left Asgard and wandered around the world. They taught people to dig the earth and extract ore from it, and also made for them the first anvil, the first hammer and the first pincers, with the help of which all other tools and tools were later made. Then there were no wars, no robberies, no theft, no perjury. A lot of gold was mined in the mountains, but they didn’t save it, but made dishes and household utensils from it - that’s why this age is called “golden”.
Once, rummaging in the ground in search of iron ore, Odin, Vili Ve found worms in it, which wound up in the meat of Ymir. Looking at these clumsy creatures, the gods involuntarily thought.
What shall we do with them, brethren? Ve finally said. - We have already populated the whole world, and nobody needs these worms. Maybe they should just be destroyed?
You are mistaken, - Odin objected. - We inhabited only the surface of the earth, but forgot about its bowels. Let's better make little dwarf men or black elves out of them and give them the underworld kingdom, which will be called Svartalfaheim, that is, the Black Elf Country.
What if they get tired of living there and want to go upstairs to the sun? asked Willy.
Do not be afraid, brother, - answered Odin. - I will make the sun's rays turn them into stone. Then they will always have to live only underground.
I agree with you,” Ve said. - But we forgot not only about the bowels - we forgot about the air. Let's turn some of these worms into black elves, or gnomes, as Odin said, and others into light elves and put them in the air between the earth and Asgard, in Ljesalfaheim, or in the Land of the Light Elves.
The rest of the gods agreed with him. This is how the elves and dwarves and two new countries appeared in the world: Svartalfaheim and Ljesalfaheim.
The black elves, commonly referred to as gnomes, soon became master craftsmen. No one knew how to work precious stones and metals better than them, and, as you will learn later, the gods themselves often turned to them for help.
Scandinavian sagas
TALES ABOUT THE GODS
Creation of the world
At first there was nothing: no earth, no sand, no cold waves. There was only one black abyss, Ginnungagap. To the north of it lay the realm of mists Niflheim, and to the south the realm of fire Muspelheim. It was quiet, light and hot in Muspelheim, so hot that no one but the children of this country, the fiery giants, could live there, in Niflheim, on the contrary, eternal cold and darkness dominated.
But in the realm of fogs, the Gergelmir spring began to spring. Twelve powerful streams, Elivagar, took their source from it and flowed swiftly southward, plunging into the abyss of Ginnungagap. The bitter frost of the realm of fogs turned the water of these streams into ice, but the source of Gergelmir beat without ceasing, blocks of ice grew and moved closer and closer to Muspelheim. Finally, the ice came so close to the realm of fire that it began to melt. The sparks flying out of Muspelheim mixed with the melted ice and breathed life into it. And then a gigantic figure suddenly rose from the abyss of Ginnungagap over the endless expanses of ice. It was the giant Ymir, the first living creature in the world.
On the same day, a boy and a girl appeared under Ymir's left hand, and the six-headed giant Trudgelmir was born from his feet. Thus was the beginning of the family of giants - Grimtursen, cruel and treacherous, like ice and flame, who created them.
At the same time as the giants, the giant cow Audumbla arose from the melting ice. Four rivers of milk flowed from the teats of her udder, feeding Ymir and his children. There were no green pastures yet, and Audumbla grazed on the ice, licking the salty ice blocks. By the end of the first day, hair appeared on the top of one of these blocks, the next day - a whole head, by the end of the third day, the mighty giant Buri emerged from the block. His son Ber married the giantess Besla, and she bore him three sons-gods: Odin, Vili and Ve.
The god brothers did not like the world in which they lived, they did not want to demolish the domination of the cruel Ymir. They rebelled against the first of the giants, and after a long and bitter struggle, they killed him.
Ymir was so huge that all the other giants drowned in the blood gushing from his wounds, and the cow Audumbla also drowned. Only one of Ymir's grandsons, Bergelmir, managed to build a boat, on which he escaped with his wife.
Now no one prevented the gods from arranging the world as they wished. They made earth from Ymir's body, in the form of a flat circle, and placed it in the middle of a huge sea, which was formed from his blood. The gods named the land "Mitgard", which means "middle country". Then the brothers took Ymir's skull and made the vault of heaven out of it, they made mountains out of his bones, trees out of his hair, stones out of his teeth, and clouds out of his brain. Each of the four corners of the vault of heaven was folded by the gods in the form of a horn and planted in each horn according to the wind: in the north - Nordri, in the south - Sudri, in the west - Vestri and in the east - Austria. From the sparks that flew out of Muspelheim, the gods made stars and decorated the firmament with them. They fixed some of the stars motionless, while others, in order to find out the time, placed them so that they move in a circle, bypassing it in one year.
Having created the world, Odin and his brothers decided to populate it. One day, on the seashore, they found two trees: an ash and an alder. The gods cut them down and made a man out of ash and a woman out of alder. Then one of the gods breathed life into them, another gave them intelligence, and a third gave them blood and rosy cheeks. So the first people appeared, and they were called: the man - Ask, and the woman - Embla.
