There is nothing unambiguous in the world. If you are guided by accurate knowledge, you can miss a lot. The world does not live exactly according to the instructions that are written by man. Much has not yet been explored.

When a person does not know something, he turns on abstract thinking, which helps him make guesses, make judgments, and reason. To understand what it is, you need to familiarize yourself with examples, forms and methods of its development.

What is Abstract Thinking?

What is it and why does the psychotherapeutic help site touch on the topic of abstract thinking? It is the ability to think in general that helps in finding a solution to an impasse, in the emergence of a different view of the world.

There is precise and generalized thinking. Accurate thinking is activated when a person has knowledge, information and a clear understanding of what is happening. Generalized thinking turns on when a person does not know the exact data, does not have specific information. He can guess, assume, draw general conclusions. Generalized thinking is abstract thinking in simple words.

The scientific language of abstract thinking is a type of cognitive activity when a person moves away from specific details and begins to reason in general. The picture is considered as a whole, without affecting the details, specifics, accuracy. This contributes to the departure from the rules and dogmas and consideration of the situation from different angles. When an event is considered in general, then there are various ways to solve it.

Usually a person proceeds from specific knowledge. For example, a man lies on the couch and watches TV. The thought arises: "He's a slacker." In this situation, the viewer proceeds from his own ideas about what is happening. What could actually be happening? The man lay down for 5 minutes to rest. He had already done everything around the house, so he allowed himself to watch TV. He got sick, so he lies on the couch. There can be many variations of what is happening here. If you ignore the specifics and look at the situation from different angles, then you can find out a lot of new and interesting things.

In abstract thinking, a person thinks approximately. There are no specifics or details here. Generalized words are used: “life”, “world”, “in general”, “by and large”.

Abstract thinking is useful in situations where a person cannot find a way out (intellectual impasse). Due to the lack of information or knowledge, he is forced to reason, guess. If we abstract from the situation with its specific details, then we can consider in it what was not noticed before.

Abstract logical thinking

In abstract-logical thinking, abstractions are used - units of certain patterns that have been isolated from the "abstract", "imaginary" qualities of an object, phenomenon. In other words, a person operates with phenomena that he cannot “touch with his hands”, “see with his eyes”, “smell”.

A very striking example of such thinking is mathematics, which explains phenomena that do not exist in physical nature. For example, there is no such thing as the number "2". The person understands that we are talking about two identical units. However, this figure was invented by people in order to simplify some phenomena.

The progress and development of mankind has forced people to use concepts that in fact do not exist. Another striking example would be the language a person uses. There are no letters, words, sentences in nature. Man invented the alphabet, words and expressions to simplify the expression of his thoughts, which he wants to convey to other people. This allowed people to find a common language, since everyone understands the meaning of the same word, recognizes letters, builds sentences.

Abstract-logical thinking becomes necessary in a situation where there is some certainty, which is not yet understood and known to man, and the emergence of an intellectual impasse. There is a need to identify what is in reality, to find a definition for it.

Abstraction is divided into types and purposes. Types of abstraction:

• Primitive-sensual - highlighting some properties of an object, ignoring its other qualities. For example, considering the structure, but ignoring the form of the subject.
• Generalizing - highlighting a common characteristic in one phenomenon, ignoring the presence of individual features.
• Idealizing - replacing real properties with an ideal scheme that eliminates existing shortcomings.
• Isolating - highlights the component on which attention is focused.
• Actual infinity – infinite sets are defined as finite.
• Constructivization - "coarseness", giving form to phenomena that have vague boundaries.

According to the goals of abstraction there are:

1. Formal (theoretical thinking), when a person considers objects according to their external manifestations. These qualities themselves do not exist on their own without these objects and phenomena.
2. Content, when a person can single out a property from an object or phenomenon that can exist on its own, be autonomous.

The development of abstract-logical thinking is important, since it was it that made it possible to isolate from the surrounding world that which cannot be recognized by the natural senses. Here, concepts (linguistic expressions) were formed that convey the general pattern of a particular phenomenon. Now each person does not have to identify this or that concept, since he learns about it in the process of learning at school, university, at home, etc. This brings us to the next topic about forms of abstract thinking.

Forms of abstract thinking

Since a person cannot “create a wheel” every time, he must systematize the knowledge gained. Many phenomena are not visible to the human eye, something does not exist at all, but all this is in human life, therefore it must have one form or another. In abstract thinking, there are 3 forms:

1. Concept.

This is a thought that conveys a common property that can be traced in different subjects. They may be different. However, their homogeneity and similarity allows a person to combine them into one group. So, for example, a chair. It can be with round handles or square seats. Different chairs have a different color, shape, composition. However, their common feature is that they have 4 legs and it is customary to sit on them. The same purpose of objects and their design allows a person to be combined into one group.

People teach these concepts to children from childhood. Speaking of "dog", we mean an animal that runs on 4 legs, barks, barks, etc. Dogs themselves come in different breeds. However, they all have the same characteristics, according to which they are combined into one common concept - "dog".

1. Judgment.

People use this form of abstraction when they want to confirm or refute something. Moreover, this verbal form is unambiguous. It comes in two forms: simple and complex. Simple - for example, a cat meows. It is short and clear. The second - "the garbage was thrown out, the bucket was empty." It is often expressed in whole sentences of narrative form.

The judgment may be true or false. A true judgment reflects the real state of affairs and is often based on the fact that a person does not show any relation to him, that is, he judges objectively. A judgment becomes false when a person is interested in it and is based on his own conclusions, and not on the real picture of what is happening.

1. Inference.

This is a thought that is formed on the basis of two or more judgments, from which a new judgment is formed. In every conclusion there are 3 components: premise (premise), conclusion and conclusion. The premise (premise) is the initial judgments. Inference is the process of logical thinking that leads to a conclusion - a new judgment.

Examples of Abstract Thinking

Having considered the theoretical part of abstract thinking, you should familiarize yourself with various examples. The most striking example of what an abstract judgment is is the exact sciences. Mathematics, physics, astronomy and other sciences are often based on abstract thinking. We do not see numbers as such, but we can count. We collect objects in a group and call their number.

