Introduced the problem of social action Max Weber. First, the most important sign of social action is subjective meaning - personal understanding of possible behaviors. Secondly, the conscious orientation of the subject to the response of others, the expectation of this reaction, is important.

At T. Parsons The issue of social action is associated with the identification of the following features:

• normativity (depends on generally accepted values ​​and norms).
• voluntariness (i.e. connection with the will of the subject, providing some independence from the environment)
• the presence of sign mechanisms of regulation

In Parsons' concept action considered as a single act and as a system of action. Action analysis as a single act associated with the selection of the actor and the environment, consisting of physical objects, cultural images, and other individuals. Action analysis as systems: is considered as an open system (that is, it maintains an exchange with the external environment), the existence of which is associated with the formation of appropriate subsystems that ensure the performance of a number of functions.

social action.

You are reading this text, the text of the chapter of the tutorial. As a type of activity, reading is associated with a certain amount of energy, the normal functioning of the brain, certain mental operations that allow us to perceive signs on paper as words and sentences. However, these psychophysical processes are not the subject area of ​​sociology, although they are necessary for the process of reading. How can a person reading a test be considered sociologically?

First of all, attention should be drawn to a person's motivation for a certain activity, that which acts as a direct motivating cause of action, its motive. Here we can assume a connection with the desire or obligation to prepare for classes or simple curiosity. In any case, the desire to satisfy some need brings to life a system of motives and a plan of certain actions, together with the image of the desired result, the goal. Means are chosen according to motives and ends. Moreover, if we are talking about curiosity as such, then the result will be the very receipt of positive assessments, then the very preparation for the lesson, including reading, acts as a means.

In any case, the reading itself was preceded by a choice of possible behaviors: to prepare or not to prepare for classes, “to be curious” or to listen to music ... The results of the choice were determined by an assessment of the situation: how important is preparation for this particular lesson? How long will it take? Shouldn't you try to speak at a seminar without preparation, or not attend classes at all? And finally, what are the consequences of this or that choice? At the same time, you, as a person showing purposeful activity, acted as the subject of action, and the book as a source of information - as an object of application of your efforts.

Thus, reading a book is associated with the solution of certain life problems and is consciously oriented towards the response behavior of others, that is, it corresponds to the main features social action . Social action differs from purely reflex activity (rubbing tired eyes) and from those operations into which action is divided (prepare a workplace, get a book, etc.).

However, whether you are reading in the library or at home, alone or with someone, the situation indicates that you are a student or someone who is somehow connected with the educational process. This is a sign of your inclusion in the scope of the social institution of education, which means that your activity is organized and limited by certain norms. Reading is connected with the process of cognition, in which you implement certain ways of thinking, demonstrate the ability to work with various sign systems as elements of culture. In addition, the very involvement in the processes of learning and cognition indicates that you share a certain set of values ​​that exist in society.

Thus, your act of reading is possible only within a society with a certain level of development of culture and social structure. On the other hand, its description, the description of a single action, is possible because there is a fairly long tradition of research on social action in sociology and philosophy. In other words, both the action itself and its description become possible only as a result of your inclusion in the life of society.

The fact that a separate action is possible only within the framework of society, that the social subject is always in the physical or mental environment of other subjects and behaves in accordance with this situation, reflects the concept social interaction . Social interaction can be characterized as the systematic actions of subjects directed at each other and aimed at eliciting a response of expected behavior that involves the resumption of action. The interaction of individual subjects is both the result of the development of society and the condition for its further development.

Sociology, describing, explaining and trying to predict the behavior of people, whether in the educational process, in economic activity or in political struggle, before turning to empirical studies of particular problems, turns to the creation theoretical model of this behavior . The creation of such a model begins with the development of the concept of social action, clarifying its structure, function and dynamics .

Mandatory components structures actions advocate subject and an object actions. Subject - this is the bearer of purposeful activity, the one who acts with consciousness and will. An object - what the action is directed at. AT functional aspect stand out action steps : firstly, associated with goal setting, the development of goals and, secondly, with their operational implementation. At these stages, organizational links are established between the subject and the object of action. The goal is an ideal image of the process and result of the action. The ability to set goals, i.e. to the ideal modeling of upcoming actions, is the most important property of a person as a subject of action. The implementation of goals involves the choice of appropriate funds and organizing efforts to achieve result . In the broadest sense means is an object considered in terms of its ability to serve a purpose, whether it be a thing, a skill, an attitude, or information. Reached result acts as a new state of the elements that have developed in the course of action - a synthesis of the goal, properties of the object and the efforts of the subject. At the same time, the condition for effectiveness is the compliance of the goal with the needs of the subject, the means - with the goal and the nature of the object. AT dynamic In this aspect, action appears as a moment of self-renewed activity of the subject on the basis of growing needs.

The action implementation mechanism helps to describe the so-called "universal functional action formula": needs - their reflection in the (collective) consciousness, development of ideal action programs - their operational implementation in the course of activity coordinated by certain means, creating a product that can satisfy the needs of subjects and induce new needs .

Like any theoretical model, this concept of social action helps to see the general nature of infinitely diverse actions and thus already acts as a theoretical tool for sociological research. However, in order to turn to the analysis of particular problems, it is necessary to further divide the elements of this model. And above all, the subject of the action needs more detailed characteristics.

Subject actions can be considered as individual or collective. Collective various communities (for example, parties) act as subjects. Individual the subject exists within communities, he can identify himself with them or come into conflict with them.