The gods and giants have not forgotten. Across the sea, east of Mitgard, they created the country of Jotunheim and gave it to the possession of Bergelmir and his descendants.
Over time, there were more gods: the eldest of the brothers, Odin, had many children, they built a country for themselves high above the earth and called it Asgard, and themselves Ases, but we will tell you about Asgard and Ases later, but now listen to how the moon and sun were created.
Mundilferi and his children
The life of the first people was unhappy. Eternal night reigned throughout the world, and only the dim, flickering light of the stars dispelled the darkness a little. The sun and the moon were not yet there, and without them the crops would not be green in the fields, and the trees would not bloom in the gardens. Then, in order to lighten the earth, Odin and his brothers got a fire in Muspelheim and made of it the moon and the sun, the best and most beautiful thing that they ever managed to create. The gods were very pleased with the fruits of their labor, but could not figure out who would carry the sun and moon across the sky.
At this very time there lived on earth a man named Mundilferi, and he had a daughter and a son of extraordinary beauty. Mundilferi was so proud of them that, having heard about the wonderful creations of the gods, he named his daughter Sul, which means the sun, and his son Mani, that is, the moon.
“Let everyone know that the gods themselves cannot create anything more beautiful than my children,” he thought in his arrogance. But, however, it soon seemed to him that this was not enough. Having learned that in one of the villages nearby lives a young man whose face is so beautiful that it shines like the brightest star, for which he was nicknamed Glen, which is "shine", Mundilferi decided to marry him to his daughter so that the children of Glen and Sul were even more beautiful than their father and mother, and all other people on earth worshiped them. The idea of the proud man became known to the gods, and on the very day when he was going to marry his daughter, Odin suddenly appeared before him.
You are very proud, Mundilferi,” he said, “so proud that you want to compare yourself with the gods. You want people to worship not us, but your children and your children's children and serve them. For this, we decided to punish you, and from now on, Sul and Mani will serve people, carrying the moon and the sun across the sky, whose names they are named. Then everyone will see if their beauty can outshine the beauty of what is created by the hands of the gods.
Struck with horror and grief, Mundilferi could not utter a word. One took Sul and Mani and ascended with them to heaven. There, the gods put Sul in a chariot drawn by a pair of white horses, on the front seat of which the sun was fixed, and ordered her to ride through the sky all day, stopping only at night. So that the sun would not burn the girl, the god brothers covered her with a large round shield, and so that the horses would not be hot, they hung bellows on their chests, from which a cold wind blows all the time. Mani was also given a chariot, in which he was supposed to carry the moon at night. Since then, the brother and sister have faithfully served the people, illuminating the earth: she - during the day, and he - at night. Bread is merrily turning green in the fields, fruits are pouring juice in the gardens, and no one remembers the time when darkness reigned in the world and all this did not exist.
elves and gnomes
From the day when the sun first lit up in the sky, life on earth has become more cheerful and joyful. All people worked peacefully in their fields, everyone was happy, no one wanted to become more noble and richer than the other. In those days, the gods often left Asgard and wandered around the world. They taught people to dig the earth and extract ore from it, and also made for them the first anvil, the first hammer and the first pincers, with the help of which all other tools and tools were later made. Then there were no wars, no robberies, no theft, no perjury. A lot of gold was mined in the mountains, but they did not save it, but made dishes and household utensils from it - that's why this age is called "golden".
Once, rummaging in the ground in search of iron ore, Odin, Vili Ve found worms in it, which
We can safely say that the literature of Scandinavia grew out of Old Norse literature. The discovery and settlement of Iceland was one of the results of the Viking campaigns. The famous Icelandic scientist Jonas Kristiansson writes: “On their fast and durable ships, the Vikings crossed the seas like lightning, fell on islands and coasts and tried to create new states in the west - in Scotland, Ireland and England, in the south - in France and in the east - in Russia.
But the tribes that inhabited these lands were so powerful that a few groups of strangers gradually dissolved among the local population, having lost their national features and language. The Vikings could only hold out on those lands that had not been inhabited before their arrival. Iceland remained the only state created during this period by the Vikings.
Arn the Wise (1067-1148), the first Icelandic author to write a brief history of Iceland (The Book of the Icelanders), reports that the first settler settled there "a few years after 870. According to another ancient source, this happened in 874 ". The history of Icelandic literature, as, in fact, the history of the country, has more than a thousand years. Scandinavian sagas about gods and heroes are known all over the world, which have come down to us thanks to the songs of the Elder Edda.
The Elder Edda is a collection of mythological and heroic songs preserved in a single copy, the Royal Codex, found in Iceland in 1643. Until recently, this parchment was kept in Copenhagen, but in April 1971, many Old Icelandic manuscripts, by decision of the Danish Parliament, were transferred to Iceland, where the Institute of Icelandic Manuscripts was established in its capital - Reykjavik, the purpose of which is to promote the dissemination of knowledge about the Icelandic language people, their literature and history. All Old Norse poetry falls into two types of poetic art - Eddic poetry and skaldic poetry.