The man talks about life. But what is it? This is the existence of a body in which a person moves, breathes, functions. It is impossible to give a clear definition of what life is. However, a person can unambiguously determine when someone lives and when they die.

Clearly abstract thinking manifests itself when a person thinks about the future. It is not known what will happen there, but everyone has goals, desires, plans. Without the ability to dream and imagine, a person would not be able to plan for the future. Now he seeks to realize these goals. His movement through life becomes more purposeful. Strategies and tactics are emerging that should lead to the desired future. This reality does not yet exist, but a person strives to form it the way he wants to see it.

Another common form of abstraction is idealization. People like to idealize others and the world in general. Women dream of princes from fairy tales, not noticing what men are in the real world. Men dream of obedient wives, ignoring the fact that only an unthinking being can be subordinate to another.

Many people use judgment. Often they are false. Thus, a woman may conclude that "all men are bad" after being betrayed by a single partner. Since she singles out a man as a single class, which is characterized by the same quality, she ascribes to everyone the quality that manifested itself in one person.

Often, wrong conclusions are made on the basis of false judgments. For example, “the neighbors are unfriendly”, “heating is not supplied”, “the wiring needs to be changed” means “the apartment is dysfunctional”. Based on the emotional discomfort that occurs under the circumstances, unambiguous judgments and conclusions are made that distort reality.

Development of abstract thinking

The most optimal age for the development of abstract thinking is the preschool period. As soon as the child begins to explore the world, he can be helped in the development of all kinds of thinking.

Toys are the most effective way of development. Through shapes, volumes, colors, etc., the child first begins to recognize the details, and then combine them into groups. You can give the child several toys of a square or round shape, so that he divides them into two piles according to the same characteristics.

As soon as a child learns to draw, sculpt, make with his own hands, he should be allowed to engage in such hobbies. This develops not only fine motor skills, but also contributes to the manifestation of creativity. We can say that abstract thinking is creativity that is not limited by frames, shapes, colors.

When a child learns to read, count, write and perceive words by sound, you can work with him to develop abstract-logical thinking. Riddles that should be solved are well suited here, puzzles where it is necessary to solve some question, exercises for ingenuity, where it is necessary to notice an error, an inaccuracy.

Since abstract thinking is not born with a person, but develops as he grows, various rebuses, crosswords, and puzzles will help here. There is a lot of literature on how to develop different kinds of thinking. It should be understood that some puzzles cannot develop only one type of thinking. All of them are partially or completely involved in the development of various types of cognitive activity.

Particularly effective are various life situations in which the child must find a way out of the situation. A simple task to take out the garbage will force the child to first think about how to dress and what to wear in order to leave the house and carry the garbage bag to the bin. If the garbage can is far from home, then it will be forced to predict its route in advance. Forecasting the future is another way to develop abstract thinking. Children have a good imagination, which should not be oppressed.

Outcome

The result of abstract thinking is that a person is able to find solutions in any situation. He thinks creatively, flexibly, outside the box. Not always accurate knowledge is objective and able to help in any situation. Circumstances happen different, which makes a person think, reason, predict.

Psychologists note the negative consequences if parents do not engage in the development of this thinking in their child. Firstly, the baby will not learn to distinguish the general from the details and, conversely, move from the general to the details. Secondly, he will not be able to show flexibility of thinking in situations in which he does not know a way out. Thirdly, he will be deprived of the ability to predict the future of his actions.

Abstract thinking differs from linear thinking in that a person does not think in terms of cause and effect. He abstracts from the details and begins to reason in general. The most remarkable thing here is that only after a general vision of affairs can a person move on to the details that are important in a situation. And when the details do not help in solving the problem, then there is a need to abstract, to go beyond what is happening.

Abstract thinking allows you to find something new, to create, to create. If a person were deprived of such thinking, then he would not be able to create a wheel, a car, an airplane and other technologies that many people use now. There would be no progress that arises first from the ability of a person to imagine, dream, go beyond the accepted and reasonable. These skills are also useful in everyday life, when a person is faced with different characters and behaviors of people whom he has never met before. The ability to quickly rebuild and adapt to unchanging circumstances is due to abstract thinking.

It came in very handy Chapter 2 from book. Just talked to Chumakin “Isn’t it how to introduce Altshuller’s TRIZ and Shchedrovitsky’s SMD to each other, and here such luck. I present to you a squeeze from several pages of text in several paragraphs with my own numbering.

INTRODUCTION

Thinking in modern conditions is a technology, no matter what various gurus from philosophy and marketing tell us there. The intellectual process can be decomposed into stages, technological methods can be distinguished in it, trained, and finally, taught to others.

Thinking training is as inefficient as any modern training in general. […] In the humanities faculties of universities they do not teach to think at all, at best, to convincingly imitate the intellectual process with the help of virtuoso mastery of the relevant discourses. In some technical institutes, thinking is taught, but rather specific, often narrow (the features and jambs of scientific thinking will be discussed below).

It is believed that thinking, the mind does not accept violence. In reality, both are instruments of violence: specific, national, group, personal. We use our mind in order to realize our goals, to achieve advantages for ourselves.

Types of organization (ways) of thinking

Thinking can be organized in several different ways, and when and if a certain structure is retained, and the transition from one structure to another is reflected, it becomes disciplined and strong, acquires the ability to self-development.

The word "dialectic", of course, is translated as "the art of arguing, reasoning", and not as "dual thinking". Nevertheless, it is very convenient to call "lectics" the dimension of thinking: ways of working with contradictions, characteristic structure, depth. We will use this notation to construct a kind of "ladder of thoughts".

It should be borne in mind that this ladder sets the hierarchy of the complexity of thinking, not its quality. In our opinion, any ordered thinking is subtle, strong and sophisticated. Each - sets its own tools and system operators.

0.1. Ordinary thinking

Ordinary thinking - zero lexicon - works with a concrete world, the world of things and events.

Items are operational. Events are objective. […] Ordinary thinking is clear, concrete, purposeful, materialistic. It is reflexive, since it not only allows, but also presupposes a view of oneself from the outside.