The contact of the subject with the environment of his existence generates needs - a special state of the subject, generated by the need for means of subsistence, objects necessary for his life and development, and thus acting as a source of the subject's activity. There are various classifications of needs. Common features of all classifications are the assertion of the diversity and growth of needs and the phased nature of their satisfaction. So, like every living being, a person needs food and shelter - this refers to physiological needs. But recognition and self-affirmation are just as necessary for him - these are already social needs.

The important characteristics of the subject of action also include the total life resource, the level of claims and value orientations. Total Life Resource includes resources of energy, time, natural and social benefits. People have different life resources depending on their social position. All types of resources are manifested and measured differently for individual or collective actors, for example, human health or group cohesion.

The social position, along with the individual qualities of the subject, determines his level of claims , i.e. the complexity of the task and the result on which he is guided in his actions. These orientations of the subject in relation to any sphere of life are also value orientations . Value orientations are a way of distinguishing social phenomena according to the degree of their significance for the subject. They are associated with the individual reflection in the mind of a person of the values ​​of society. Established value orientations ensure the integrity of the consciousness and behavior of the subject.

To describe the sources of a social object, the concept is also used interest . In a narrow sense, interest implies a selective, emotionally colored attitude towards reality (interest in something, being interested in something or someone). The broad meaning of this concept connects the state of the environment, the needs of the subject, as well as the conditions for their satisfaction. Those. interest can be characterized as the attitude of the subject to the necessary means and conditions for satisfying his inherent needs. This relation is objective and must be realized by the subject. More or less clarity of awareness affects the effectiveness of the action. It is also possible to act contrary to one's own interests, i.e. contrary to their actual situation. The concept of interest is used in the literature in relation to individual and collective subjects.

Needs, interests and value orientations are factors motivation actions, i.e. formation of his motives as direct motives for action. motive - a conscious impulse to action, arising from the awareness of needs. How does an internal motive differ from external motives? incentives . Incentives - additional links between need and motive, these are material and moral incentives for certain actions.

The conscious nature of the action does not exclude the role of emotional and volitional factors. The ratio of rational calculation and emotional impulses allows us to speak about different types of motivation.

Motivation Research widely represented in sociology in connection with the study of labor and educational activities. At the same time, allocate motivation levels depending on the level of need.

1. The first group of motives is associated with socio-economic issue of the individual . This includes, first of all, motives for providing life's blessings . If these motives dominate in the actions of a person, then his orientation, primarily towards material reward, can be traced. Accordingly, the opportunities for material incentives increase. This group includes calling motives . They fix the desire of a person for a certain occupation. For a person in this case, the content of his professional activity is important. Accordingly, incentives will be associated with material rewards in and of themselves. Finally, this group includes prestige motives . They express the desire of a person to know a worthy, in his opinion, position in society.
2. The second group of motives is related to implementation of social norms prescribed and assimilated by the individual . This group also corresponds to a wide range of motives for action, from civic, patriotic to group solidarity or "honor of uniform".
3. The third group consists of motives associated with life cycle optimization . Here, aspirations for accelerated social mobility and overcoming role conflict can replace each other.

Every occupation, even every action, has not one but many motives. Even in the particular example with which the chapter begins, it can be assumed that the urge to read could not be reduced only to the desire to get an assessment, or only to the desire to avoid trouble, or only to curiosity. It is the multiplicity of motives that ensures a positive attitude towards action.

The motives of action are organized hierarchically, one of them is dominant. At the same time, the researchers recorded for the learning process, for example, an inverse relationship between the strength of utilitarian motives and academic performance and a direct relationship between scientific and educational and professional motives. The motivation system is dynamic. It changes not only when changing occupations, but also within one of their species. For example, the motives for studying vary depending on the year of study.

Thus, the most important characteristics of motivation action is plurality and hierarchy motives, as well as their specific strength and stability.

In the study of motivation, various methods are used: surveys, experiments, analysis of statistical data ... Thus, the results of laboratory experiments show a change in reaction time in actions that are different in their motives. Analogues of such experiments, although without strict methods, you probably have in your life experience. The more distinct and stronger for you the need to do something (term paper by the deadline), the higher the ability to concentrate attention on this matter, personal abilities and organizational talents. If we return to laboratory experiments, then it should be noted that a change in the speed of reaction is a psychological characteristic. The study of motives, like action in general, is increasingly becoming interdisciplinary. The nature of the questions asked is particularly important in studying people's verbal reports of their motives for their actions. For example, a direct question is unlikely to be helpful: "Are your professional orientations stable?" More information can be obtained by asking the question: "How do you imagine your occupation in the next five years?" However, finding out the true motives of people's actions is extremely difficult.

Now let's take a closer look goal setting and goal fulfillment. Target - this is a motivated, conscious, verbal anticipation of the result of an action. Deciding on the outcome of an action rationally if, within the framework of available information, the subject is capable of calculation of goals , means and results of action and strives for their maximum efficiency . The connection between objective conditions, motivation and goals is established in such a way that from two specific states of elements, usually conditions and motives, the subject draws a conclusion about the state of the third, the goal. Its distinctness and achievability are assumed, as well as the presence of a hierarchy of goals in the subject, arranged in order of preference. Rational Choice object, it is a choice in terms of its availability and suitability for achieving the goal. The means of action are selected on the basis of an assessment of their effectiveness in achieving the goal. They are instrumentally subordinate to it, but more connected with the situation.