Eddic poetry is distinguished by the fact that its authorship is anonymous, its form is relatively simple, and it tells about gods and heroes, or contains the rules of worldly wisdom. The peculiarities of Eddic songs are their saturation with actions, each song is dedicated to one specific episode from the life of gods or heroes, and their utmost brevity. "Edda" is conditionally divided into 2 parts - songs about the gods, which contain information on mythology, and songs about heroes. The most famous song of the "Elder Edda" is considered "Divination of the Völva", which gives a picture of the world from its creation to the tragic end - "the death of the gods" - and a new rebirth of the world.
Early Icelandic poetry is associated with pagan beliefs. Many of the oldest poems are dedicated to pagan gods, and the very art of versification was considered a gift from the supreme god Odin. There are also songs of all-Germanic origin in the "Elder Edda" - for example, songs about Sigurd and Atli. The legend is of South German origin and is best known from the Nibelungenlied. The rules of poetry and the retelling of Old Norse mythology are contained in the "Younger Edda" by the skald Snorri Sturluson (1178-1241).
"Elder Edda" was translated into Russian three times - the first time by a talented translator and researcher of Old Icelandic literature S. Sviridenko, in Soviet times - by A. Korsun, and more recently - by V. Tikhomirov, who prepared his translation together with the largest modern Scandinavian medievalist O Smirnitskaya. Before the 1917 revolution in Russia, there were a great many transcriptions and retellings of Old Norse myths. After 1917, only one transcription of these myths for children, owned by Yu. Svetlanov, was published.
However, recently a wonderful book by the contemporary Danish writer Lars Henrik Olsen "Erik the Son of Man" appeared in Russian, which is a fascinating journey through the world of gods and heroes written in a fascinating form.
We can safely say that the literature of Scandinavia grew out of Old Norse literature. The discovery and settlement of Iceland was one of the results of the Viking campaigns. The famous Icelandic scientist Jonas Kristiansson writes: “On their fast and durable ships, the Vikings crossed the seas like lightning, fell on islands and coasts and tried to create new states in the west - in Scotland, Ireland and England, in the south - in France and in the east - in Russia.
But the tribes that inhabited these lands were so powerful that a few groups of strangers gradually dissolved among the local population, having lost their national features and language.
The Vikings could only hold out on those lands that had not been inhabited before their arrival. Iceland remained the only state created during this period by the Vikings.
Arn the Wise (1067-1148), the first Icelandic author to write a brief history of Iceland (The Book of the Icelanders), reports that the first settler settled there "a few years after 870. According to another ancient source, this happened in 874 ".
The history of Icelandic literature, as, in fact, the history of the country, has more than a thousand years.
Legends about gods and heroes are known all over the world, which have come down to us thanks to the songs of the Elder Edda.
The Elder Edda is a collection of mythological and heroic songs preserved in a single copy, the Royal Codex, found in Iceland in 1643.
Until recently, this parchment was kept in Copenhagen, but in April 1971, many Old Icelandic manuscripts, by decision of the Danish Parliament, were transferred to Iceland, where the Institute of Icelandic Manuscripts was established in its capital - Reykjavik, the purpose of which is to promote the dissemination of knowledge about the Icelandic language people, their literature and history. All Old Norse poetry falls into two types of poetic art - Eddic poetry and skaldic poetry.
Eddic poetry is distinguished by the fact that its authorship is anonymous, its form is relatively simple, and it tells about gods and heroes, or contains the rules of worldly wisdom.
The peculiarities of Eddic songs are their saturation with actions, each song is dedicated to one specific episode from the life of gods or heroes, and their utmost brevity. "Edda" is conditionally divided into 2 parts - into songs about the gods, which contain information on mythology, and songs about heroes.
The most famous song of the "Elder Edda" is considered "Volva Divination", which gives a picture of the world from its creation to the tragic end - "the death of the gods" - and a new rebirth of the world.
Early Icelandic poetry is associated with pagan beliefs. Many of the oldest poems are dedicated to pagan gods, and the very art of versification was considered a gift from the supreme god Odin.
There are also songs of all-Germanic origin in the "Elder Edda" - for example, songs about Sigurd and Atli. The legend is of South German origin and is best known from the Nibelungenlied.
The rules of poetry and the retelling of Old Norse mythology are contained in the "Younger Edda" by the skald Snorri Sturluson (1178-1241).
"Elder Edda" was translated into Russian three times - the first time by a talented translator and researcher of Old Icelandic literature S. Sviridenko, in Soviet times - by A. Korsun, and more recently - by V. Tikhomirov, who prepared his translation together with the largest modern Scandinavian medievalist O Smirnitskaya.
Before the 1917 revolution in Russia, there were a great many transcriptions and retellings of Old Norse myths. After 1917, only one transcription of these myths for children, owned by Yu. Svetlanov, was published.
However, recently a wonderful book by the contemporary Danish writer Lars Henrik Olsen "Erik the son of man" appeared in Russian, which is a fascinating journey through the world of gods and heroes written in a fascinating form.