Ordinary thinking is based on personal or collective tradition (experience). It does not operate with the category of "development", as with categories in general, but uses ideas about movement and distinguishes between movement and rest.

It uses the notion of causality between events very carefully; it would be good if such a connection were reliably established and backed up by experience.

1. Monolectic thinking

1.1. scientific thinking

The next type of organization of thinking is the most developed in our time, since it is broadcast by school and university education - a single lexicon, scientific thinking, working with abstract concepts and categories that are understood as operational. This thinking is based on the categories of "true and false" and uses the concept of proof very widely. [...] Purely formally, proof in 1-lectics is bringing a chain of logically connected judgments or to a conventionally recognized truth?

Depending on which categories this monolectic thinking uses, it is divided into three types.

1.1.1. natural science thinking

Uses such concepts as space, time, matter, atom, capital. Natural-scientific thinking reflects the existence of development, and consistently works with various forms of movement. It is concrete, non-purposeful, materialistic, reflexive, fundamentally limited. Scientists often use the explanation: "this, they say, is not in our department."

According to the method of argumentation, natural scientific thinking can be based on logic and scholasticism, based on mathematics.

1.1.2. humanitarian thinking

Operates with the concepts of good, evil, beauty, immortality, soul, humanity. Most of the concepts not only cannot be correctly defined, but are generally meaningless outside a certain, fixed ontology, in contrast to natural science concepts, which, to a certain extent, are ontologically independent. It tries to work from development, although it does not reflect even a simple movement. It is generally non-reflexive and non-concrete, but it is teleological - it has a goal, and it is idealistic. Argumentation is reduced to a conventionally recognized tradition, usually rather random in its content.

1.1.3. Legal thinking

Works with artificially and purposefully constructed legal categories: norm, law, retribution, justice, law. It is very metaphysical and tries not to deal with any change, neither movement nor development. Unlike humanitarian thinking, legal thinking is reflexive, concrete, pragmatic and materialistic. It is, however, teleological and, in this respect, "humanitarian." Scholasticism is widely used in the argument, but no less important are references to recognized authorities and precedents.

(see forecasting)

2. Dialectical thinking

Dialectical thinking, dialectics, is an understandable development of scientific thinking. Dialectics work with simple binary (double) contradictions, considering them as the source and cause of development. In this sense, the idea of ​​development in dialectics is "hardwired". As a rule, dialectical thinking consists in defining a system of contradictions, isolating basic contradictions from them and transforming these contradictions into a form that can be resolved in the form of activity. For example, the sides of a contradiction are separated in time (I want ... but this is not there) and is resolved by work.

At least three types of dialectical thinking are known:

2.1. Technological dialectical thinking

works with specific systems, technical, social or administrative, uses evolutionary models and TRIZ techniques to transform basic contradictions.

TRIZ is the theory of inventive problem solving created by G. Altshuller. It relies on the algorithm for solving such problems - ARIZ, which includes highlighting the basic contradiction, translating this contradiction into a meaningful form, that is, into the form of a conflict of interest, and not ambition, the ultimate aggravation of the conflict, resolving it through the "su-field completion" method, that is transition to a bi- or polysystem, which simultaneously realize - moreover, in the ultimate form, both sides, enclosed in a basic content contradiction. [...] Systemic technological thinking is concrete, teleological, materialistic, non-reflexive.

2.2. System Dialectical Thinking (OTS)

works with arbitrary analytical and chaotic systems, studying their evolution using the laws of dialectics in the usual or structural-dynamic formulation, as well as applying evolutionary laws. This type of thinking tries to work, although not quite successfully, with non-Aristotelian logics and fuzzy conditions. It is very abstract, quite reflective, materialistic and purposeful.

2.3. Methodological dialectical thinking

works with generalized abstract systems (for example, "thinking" or "economics"). The principles and schemes of thought-activity methodology (SMD, G.P. Shchedrovitsky) are widely used, some of which are presented as system operators and are discussed below. Among all types of dialectical thinking, methodological thinking is the most refined. It is extremely abstract, emphatically non-purposeful and just as emphatically - embedded - reflexive. Methodological schemes are dualistic and imply the use of non-commutative algebras (ab - ba =/= 0).

(see forecasting)

3. Trialetic thinking

The most complex and, to a certain extent, pretentious thinking seems to be trialetic. The idea of ​​trialectics lies in the question: can a contradiction have more than two sides and still not crumble into a direct sum of dialectical contradictions? The formal answer is the dogma of the trinity of God in the Christian tradition. Strictly speaking, in the traditional Hindu religion, Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma should also be considered as a trinity.

Trialectics works with an arbitrary system in which contradictions can be identified. Trialectics transforms binary contradictions into triunities, in which the added third, previously not manifesting itself, “weak” side occupies a controlling position in relation to the two original sides. As it develops, the sides of the trinity become symmetrized, which leads to the appearance of a trialetic balance. This balance in its development gives rise to an essence that forms a contradiction with all three sides of the balance. This new essence is located in a semantic layer different from the original balance. In this new layer, it first generates its opposite, then trinity, and finally balance.

The basic triallectic contradiction is the contradiction between rest (statics), movement (dynamics) and transition (spontaneity). In the language of management, it is transformed into a "managerial triangle": security - development - comfort.

(see forecasting)

4. Complex thinking

It is clear that the number "three" is not sacred, it does not stand out from the numerical sequence, and the ladder hierarchy of organizations can be built further. However, we will not get anything fundamentally new, especially since 4-contradictions invariably fall apart into related binary ones. Apparently, the next step will be thinking in categories of contradictions with an arbitrary, not necessarily even an integer number of sides (fractal thinking). Unfortunately, this type of thinking on Earth, as far as we know, has not yet been presented and cannot be described.

We have considered pure forms of thought. Let us repeat that if this or that organization is held, and the transition from one organization to another is controlled by the human will and reflected by consciousness, thinking is strong and disciplined. This is usually not the case. Even if a person is capable of thinking, the organization of this thinking is random and, as a rule, is a mixture of everyday thinking with humanitarian science.