Actions of this type purposeful action, most easily predicted and managed. The effectiveness of such actions, however, has its downside. First of all, purposeful rationality deprives many periods of a person's life of meaning. Everything that is considered as a means loses its independent meaning, exists only as an appendix to the main goal. It turns out that the more purposeful a person is, the narrower the scope of the meaning of his life. In addition, the huge role of means in achieving the goal and the technical attitude towards them, their evaluation only in terms of effectiveness, and not in terms of content, makes it possible to replace goals with means, to lose the original goals, and then the values ​​of life in general.

However, this type of goal-setting is neither universal nor the only one. There are goal-setting mechanisms that are not related to the calculation of efficiency, do not imply a hierarchy of goals and the division of goals, means and results. Let's consider some of them.

As a result of the work of self-knowledge, the constant dominance of certain motives, in which the emotional component predominates, and also in connection with a clear internal position regarding the way of life, goal may arise as some idea, project, life plan - holistic, collapsed and potential. In appropriate situations, it provides instant decision making. Such a mechanism of purposefulness ensures the formation and production of an integral, unique personality.

Target can speak as an obligation as a law of action, deduced by a person from his ideas about what is due and associated with the highest values ​​for him. Duty acts as an end in itself. It is irrespective of the consequences and regardless of the situation. Such a mechanism of purposefulness presupposes volitional self-regulation of actions. It can orient a person in situations of maximum uncertainty, create behavioral strategies that go far beyond the framework of an existing, rationally comprehended situation.

Purposefulness can be defined system of norms as external guidelines that set the boundaries of what is permitted. Such a mechanism optimizes behavior with the help of stereotyped decisions. This saves intellectual and other resources. However, in all cases, goal setting is associated with a strategic choice for the subject and always retains the value of the backbone element of the action.

The goal connects the subject with the objects of the external world and acts as a program for their mutual change. Through a system of needs and interests, situational conditions, the outside world takes possession of the subject, and this is reflected in the content of the goals. But through a system of values ​​and motives, in a selective attitude to the world, in the means of goal-fulfillment, the subject seeks to establish himself in the world and change it, i.e. take over the world.

Time can also become a tool for such mastery, if a person skillfully manages this limited resource. A person always correlates his actions with time. At critical moments, the whole situation is divided into hours, minutes, seconds. But time can be used. This implies an active attitude towards it, a rejection of the perception of time as an independent force that forcibly resolves problems. The main property of time - to be a sequence of events - a person uses, arranging his actions in some arbitrarily undisturbed order, spreading "first - then" in his actions and experiences. The basic structure of time is also used: "past - present - future". So, the present, "now" for the subject is not a moment, but a period when the choice has not yet been made. Orientation to the past, future or present changes the key link in this structure.

So, we have considered social action as a particular example and as a theoretical model. Moreover, in this model, both the maximum distance from all "particulars" and the gradual approach to them were possible. Such model will "working" in the study of various activities, whether industrial production or scientific creativity; in solving management problems, whether they relate to stimulating employees or organizing the working time of a manager ... This is possible because individual, unique actions consist of repetitive standard elements that we have considered in this chapter. Their set constitutes a kind of formula. Depending on the values ​​that its elements take on, they are peculiar variables, and an infinite variety of social actions can be described.

Social action is a system of interrelated acts and deeds oriented towards the past, present or expected future behavior of other people and influencing them.

In its most general form, the structure of human activity (cf.

Activity) can be divided into single acts, repetitive acts (actions) and the actions themselves (the creative implementation of single acts and actions directed in a specific direction). Thus, human actions contain components (for example, decision making, action implementation, control over its implementation), which are combined into a conscious process.

Human actions are: 1)

deliberate, i.e. always have a certain meaning for the one who reproduces them; 2) depending on the previously set tasks; 3) dependent on the resources available to the subject. The presence of such an internal logic means that the actions and deeds of people are amenable to both ordinary interpretation and scientific research, including within the framework of sociological science.

The need to single out the concept of "social action" can be explained as follows. Since many of the actions of people become the object of sociological analysis, the illusion may arise that any actions of a person are social actions. However, it is not. If an individual's actions are caused by needs associated with some inanimate objects or natural phenomena, or with needs, the implementation of which does not imply any participation of other people, then it cannot be called a social action. The actions of people become social only when they are in connection with the actions of other people and can be influenced by the behavior of others. This implies that for these actions it is possible to identify a certain motivation of an individual or group, i.e. social action is conscious on the part of the actor and its implementation is caused by certain needs and interests. Thus, the subject of social action is the acting subject (actor), and the object of social action is the one to whom the activity is directed.

The concept of "social action" is directly related to the concepts of motivation, needs, value orientations (as regulators of actions), norms and social control.

This concept was introduced into scientific circulation by M. Weber (1864-1920) to denote the action of an individual aimed at resolving life problems and consciously oriented towards other people.

In his "understanding" sociology, he says that the subject of sociological research should be an action associated with a subjectively implied meaning and focused on other people. At the same time, social institutions and social groups can only be considered as ways of organizing the actions of individual individuals, but not as subjects of action, since only the motives and attitudes of an individual can be interpreted unambiguously.

M. Weber singled out four ideal types of social actions: goal-oriented, value-rational, affective and traditional.

A purposeful rational action implies a high degree of clarity and awareness of its goal on the part of the acting subject; at the same time, the means to achieve the goal are chosen rationally, from the point of view of expediency and orientation towards success, as well as taking into account the attitude of society towards this type of activity. This, according to Weber, is the most important type of social action, since it serves as a model to which all its other ideas are related. From a methodological point of view, purposeful rational action is the most understandable, it is the easiest to interpret, its motives are most obvious. As rationality decreases, the action becomes less and less clear, its immediate evidence becomes less and less.