(see forecasting)

0.0. sublimated thinking

It has already been pointed out that thinking is by no means a common property, unlike Reason, and the proportion of people capable of independent and independent thinking is declining from generation to generation, which once again indicates a crisis in the industrial phase of development. At present, there are so many people who are not capable of thinking, but simulating, depicting it, that they can rightly be called the unthinking majority. In the same sense, mental activity is imitated by computer programs - text generators. The object that organizes the consciousness of the unthinking will be called thinking without thinking. The subject of such quasi-thinking is not defined and random; emotions serve as a way of argumentation. Quasi-thinking is unstructured, semantic layers and units are not distinguished in it: pieces of events, broken causal chains, or, on the contrary, causal relationships that do not have a cause, or effect, or both.

The form of quasi-thinking, characteristic of modern society, is sublimated thinking. This term is not related to Freud and his model, but rather is associated with food production technologies, where the word "sublimation" refers to the process of removing moisture from fresh food in a vacuum way.

Accordingly, the same thing happens with thinking - all the “moisture” is removed from it and a “dry residue” remains, reproducing previously digested verbal “packages”. In other words, sublimated thinking is not capable of producing new information or organizing new activities—its function is to serve the needs of the semantic environment. Subli think in words, think in other people's theories, averaged judgments, stereotypical constructs that formulate a castrated semblance of a picture of the world. The other, much less the other, is completely absent in such thinking.

It can be said that sublimated thinking arose when stereotypes got out of people's control and united into information structures, invisible to man, but reasonable in their own way.

Sublimated thinking is characterized by pseudo-reflection - constructions of words and concepts that do not carry anything in themselves, but are used for endless self-repetition.

(see forecasting)

Types of thinking are common to all people, although each person has a number of specific cognitive abilities. In other words, each person can accept and develop different thought processes.

Content:

Thinking is not innate, but rather develops. Although all personality and cognitive characteristics of people motivate a preference for one or more types of thinking, some people can develop and practice any type of thinking.

Although thought is traditionally interpreted as a concrete and limited activity, this process is not unambiguous. That is, there is no single way to carry out the processes of thinking and reasoning.

In fact, many specific ways of thinking have been identified. For this reason, today the idea is that people can imagine different ways of thinking.

Types of human thinking

It should be noted that each type of human mind more efficient in performing specific tasks. Certain cognitive activities may benefit more than one type of thinking.

Therefore, it is important to know and learn to develop different types of thinking. This fact makes it possible to maximize the use of human cognitive abilities and develop different abilities to solve various problems.

Deductive thinking is the type of thinking that allows you to draw a conclusion, a conclusion from a number of premises. That is, it is a mental process that starts from the "general" in order to reach the "specific".

This type of thinking focuses on the cause and origin of things. It requires a detailed analysis of aspects of the problem in order to be able to draw conclusions and possible solutions.

This is a method of reasoning that is very often used in everyday life. People analyze elements and everyday situations to draw conclusions.

Beyond day-to-day work, deductive reasoning is vital to the development of scientific processes. It is based on deductive reasoning: it analyzes related factors to develop hypotheses and draw a conclusion.

Critical thinking is a mental process based on the analysis, understanding and evaluation of how knowledge is organized, which claims to represent things.

Critical thinking uses knowledge to arrive at an efficient conclusion that is more reasonable and justified.

Therefore, critical thinking evaluates ideas analytically in order to lead them to concrete conclusions. These conclusions are based on the morality, values ​​and personal principles of the individual.

Thus, thanks to this kind of thinking, cognitive ability is combined with. Therefore, it determines not only the way of thinking, but also the way of being.

The adoption of critical thinking directly affects a person's functionality as it makes them more intuitive and analytical, allowing them to make good and wise decisions based on concrete realities.

Inductive thinking defines a way of thinking that is the opposite of deductive. Thus, this way of thinking is characterized by the search for explanations about the general.

Obtaining conclusions on a large scale. It looks for distant situations to make them similar and thus generalizes situations without resorting to analysis.

Therefore, the goal of inductive thinking is to study tests that measure the probability of arguments, as well as the rules for constructing strong inductive arguments.

Analytical thinking is about breaking down, separating and analyzing information. It is characterized by order, that is, it is a sequence of the rational: it goes from the general to the particular.

It always specializes in seeking an answer, therefore in seeking arguments.

Investigative thinking is focused on investigating things. Does it in a thorough, interested and persistent manner.

It consists of a mixture of creativity and analysis. That is, part of the evaluation and study of the elements. But its goal does not end with the examination itself, but requires the formulation of new questions and hypotheses in accordance with the aspects studied.

As its name suggests, this type of thinking is fundamental to research and development and the evolution of species.

Systems or systematic thinking is the type of reasoning that occurs in a system formed by various subsystems or interrelated factors.

It consists of a highly structured type of thinking, the purpose of which is to understand a fuller and less simple view of things.

Try to understand the functioning of things and solve the problems that their properties give rise to. This implies the development of complex thinking, which has so far been applied to three main areas: physics, anthropology and sociopolitics.

Creative thinking includes the cognitive processes that create the ability to create. This fact motivates the development of elements new or different from the rest through thought.

Thus, creative thinking can be defined as the acquisition of knowledge characterized by originality, flexibility, plasticity and fluidity.

Today it is one of the most valuable cognitive strategies because it allows you to formulate, build and solve problems in a new way.

Developing this type of thinking is not easy, so there are certain methods that allow you to achieve this.

Synthetic thinking is characterized by the analysis of the various elements that make up things. Its main purpose is to reduce ideas on a particular topic.

It consists of a type of vital argument for teaching and personal study. The thought of synthesis allows the elements to be more recalled as they undergo a cumulative process.

It is a personal process in which each person forms a significant whole out of the parts that the subject represents. Thus, a person can remember several features of the concept, covering them in a more general and representative concept.

Interrogative thinking is based on questions and asking about important aspects.

Thus, interrogative thinking defines the way of thinking that arises from the use of questions. There is always a reason in this reasoning, because it is this element that allows you to develop your own thinking and receive information.

Through the issues raised, data were obtained that allowed a final conclusion to be drawn. This type of thinking is mainly used to deal with issues in which the most important element is information received through third parties.

Diverse (Divergent) Thinking

Varied thinking, also known as lateral thinking, is a type of reasoning that discusses, doubts, and consistently looks for alternatives.

It is a process of thinking that generates creative ideas through the exploration of multiple solutions. It represents the antithesis of logical thinking and tends to manifest itself spontaneously and smoothly.

As the name suggests, its main purpose is based on divergence from previously established solutions or elements. Thus, it sets up a type of thinking that is closely related to creativity.

It consists of a type of thinking that does not seem natural in people. People tend to associate and associate similar elements with each other. On the other hand, diversified thinking tries to find different solutions for those that are done in the usual way.

convergent thinking

Convergent thinking, on the other hand, is a type of reasoning that is the opposite of different thinking.

In fact, divergent thinking is controlled by neural processes in the right hemisphere of the brain, convergent thinking will be determined by processes in the left hemisphere.

It is characterized by functioning through associations and relationships between elements. It has no ability to imagine, seek or explore alternative thoughts and usually results in a single idea.

intellectual thinking

This type of reasoning, of recent origin and coined by Michael Gelb, makes reference to the combination between divergent and convergent thought.

Thus, intellectual thinking, which includes aspects of the details and evaluators of convergent thinking and links them to alternative and new processes associated with divergent thinking.

The development of this reasoning makes it possible to link creativity with analysis, postulating as a thought with a high ability to achieve effective solutions in several areas.

Conceptual thinking

Conceptual thinking involves the development of reflection and self-assessment of problems. It is closely related to creative thinking, and its main goal is to find concrete solutions.

However, unlike diverging thinking, this type of reasoning focuses on reviewing pre-existing associations.
Conceptual thinking involves abstraction and reflection, and it is very important in various scientific, academic, everyday and professional fields.

It is also characterized by the development of four basic intellectual operations:

Subordination: consists of associating specific concepts with the broader concepts in which they are included.

Coordination: it consists in linking specific concepts included in broader and more generalized concepts.

Infracoordination: deals with a specific relationship between two concepts and aims to identify specific features of concepts, relationships with others.

Exception: It consists of finding elements that are characterized by being different or not equal to other elements.

Metaphorical thinking

Metaphorical thinking is based on establishing new connections. This is a very creative type of reasoning, but it does not focus on creating or obtaining new elements, but on new relationships between existing elements.

With this type of thinking, one can create stories, develop the imagination, and generate through these elements new connections between well-differentiated aspects that share some aspects.

Traditional thinking

Traditional thinking is characterized by the use of logical processes. It focuses on the solution and focuses on looking for similar real life situations to find elements that might be useful for resolution.

It is usually developed using rigid and pre-designed schemes. This is one of the foundations of vertical thinking, in which logic takes on a one-way role and develops a linear and sequential path.

This is one of the most commonly used types of thinking in everyday life. It is not suitable for creative or original elements, but it is very useful for dealing with everyday situations and is relatively simple.

The process of thinking begins with a problematic situation, the ability to see questions where everything seems obvious to others. The sources of the emergence of "correct" questions are practice and knowledge. In the course of solving practical problems, we “turn on” thinking and try to solve what we have not yet solved, on the other hand, in order to correctly pose the question, you need to have a sufficient amount of knowledge. But asking the right question is not enough. You must also be able to choose ways to solve the problem. In some cases, we have no difficulty with this, but often there is not enough information or knowledge to answer. Therefore, in order to solve a complex mental problem, a person must be able to find the necessary information, using the possibilities of his thinking, first to answer intermediate questions and then to the main one. Sometimes the solution is in the question itself; to see this, you need to be able to operate with the available data and analyze them. When we do not have the information necessary to answer, we usually make an assumption-inference, which is based on indirect information and our guesses in the absence of the necessary information. Thus, by solving a mental problem with many unknowns, we can make assumptions that form the basis for solving this problem. In some cases, our decision turns out to be correct, or adequate, and in others - incorrect. This is due to the truth or falsity of our assumption. The criterion of the truth of our assumption is practice. Practice is the most objective proof of the truth of our conclusions. We can use practice both as direct evidence of the correctness of our judgments, and as indirect evidence. For example, in order to test the assumption that there is electric current in the socket, we turn on the lamp and, based on whether it lights up or not, we draw the appropriate conclusion. A significant role in solving complex intellectual problems is played by the skillful use of various techniques. So, when solving problems, we often use visual images. Another example is the use of typical techniques in solving typical problems (at school, problems of a certain type in physics are solved in one way, i.e. using in practice the existing solutions. As a result, the student develops skills practical thinking). But when you need to solve a problem like no other, you need the ability to think creatively. The concept of J. Gilford: the level of development of creativity is determined by the dominance of four features in thinking - 1) originality and unusualness of the ideas expressed, the desire for intellectual novelty 2) a creative person is distinguished by semantic flexibility, i.e. the ability to see an object from a new angle of view, the ability to detect new use of this object 3) in creative thinking there is always such a feature as figurative adaptive flexibility, i.e. the ability to change the perception of an object in such a way as to see its new, hidden sides 4) a person with creative thinking differs from other people in the ability to produce a variety of ideas in an uncertain situation, in particular in one that does not contain prerequisites for the formation of new ideas (semantic spontaneous flexibility). Conditions conducive to the manifestation of creative thinking - when meeting with a new task, a person seeks first of all to use the method or method that was most successful in previous experience; the more effort was spent on finding a new way to solve a problem, the higher the likelihood that this method will be applied when solving a different, new mental problem, but this can lead to stereotypes, therefore, in order to overcome stereotyped thinking, a person should generally give up trying to solve problem, and then after a while return to it, but with the firm intention of solving it in a new way. Frequent failures in solving mental problems lead to the fact that a person begins to be afraid of meeting with each new task, and when faced with a problem, his intellectual abilities are not able to manifest themselves, as they are under the yoke of a person’s disbelief in their own strengths. For the manifestation of the intellectual abilities of people, a sense of success and a sense of the correctness of performing a particular task is necessary. G. Lindsay, K. Hull and R. Thompson. They found that the manifestation of creativity is hindered not only by the insufficient development of certain abilities, but also by the presence of certain personality traits. So, one of the brightest personality traits that hinder the manifestation of creative abilities is 1) a tendency to conformism (the desire not to be different from others; 2) the fear of seeming stupid or ridiculous in one's judgments; 3) an overestimation of the significance of their own ideas; 4) the ratio of critical (sees only flaws, does not offer constructive ideas) and creative (does not see flaws) thinking.