Value-rational action implies that the acting subject focuses not on possible consequences, but primarily on his conscious beliefs, and does what he thinks his values ​​require of him: ethical, aesthetic, religious. In other words, a value-rational action may not be success-oriented, but it is always carried out in accordance with the norms or requirements that the actor considers presented to himself. That is, the goal and result of such an action is the action itself, which implies the fulfillment of the “commandments”.

Affective action implies that the actor is guided by feelings and affective perception of reality. Since such actions are filled with meaning through emotions, it is difficult to find a rational calculation for such an action.

Traditional action means orientation towards the observance of established norms, rules, habits, i.e. the actor may not think about its meaning. Traditional actions may be deprived of immediate practical expediency. The purpose of this type of social action is to symbolize certain social relations, to serve as a form of their visual expression and consolidation.

F. Znanetsky (1882-1958), developing the ideas of M. Weber, turned to the development of the structure of social action. According to Znaniecki, in social action, individuals or groups of people who are aware of themselves and act consciously act as objects and subjects. At the same time, social actions are divided into adaptation (changes occur without threats and the use of violence) and opposition (changes occur under the influence of threats and repression).

Znaniecki also came to the conclusion that values ​​are the basis for the formation and evaluation of social actions, but it is stipulated that this is true only for a stable social system.

T. Parsons (1902-1979), working on the typology of social systems, addressed both the problems of classifying social actions and the further development of their structure. Parsons singled out three initial subsystems of action, cultural, personal and social, and introduced the concept of elementary action. The elementary action is the basic unit of the action system and includes the following components: the actor, the goal, the situation, and the normative orientation. In Parsons' theory of social action, action is considered as it appears to the actor himself, i.e. subjectively. The action is performed under certain conditions; at the same time, as in the concept of M. Weber, it can differ in the type of goal setting: the goals of social action can be arbitrary, random or chosen on the basis of some knowledge.

The American sociologist J. Alexander, considering social action at the macro level, comes to the conclusion that it depends on three key components: culture, individuality, social system. This echoes the ideas of T. Parsons.

A number of authors, including M. Weber himself, share social action and social interaction. Social interaction can be defined as an exchange of actions between two or more actors, while social action, although oriented towards the external environment, can in some cases remain one-sided. Thus, social interaction is made up of separate social actions aimed at each other.

Moreover, the social structure itself, social relations and social institutions are the result of various types and forms of social interaction. So, according to P. Sorokin, social interaction is a socio-cultural process, i.e. such a mutual exchange of collective experience and knowledge, the highest result of which is the emergence of culture.

The theory of social action and social interaction has received the greatest development within the framework of such approaches as the concept of social exchange (J. Homane), symbolic interactionism (J. Mead), phenomenology (A. Schügtz), ethnomethodology (G. Garfinkel).

In the concept of social exchange, social interaction is considered as a situation in which each of the parties seeks to obtain the maximum possible rewards for their actions and minimize costs. For representatives of symbolic interactionism in interaction, not so much the action itself acquires special significance as its interpretation through the symbols associated with this action. Within the framework of the phenomenological approach, the appeal to the meaning of an action is directly related to the study of the life world of the actor, and, consequently, the subjective motivation of certain actions. For ethnomethodologists, the disclosure of the “true meanings” of certain social actions is of particular importance.

Among the modern concepts of the analysis of social actions, the concept of habitus, developed by P. Bourdieu, is of particular interest. According to this concept, habitus is the social predisposition of agents (active subjects) to act in a certain way. This is a kind of "scheme of responses" to life events, which is formed as a result of previous life experience. Thus, social action is in the local coordinate system of habitus. Bourdieu says that habitus is a stable structure and protects itself from crises, i.e. he denies that new information that is capable of calling into question the already accumulated. Consequently, a person makes a choice of places, people and events that support the stable environment to which the habitus is adapted. A person, performing a social action, has certain needs. And he chooses exactly which social institutions from the whole variety of those operating in the sphere of satisfying this need are suitable within the framework of his habitus, i.e. the process of "social recognition" is turned on. We feel how something allows us to make contact or interferes, gives us the opportunity to make a one-time social interaction or participate in it regularly, as well as position ourselves in one role or another.

In the modern era, for the formation and evaluation of social actions, value orientations and attitudes, as Znaniecki believed, are not enough - in a constantly changing society, such a foundation cannot be considered stable. The received information flows require a flexible and dynamic response, orientation to direct experience "here and now". Therefore, from the position of modern sociological theory, along with value orientations and traditional regulators of social actions, social practices come - programs under conditions of uncertainty, flexible scenarios of coordinated actions and actions.

Here it is appropriate to draw attention to the theory of structuration by E. Giddens, which denies the Parsonian interpretation of action. He suggests using the concept of "agency", which is close to the ideas of the Western European Marxists of the 1970s, according to which a person is always a subject, and he is free to act one way or another or not act at all. According to Giddens, agency is not a series of discrete acts strung together, but a continuous stream of behavior, "a stream of real or planned interventions of bodily beings in the ongoing process of event-in-the-world." Agency is a conscious, purposeful process, accompanied by the “monitoring” of the subject of the action of his behavior, situation, etc. (E. Giddens, 1979).