Development of thinking.

1) the initial stage, with generalizations. The first generalizations are connected with the practical activity of the child. By operating with objects, already at the beginning of the second year of life, the child can solve certain practical problems. 2) is associated with the acquisition of speech. Words are the basis for generalization. But sometimes a sign that is essential for a child is not really significant (an apple-sign is transferred to all red / round objects). 3) can name one object with several words (about two years of life) - the formation of such a mental operation as a comparison, on this basis deduction and induction are formed (well expressed at the age of 3-3.5 years). Features of the thinking of a preschool child: 1) connection with action, 2) visibility - manifests itself in concreteness (thinks based on single facts). Upon reaching school age, there is a progressive increase in the child's mental capabilities (associated not only with age-related changes, but primarily with those intellectual tasks that the child needs to solve while studying at school). There is a transition from concrete to more abstract concepts - the child learns the variety of properties of objects, their connections, the essentiality of features, all this gradually deepens. The school teaches the child to analyze, synthesize, generalize, develops induction and deduction. With the end of school, a person retains the possibility of developing thinking. However, the dynamics of this development and its direction depend only on itself.

In the practical aspect of the development of thinking, it is customary to single out three main areas of research: phylogenetic, ontogenetic, and experimental. Phylogenetic direction involves the study of how human thinking has developed and improved in the process of historical development humanity.Ontogenetic direction associated with the study of the main stages of development in the life of one person, experimental direction connected with the problems of experimental study of thinking and the possibility of developing intelligence in special, artificially created conditions. Vygotsky\Sakharov: three stages in the process of concept formation in children. 1) the formation of an unformed, disordered set of objects that can be denoted by one word. This stage, in turn, has three stages: choosing and combining objects at random; selection based on the spatial arrangement of objects; reduction to one value of all previously combined objects. 2) the formation of concepts-complexes on the basis of individual objective features. Researchers have identified four types of complexes: associative (any externally noticed connection is taken as a sufficient basis for classifying objects as one class); collectible (mutual complement and association of objects on the basis of a particular functional feature); chain (transition in association from one attribute to another so that some objects are combined on the basis of some, and others - on completely different attributes, and all of them are included in the same group); pseudo-concept. 3) the formation of real concepts. This stage also includes several steps: potential concepts (singling out a group of objects according to one common feature); true concepts (singling out essential features and, on their basis, combining objects). The theory of intellectual-cognitive development proposed by Klar and Wallace: a child from birth has three qualitatively different hierarchically organized types of productive intellectual systems. These include: a system for processing perceived information and switching attention from one type to another; a system responsible for setting goals and managing targeted actions; a system responsible for changing existing systems of the first and second types and creating new similar systems. Within the framework of this theory, a number of hypotheses were put forward regarding the features of the functioning of systems of the third type. Including:1. During the period when the processing of information coming from outside is not performed (for example, a person is sleeping), systems of the third type are engaged in the processing of previously received information. Moreover, this procedure always precedes mental activity.2. The purpose of this revision is to identify the effects of previous activity that are the most stable, as well as to determine the nature of the consistency between the newly identified stable elements.3. On the basis of the operations carried out above, at the subsequent stage, a new system of the first or second type is generated. 4. The new system being formed at a higher level includes the previous systems as elements. The problem of identifying patterns of emergence, formation and development of thinking is still one of the most relevant in psychology.

“Traveler, your footprints are nothing but your path. Traveler, you have no way. The road is being built as you move along it.

(These words of the Spanish poet Antonio Machado, written in 1917, are used as an epigraph to the newsletters published quarterly by the Complex Thinking Association.)

Edgar Morin (1921) - a French philosopher and sociologist, a classic of systems theory, develops a project of complex sociology, in the center of which are the principles of uncertainty, self-organization and dialogicity. He studied at the Sorbonne, was a member of the French Communist Party, an active participant in the Resistance, in 1955 he became one of the organizers of the Committee against the war in Algeria, joined the radical left group Socialism or Barbarism. More about E. Morena and.

From the preface to the book by E. Morin “Method. Nature of nature"

The Seven Principles of Complex Thinking

The principles of complex thinking formulated by Morin are supplemented by

mutually overlap, intersect, and are interdependent. And that is not

less can be distinguished in his mental constructions of seven principles

listed in one of his works [Complex Thinking, p. 89-931

1. Systemic or organizational principle binds knowledge

parts to the knowledge of the whole. In this case, a shuttle movement is carried out

from the parts to the whole and from the whole to the parts. The idea of ​​a system means

that "the whole is greater than the sum of the parts." From atom to star, from bacteria to

individual and society, the organization of the whole leads to the emergence of

its new qualities or properties in relation to the parts considered

in their isolation. New qualities are emergences. Yes, or-

The organization of a living being leads to the emergence of new qualities that

were not observed at the level of its physico-chemical constituents. Together

Morin repeatedly emphasizes that the whole is less than the sum

parts, because the organization of the whole inhibits the manifestation of one's own

properties of parts, as G. Haken would say here, the behavior of parts

becomes subordinate to the whole.

2. Holographic principle shows that in any difficult

phenomenon, not only the part enters into the whole, but the whole is built into each

separate part. A typical example is a cell and a living organism. All-

which cell is part of a whole - a living organism, but this itself

the whole is present in the part: the entirety of the genetic hereditary

ness is presented in each individual cell of this organism. By-

likewise, society in its totality is embedded in every in-
divid, society is present in it through language, through culture, human
cutting social norms.