Social action is one of the basic sociological concepts. The specificity of the sociological approach in the use of this concept lies in the ways of classifying human actions, as well as in the way. bang their operationalization.

The operational definition of social action consists of a description of the directed process (What is it aimed at? By whom is it directed? Under what conditions is it directed? What is the choice of the action program? How is the action carried out? How is the result monitored?).

Consequently, the classification of human actions in sociology can be made on the following grounds: mode of functioning (voluntary and involuntary); the degree of inclusion of emotional-volitional components (volitional, impulsive); pragmatic basis (controlling, mnemonic, executive, utilitarian-adaptive, perceptual, mental, communicative); degrees of rationality (purposeful, value-rational, affective, traditional).

The variety of social actions can be reduced to four main groups: 1)

action aimed at stabilization (normative behavior); 2)

purposeful action associated with a change in a given social system or conditions of activity (innovation); 3)

an action pursuing the goal of adaptation to a given social system and conditions of activity (social adaptation); 4)

deviant action involving the exclusion of an individual, group or any other community from the normatively approved norms of law and morality (social deviation).

Thus, the modern interpretation of social action enriches and surpasses the ideas and arguments of T. Parsons and J. Mead, which remain a kind of ideal model showing polar approaches to the justification of action. Being developed in a modern perspective, the theory of social action creates new models that increasingly gravitate towards an individualistic interpretation of action as a process, as opposed to its holistic one-order approach.

Main literature

Weber M. Basic sociological concepts // Izb. prod. M., 1990. S. 613-630

Davydov Yu.N. The action is social. The action is purposeful. Value-rational action // Encyclopedic Sociological Dictionary. M., 1995.

Davydov Yu.N. Social Action // Sociological Encyclopedia. T. 1. M., 2003. S. 255-257.

Action // Big psychological encyclopedia. M., 2007. S. 128.

additional literature

Berger P.L. An invitation to sociology. M., 1996.

Bourdieu L. Beginnings. M.: Aspect Press, 1995. Weber M. Favorites. Society image. M., 1994. Volkov V.V. On the concepts of practice(s) in the social sciences // SOCIS. 1997. No. 6.

Ioni L. G. Sociology of Culture: Textbook. 2nd ed. M.: Logos, 1998.

Kagen M.S. Human activity. System analysis experience. M., 1974.

Parsons T. On the structure of social action. M.: Academic project, 2002.

Smelzer N.D. Sociology // SOCIS. 1991. N° 8. S. 89-98.

Sorokin P.A. Man. Civilization. Society. M., 1992. A.

The analyzed theory is the "core" of M. Weber's sociology. In his opinion, sociology should consider the behavior of an individual or a group of individuals as the starting point of its research. A separate individual and his behavior is, as it were, a "cell" of sociology, its "atom", that simplest unity, which itself is no longer subject to further decomposition and splitting.

Weber clearly connects the subject of this science with the study of social action: "Sociology ... is a science that seeks, by interpreting, to understand social action and thereby causally explain its process and impact" [Weber. 1990. S. 602]. Further, however, the scientist claims that "sociology is by no means concerned with one" social action ", but it is (at least for the sociology that we are studying here) its central problem, constitutive for it as a science" [There same. S. 627].

The concept of "social action" in Weber's interpretation is derived from action in general, which is understood as such human behavior in the course of which the acting individual associates with it or, more precisely, puts a subjective meaning into it. Therefore, action is a person's understanding of his own behavior.

This judgment is immediately followed by an explanation of what a social action is: “We call “social” an action that, according to the meaning assumed by the actor or actors, correlates with the action of other people and focuses on it” [Ibid. S. 603]. This means that social action is not just "self-oriented", it is oriented, first of all, to others. Orientation to others Weber calls "expectation", without which the action cannot be considered social. Here it is important to clarify who should be referred to as "others". Of course, these are individuals, but not only. By "others" is meant "socially general" structures, such as the state, law, organizations, unions, etc., i.e. those on whom the individual can and actually orients himself in his actions, counting on their definite reaction towards them.

Is every action social? No, Weber argues and cites a number of specific situations that convince the reader of the validity of his negative answer. For example, prayer is not a social action (since it is not designed for its perception by another person and his response action). If it is raining outside, Weber cites another example of "non-social" action, and people open their umbrellas at the same time, this does not mean at all that individuals are orienting their actions to the actions of other people, just that their behavior is equally caused by the need to hide from the rain. This means that an action cannot be considered social if it is determined by an orientation towards some natural phenomenon. Weber does not consider social and purely imitative action performed by an individual in the crowd as its "atom". Another example of "non-social" action that he cites concerns action oriented toward the expectation of certain "behavior" from not other individuals, but material objects (natural phenomena, machines, etc.).

It is clear, therefore, that social action includes two points: a) the subjective motivation of the individual (individuals, groups of people); b) orientation to others (the other), which Weber calls "expectation" and without which the action cannot be considered as social. Its main subject is the individual. Sociology can consider collectives (groups) only as derivatives of their constituent and or species. They (collectives, groups) are not independent realities, but rather ways of organizing the actions of individual individuals.

Weber's social action comes in four types: goal-oriented, value-rational, affective, and traditional. A goal-rational action is an action based on the expectation of a certain behavior of objects of the external world and other people and the use of this expectation as "conditions" or "means" to achieve one's rationally set and thought-out goal" [Weber. 1990. S. 628]. Rational in relation to the goal, goal-rational action is the action of: an engineer who builds a bridge, a speculator who seeks to make money; a general who wants to win a military victory. In all these cases, goal-oriented behavior is determined by the fact that its subject sets a clear goal and uses appropriate means to achieve it.

Value-rational action is based "on faith in the unconditional - aesthetic, religious or any other - self-sufficient value of a certain behavior as such, regardless of what it leads to" [Ibid. S. 628]. Rational in relation to value, a value-rational act was performed, for example, by the captain who drowned, refusing to leave his ship in the wreck, or the German socialist F. Lassalle, who was killed in a duel. Both of these actions turned out to be o-rational values, not because they were aimed at achieving a certain, externally fixed goal, but because it would be dishonorable to leave a sinking ship or not accept a challenge to a duel (honor is the value here). The subject acts rationally, taking risks not for the sake of achieving an outwardly fixed result, but out of fidelity to his own idea of ​​honor.

An affective action is an action conditioned by the affects or the emotional state of the individual. According to Weber, effective action "is on the border and often beyond what is "meaningful", consciously oriented; it can be an unobstructed response to a completely unusual irritation" [Ibid. S. 628]. The action, behavior, deed, which Weber calls affective, are due solely to the state of mind or mood of the individual. The mother may hit the child because the child behaves unbearably. In this case, the act is determined not by the goal or value system, but by the emotional reaction of the subject in certain circumstances.

Finally, a traditional action is an action based on a long habit. Weber writes: "Most of the habitual everyday behavior of people is close to this type, which occupies a certain place in the systematization of behavior..." [Ibid. S. 628]. Traditional behavior is dictated by customs, beliefs, habits that have become second nature. The subject of the action acts according to tradition, he does not need to set a goal, or determine values, or experience emotional excitement, he simply obeys the reflexes that have taken root in him for a long practice.

Considering Weber's four types of action, it should be noted that the last two of them are not in the strict sense of the word social, since we are not dealing here with the conscious meaning of affective and traditional behavior. Weber says they are "on the very frontier, and often beyond, what can be called 'meaningfully' oriented action."

The above classification of types of social action turned out to be "cross-cutting" for all of Weber's work. It can be considered in relation to the analysis of modernity, or it can be used to interpret the historical process. The main direction of the latter is the rationalization of social action. Weber proves that the role of the first type - purposeful rational action - is constantly increasing. This is manifested in the rational organization of the economy, management, lifestyle in general. The social role of science is growing, representing the purest embodiment of the principle of rationality. All previous, pre-capitalist, types of societies Weber considers traditional, since they lack a formal-rational principle. Its presence is associated with Weber's understanding of capitalism with the fact that it can be accurately and rigorously accounted for and is limited to quantitative characteristics.

At the same time, Weber understands that his classification of types of behavior is limited to a certain extent and does not exhaust all options and types of action. In this regard, he writes: “Action, especially social action, is very rarely oriented only towards one or another type of rationality, and this classification itself, of course, does not exhaust the types of action orientation; they are conceptually pure types created for sociological research, to which to a greater or lesser extent, real behavior approaches or - which is much more common - of which it consists" [Ibid. S. 630].

The degree of prevalence of each of the above types of social action in empirical reality is not fully clear. It is clear that the purposeful-rational type is not predominant, nor is the fact that the traditional one is found everywhere and constantly. However, revealing the correlation, proportions of all four types among themselves in a particular society is the task of sociological research. "For us, the proof of their expediency, - according to Weber, - can only be the result of the study" [Ibid. S. 630].

Our life shows a picture of acting people: some work, others study, others get married, etc. Various types of action (behavior, activity) are a conscious sequence of operations aimed at satisfying some needs. is a specific system of actions of people in the natural and social environment. The analysis of social actions arising on their basis of social connections and systems is the main problem of sociology.

The action of the subject is characterized by the following features:

• it is determined by the relation between the subject and the situation;
• includes three types motives- orientations - cathectic (need), cognitive (cognitive), evaluative (comparative, moral);
• normative (implements the norms that are in memory);
• purposefully (directed by the idea of ​​the intended result of the action);
• includes the choice of objects, means, operations, etc.;
• ends with a result that meets or does not meet the goal and need.

For example, you are walking down the street; suddenly it began to rain; there is a need not to get wet; you have an umbrella, there is a roof nearby, etc.; there are many people around; you decide to carefully take out the umbrella, raise it above your head and open it so as not to hurt others; protect yourself from the rain and experience a state of satisfaction.

The dialectic of the needs of the subject and the situation in which the object of consumption enters forms essence social action. Among the motives of people, one usually becomes the main one, and the rest play a subordinate role. There are predominantly need, cognitive, evaluative in their motives types of people's actions related to their needs. In the first type of action, the leaders are needs orientations related to the satisfaction of some need. For example, a student experiences hunger and satisfies it with the available item (food). In the second type of action, the leaders are cognitive motives, and need and evaluative motives are relegated to the background. For example, a student, without feeling hungry, learns, evaluates, chooses the available commodities. The third type of action is dominated by evaluative motive when there is an evaluation of various objects from the point of view of the present need. For example, a student chooses among various writes the one that suits him best.

The most important element of human action is the situation. It includes: 1) consumer goods (bread, textbooks, etc.); means of consumption (dishes, table lamp, etc.); consumption conditions (room, light, heat, etc.); 2) the values ​​of society (economic, political, spiritual), with which the acting person is forced to reckon; 3) other people with their characters and actions, etc., influencing (positively or negatively) the actions of people. The situation in which a person is included specifies his needs and abilities, as well as statuses - roles that a person realizes in actions. It needs to be analyzed (comprehended) in order to create an action program leading to the realization of the need. The action involves people for whom the situation matters, i.e. they know her items and know how deal with them.