3. Feedback principle, introduced by Norbert Wiener, allows
makes it possible to learn self-regulating processes. He breaks with the
linear causality. Cause and effect are closed in re-
italic loop: the cause affects the effect, and the effect -
to the cause, as in a heating system in which the thermostat regulates
operation of the heating element. This heating mechanism makes
autonomous system, in this case thermally autonomous:
regardless of the strengthening or weakening of the cold outside in the room
a certain temperature is maintained. Much more complicated
living organism. Its "homeostasis" is a set of processes of regulation
lations based on multiple feedbacks. Whereas deny
positive feedback dampens possible random deviations and thus
most stabilizes the system, positive feedback is
by the mechanism of amplification of deviations and fluctuations. Example here
can serve as a social situation of escalation of violence: the violence of some
the second social actor entails a reciprocal violent
a reaction that, in turn, causes more violence.

4. The principle of a recursive loop develops the concept of regulation in the concept
tie of self-production and self-organization. It's a generating loop
in which the products themselves become producers and causes
who produces them. Thus, individuals produce society in the course of
their interactions with each other and through them, and society as
the whole, which has emergent properties, produces a human
in these individuals, equipping them with a language and instilling in them a culture.

5. The principle of auto-eco-organization (autonomy / dependence) conclude
is that living beings are self-organizing
creatures and therefore expend energy to support their car
tonomy. Because they need to draw energy and information
from their environment, their autonomy is inseparable from their dependence
sti from the environment. Therefore, we need to understand them as auto-eco-
organizing beings.

The principle of auto-eco-organization is valid for individual
human beings and human societies. human beings
build their autonomy depending on their culture, defined by
social environment. And societies depend on their geo-ecological
environment. It is impossible to understand human activity as self-determining
a sovereign and sovereign being, if we abstract from the subject
Activities as a living organism, which is included in a certain
a situation that has a peculiar configuration, i.e. operating in
environmentally defined conditions.

E. Morin develops in this regard the idea of ecology
actions. Uncertainty is immanently inscribed in the very idea of

the complexity of the world. Uncertainty means the incompleteness of any
process of cognitive and practical activity, unpredicted
ness, openness and non-linearity of the outcome of this activity. Anything
the action we take is determined by the conditions of the environment,
natural and / or social environment, and it may turn out that it deviates
diverges from the direction that was originally given to him.
“We cannot be sure that the result of an action will be
meet our intentions, on the contrary, we have the right to seriously
hesitate about it" ["Complicated...", p. 23].

We are therefore forced to move away from the usual linear scheme pre-
action taken —»- result and recognize non-linearity
any action, more precisely, the non-linearity of the connection between this action and its
result (consequences). “As soon as an individual takes action
action, whatever it may be, it begins to elude its intention
rhenium, Morin explains. - This action flows into the universe
interactions and eventually absorbed by the environment, so that
the result may even be something opposite in relation to
change in the original intention. Often the action returns
boomerang to ourselves."

6. Dialogic principle is to establish an additional
a competitive, antagonistic relationship between two opposite
falsities; he runs like a red thread through the writings of Heraclitus
Ephesus, Blaise Pascal, Hegel's dialectics. It is best illustrated
Heraclitus's formula "to live while dying and to die while living" stratifies.

7. The principle of re-introduction of the knower into any process according to
knowledge restores the subject and gives him his rightful place in
the process of cognition. There is no "mirror" cognition lens
foot world. Cognition is always translation and construction. Anything on
observation and any conceptual representation include knowledge
observer, perceiving and thinking being. No knowledge
without self-knowledge, observation without self-observation.

The epistemology of the complex, i.e. epistemological principles
yearning for knowledge of the complex world, takes its form in the course of
knowledge of cognition, which includes knowledge of the limits of cognition
niya. The detection of contradictions and antinomies is a signal for us.
scrap of the fact that we are faced with the depths of the real. Cognition
evidence indicates that we have known only the subtlest captivity
ku reality. The only reality available to our
knowledge, is co-produced by human consciousness, by the power of its imagination
zheniya. The real and the imaginary are woven, woven together, forming
complex complex of our being, our life. We are always awake
us” only partially, because we live in an imaginary, created by us sa-

mimic reality. But we cannot fall asleep completely, because to immerse-
falling into a deep sleep means to dissolve your Self in the universe, completely
surrender to reality, which is unbearable for the human personality.

The point is that, as the Anglo-American
at T.S. Eliot, "The human mind cannot endure too much
real." Human reality itself is a semi-
imaginable. This reality is built by man, and it is only
partially real. The secret of the world is in ourselves, we do not attach it
meaning, and therefore it remains incomprehensible to us.

Method is not a program and research strategy

E. Morin reveals not only the content of the method of cognition of complex
(the content of the above-considered fundamental principles
complex thinking), but also its form, how exactly it can be applied
engage in knowledge and action? It shows that there is no universal
method. There is no algorithm or program of knowledge. The method is by no means
specific program and general research strategy and action.
This means that the method defines only general search directions,
builds some beacons for cognitive and practical activities
sty, which unfolds every time in accordance with personal
ideological and research attitudes and specific
the experience of the one who uses it. “The principles of complex thinking cannot
can dictate to you the program of knowledge, they can up to a certain
degree to dictate the strategy, - Morin explains the way to apply
method in one of his interviews. - I say: "Help yourself
yourself, and complex thinking will help you!” [“Complex ...”, p. 27].

There are no and cannot be strict and once and for all prescriptions for
choosing the path of knowledge and optimal action. Everything is needed first
to internalize the principles of cognition of the complex and be able to
apply them creatively. The method of cognition of the complex must be coherent
but to integrate into one's own knowledge and methodological preferences
of the subject of cognition and action. "It's about adapting
strategize to your subject of knowledge, and not about the universal
method. The idea of ​​strategy, therefore, is extremely important,
since the strategy is modified every time depending on the
observations, accumulated information and those accidents with which
you encounter” [“Complicated ...”, p. 27]. Morin hopes that
the method taken in this way will make it possible to construct the least distorted
new picture of reality.

The method is not a path given a priori, but the laying of this path. At
we do not have keys that would open the doors of secret boxes,
in which scientific truths are stored. The method is formed in the process
scientific research, with the accumulation of experience, it is formed and

posteriori. Developing this idea, Edgar Morin often quotes the words
Spanish poet Antonio Machado, who wrote in 1917: “The traveler,
your footprints are nothing but your path. Traveler, you don't have
roads. The road is being built as you move along it. These words are
used as an epigraph to newsletters published
quarterly by the Complex Thinking Association.

metaphorical as an indicator of non-linear thinking

The play on words, the metaphorical nature of the language, the content of the texts of
complex and multi-valued mental images - all this
serves, according to E. Morena, the best reflection of the dialogic of concepts.
“I love metaphors and images; enough to use them
metaphors and images, rather than confusing them with reality itself. I always
thought that m metaphors make it possible to break with the linear and dissecting
thinking"["Complicated...", p. thirty].

Metaphors perform a synthetic function - they allow you to connect
thread unconnected or not yet connected, and thus they often
act as a starting point for the growth of new knowledge.
After all, it is known that what is new in science often initially arises in
in the form of a metaphor or in the form of some mental image, and only then,
in case of successful development of a certain theoretical area, built-in
entering the system of knowledge, it acquires a scientific-theoretical form.

E. Morin invents new words in the "Method", such as "chaosmos"
(chaos + space), "pluriverse" (here a play on the words "universe" and "pluri-
vers”, i.e. a single and uniform universe or multiple, having
the universe with many paths of evolution), “multiple unity”
(unitas multiplex), "sibernetics" (which, unlike cybernetics
how the science/art of management is the science/art of building
communicative organization). These verbal and conceptual
introductions undoubtedly have metaphorical overtones and expand
field of meaning, as if inviting the reader as a co-creator to possible
interpretations and reinterpretations of what is stated by the author and joint ""
reflection on the essence of the problems considered in the book.

E. Moren's active use of metaphors indicates that
my opinion, about the non-linearity of his thinking and about his commitment and
non-linear writing. The non-linearity of writing, which is highly
characteristic only for the language of poetry, is associated with creative activation
her holistic, holistic properties of the language, with a desire to emphasize
attention to the ambiguity and multi-level nature of the invested by the creator
text of meanings and their possible interpretations by the reader, with the aspiration
reflect in the peculiar rhythm of the text a change in direction
and rates of development of processes in the universe, as well as underlining
complexity and non-linearity of text creation and its subsequent
reading, with the initiation of non-linear feedbacks between

reader and reader, between reading and rereading a text, between
search for meaning and rethinking problems.

Morin often involuntarily shifts from a purely scientific style of presentation
to the literary, as if recalling that he is not only a thinker, but also
writer. And here is the whole drama of the birth of the Universe from a singular state
and its subsequent evolution through the dialogic struggle of chaos
and order appears before us as an epic novel, which is abundant
flaunts with metaphorical images and sophisticated verbal ligaments
mi. And this is by no means accidental, for he is convinced that the language of literature
serves to express very subtle and sophisticated things and the smallest
shades of meaning are much better than formalized
ny and abstract scientific language.

Playing with words, Morin connects concepts that seem to be abso-
fiercely opposed and repel each other: “To live, dying,
and die while living"; “Subject and object are co-born and give birth to cognition
nie". This is quite consistent with the type of thinking he develops -
complex thinking. According to E. Morin, the cosmos is chaos
Som, the physical world is the product of an organizing disintegration
tions. And the latter can only be understood by means of the non-subject
reduction of the tetragram "order - disorder - interactions -
organization”, and all four concepts used in it are
are complementary, competitive and antagonistic in
wearing to each other [“My demons”, p. 78-79]. Relationship between
individual, human race, society is equally
Xia dialogic. And here again begins a complex word game:
“We have genes that own us and set us over
us power; we have ideas and myths, under the power of which we
we ourselves fall; we are generated by society, which we ourselves
we give birth” [“My demons”, p. 79].

On the road to recoveryunity of scientific knowledge

It is necessary to put an end to the fragmentation of knowledge into separate scientific
disciplines, recreate the unity of fragmented knowledge,
build bridges between science and the humanities, and
also within the most humanitarian and social knowledge - this is the leith
the motive of almost all the works of E. Morin and his "Method" as well.

Take at least one person. It appears to be "fragmented"
"dispersed" between various scientific disciplines. The brain is
love is studied by biology, its bodily organization by physiology,
The soul of man - psychology, his consciousness and knowledge - philosophy,
his behavior in society - sociology. Biology and human sciences
and society turn out to be fragmented, fenced off by insurmountable
lime partitions. If you want to understand what a person is
and what is the human condition, it is simply impossible.

And what is the way out? The way out is in development transdisciplinary with spend-
gy of scientific research, in the study of transciplinary complexes
scientific knowledge, in reforming education and teaching in schools
and universities on the basis of transdisciplinarity. As stated in
UNESCO document summarizing the results of the International Symposium
ma "Integrative process and integrated knowledge", which consisted of
In May 1998, transdisciplinarity is a theoretical attempt
"transcend disciplines", i.e. transcend their limits, and
respond to over-specialization as a process that leads
to a dramatic increase in the fragmentation of knowledge, but at the same time it is
an attempt to support the creative efforts and initiatives inherent in
each specific area of ​​scientific knowledge. These days we are all
more clearly we realize that the very nature of reality, imma-
inherent in it complexity and diversity, but at the same time
me and with its deep unity, requires going beyond the individual
scientific disciplines. There is a question about the need to create a "trans-
disciplinary language", or "metalinguage". Beginning, now cross-
fertilization, i.e. mutual fertilization, scientific disciplines
creates a new "intellectual space."

Thus, "transdisciplinarity" becomes the key word in
stimulation of integrative processes in science and in determining
directions of modern education reform.
...

E.N. Knyazev "Edgar Morin in search of a method of knowing the complex"