In there is a set of norms (patterns and rules of behavior, roles) with which you can satisfy the need in accordance with existing values. They constitute the experience of a person accumulated during socialization. These are programs for morning exercises, travel to school, the learning process, etc. There are many such programs that show the social status and role of a person at this stage of his development. The task is to choose from them, corresponding to the need, value, situation. Obviously, the same norms can be used for different needs and values. For example, a trip by transport can be caused both by the desire to help a friend, and the intention to rob someone.

Analysis of the situation in connection with the actual need is carried out using mentality. With its help happens:

• recognition of the objects of the situation, their evaluation as useful, neutral, harmful, formation of interests;
• actualization of knowledge, values, norms of behavior available in memory;
• formation of the goal and program of action, including the beginning, sequence, etc. of operations that make up the action;
• adaptation of cash to achieve the intended goal;
• implementation of the developed program in this situation and its adjustment based on feedback;
• obtaining some result in the form of a change in the situation and the acquisition of an object of need.

Interest represents an intermediate goal-aspiration on the way to the need (the idea of ​​some kind of consumer item and the desire to get it), which becomes a criterion for assessing the situation (objects, conditions, people, etc.) and forming a program that produces the consumer item of human activity . For example, you have a need for an apartment. This need can be expressed: a) in the choice of apartments available on the market; b) the construction of the desired apartment. In the first case, we have a cognitive and evaluative interest, and in the second, a cognitive-evaluative-productive one.

Need and interest are interrelated mechanisms of regulation of different stages of activity. Interest can become a need in relation to another interest, i.e., an incentive for independent action, if a person's activity consists of a multi-link system of actions. For example, a person develops a need for housing that triggers interests in credit, construction companies, building sites, and so on. Each of these can become a need in relation to a subsequent interest and associated action.

Target(actions), arising as a result of understanding the need and the situation, is the result of the need (for satisfaction), cognitive (analysis of the situation), evaluative (comparison of the need and the situation), moral (in relation to others) orientation. She assumes program actions, developed taking into account the listed motives. In the simplest case, the goal is a need (an idea of ​​a consumer item), which acts as a motive for activity. In a more complex case, the goal becomes the idea of ​​an intermediate result of activity leading to some kind of need. For example, the idea of ​​protection from the rain and the program of using an umbrella in the crowd, which quickly arose in the head and behavior of a person, could be a motive.

Thus, need, interest, value, goal are different socio-psychological knowledge and mechanisms for different stages of action: consuming something, getting it, taking into account the needs of other people, etc. A need is a deep psychological drive, an orientation of action. Interest is a less deep psychological and more informational, rational motivation, action orientation. Value is an even less profound psychological drive, an orientation of action. And the most unemotional motive is simply the goal of the action, the idea of ​​some kind of result.

Internal, subjective factors (needs, interests, values, goals, etc.) motives), as well as actions for their recognition, evaluation, choice, etc. of a person form motivation mechanism actions. External, objective factors (objects, tools, other people, etc.) incentives) form incentive mechanism actions. Human action is determined by the dialectic of motives and incentives and includes:

• need or interest is the source of human activity;
• updating in the memory of values ​​​​and norms of behavior;
• formation of the goal and program of action in the current situation;
• adaptation to the goal in the mind of the physical and material resources of the situation;
• realization of the goal on the basis of feedback in the course of action in a specific situation;
• change in the situation and achievement (or failure to achieve) the object of need, and hence satisfaction (or dissatisfaction).

In the most general way social action model includes the following main parts. Firstly, the worldview, mentality, motivation of a person can be called original(subjective) part, which contains the experience accumulated by the subject, needs, interests, values, goals. Secondly, the situation of action, including an object, tools, other people, etc., which is a prerequisite for the formation and satisfaction of a need. The situation can be called auxiliary part of social action. Thirdly, the sequence of practical operations can be called basic part of social action, because it represents the unity of the initial and auxiliary, objective and subjective, leads to the production of the object of consumption and the satisfaction of needs.

We will apply this model of social action in the future to all the structural elements of society: social systems, formations, civilizations. It is connected with the concept of a self-governing system. Such a methodological approach will make it possible to see in the activities of people, social systems, formations, civilization, types of societies a certain invariant that helps to understand these complex, developing and interconnected systems.

Motivational mechanism

Social needs, interests, goals are divided into individual, group, public (institutional) depending on the social subject acting as their carrier. Individual are demosocial, economic, political, spiritual needs, interests, goals inherent in this individual. massive are typical and characteristic needs, interests, goals of a given social group (educational, military, etc.), social class, ethnic group, etc. Public are the needs, interests, goals of a given social system, formation, civilization, regulated by the corresponding social institution: family, bank, market, state, etc. They include the needs of this institution as a social whole within the framework of the social division of labor. For example, the need of the army as a social system and institution is discipline, military power, victory, etc.

A person combines individual needs and public interests, which are manifested in him as social values. For example, in Soviet society, the orientation towards actually free work (nominal social value) came into conflict with the demosocial needs for food, clothing, etc. Individual needs and social values ​​are closely interconnected, forming in unity the mental mechanism that governs human action. Conflicts often arise between people's needs and values. The simplest types of actions (washing, traveling in transport, etc.) he performs almost automatically, and in complex types of actions (marriage, work, etc.), needs and values ​​\u200b\u200bare usually become subjects of independent mental analysis and the requirement to coordinate them.

The needs of people have a psychological basis in many respects, while values ​​have a spiritual basis, they represent some kind of cultural tradition (in Russia, for example, an orientation towards social equality). Social value refers a person to some kind of community. It generates public interest, which is a cognitive-evaluative-moral mechanism for regulating people's actions, based on economic, political, spiritual values that exist in this society. This interest forms a prerequisite for the realization of economic, political, spiritual needs, representing mechanisms of activity of social systems, formations, civilizations which we will consider below.

Benefits and values ​​serve as guidelines in the world around, helping to avoid harmful, evil, ugly, false. They are of a social-class nature, they differ in different social communities: ethnic, professional, economic, territorial, age, etc. For example, much of what is good and valuable for young people is of no interest to the elderly. Some common human benefits and values ​​have been formulated in the world: life, freedom, justice, creativity, etc. In democratic, legal, social states, they take the form of legal norms.

He singled out a system of basic social and individual needs (and interests) - orientations that the subject uses in the process of choosing an action option. They are pairs - the possibility of choosing, in particular, between:

• focusing on one's own needs or the need to take into account the interests of the team in one's behavior (“orientation towards oneself - orientation towards the team”);
• focus on meeting immediate, momentary needs or to abandon them for the sake of promising and important needs;
• orientation to the social characteristics of another individual (position, wealth, education, etc.) or on immanently inherent qualities (gender, age, appearance);
• orientation to some general rule (disinterestedness, commercialism, etc.) or on the specifics of the situation (robbery, helping the weak, etc.).

The struggle of needs (and interests) in a person is an acute and mostly invisible side of his life activity. It occurs at different levels of his psyche: unconscious, conscious, spiritual. It is important to pay attention to the variety of ways in which the motivation and interest of the subject is formed. A number of general circumstances influence a person's choice of a motive for behavior: the situation, moral culture, the value system adopted in society (spiritual culture). It is impossible to develop some formula for choosing a motive by a given person in a particular situation.

The spiritual culture of a society, a class, a social circle, etc. differ and in different ways they affect a person's motivation, his interests: for example, Muslim and Orthodox culture, rural and urban, working and intellectual. They largely determine typical for a given society, social stratum, group, an individual choice. In the course of the historical development of different cultures, social selection (selection), the extreme variants of orientations "on oneself" (capitalism) and "on the collective" (socialism) were discarded. They led society either to chaos or totalitarianism.

Depending on values, people's actions can be divided into (1) neutral; (2) social; (3) antisocial (deviant). neutral is such human behavior that is not motivated by orientation to others, i.e., to the public interest. For example, you are walking across a field; Rain is coming; you opened the umbrella and protected yourself from getting wet.

Social is behavior focused on others, taking into account social needs. The expression of such needs are religious, moral and legal norms, customs, traditions. The experience of mankind is fixed in them, and a person accustomed to observe them follows them without thinking about their meaning. For example, you are walking in a crowd; Rain is coming; you look around and carefully open the umbrella so as not to harm others. Orientation to others, the fulfillment of expectations-obligations is a kind of price that people pay for calm, reliable conditions for satisfying their needs.

antisocial(deviant) is an action in which you knowingly or unintentionally ignore and infringe on the needs of another person as a result of your behavior. For example, you are walking in a crowd; Rain is coming; you, without looking back, opened an umbrella and injured a person walking next to you.

Types of social action

In a state of need, a person has a system expectations which relate to the present situation and its objects. These expectations are organized by need, cognitive, evaluative motivation in relation to the situation. For example, the need to protect oneself from rain depends on the location of a person, the presence of an umbrella, etc. If other people enter the situation, then the expectation - readiness for action - depends on their possible reactions-actions. The elements of the situation have meanings (signs) of expectations for people, which affect our actions.

In society and in a person, the following motives of behavior and orientation are distinguished: 1) cognitive(cognitive), involving the acquisition of a variety of knowledge in the learning process; 2) need - orientation in situations that arise in the process of socialization (demosocial, economic, political, spiritual needs); 3) appraisal, which coordinates the needs and cognitive motives of a person in a particular situation, for example, the coordination of knowledge about getting a job and the need to work in a profession obtained at a university based on the criteria of salary, prestige, professional knowledge, etc.

People's actions can be differentiated depending on the ratio of cognitive, need and evaluative components in them. First of all, you can abandon momentary needs for the sake of future ones. For example, a person who is focused on graduating from a university refuses other goals, interests, needs. Further, setting some goal, a person can give preference to the choice of conditions for its implementation, being temporarily distracted from the possibility of its satisfaction. Cognitive and evaluative interests predominate here. A person can also concentrate on ordering - the priority of their motives. In this case, he learns and evaluates not the situation, but his needs and interests. The result of such introspection is the ordering in time and space of one's own needs and interests. And, finally, a person can concentrate on moral motives, then good and evil, honor and conscience, duty and responsibility, etc., become the criterion for evaluation.

Weber singled out goal-rational, value-rational, affective and traditional modes of action. They differ in the content and correlation of subjective elements of behavior - they were discussed above. When analyzing these types of action, we abstract from the situation in which the individual acts: it is, as it were, "left behind the scenes" or taken into account in the most general form.

"Purposefully rational that individual acts, - writes M. Weber, - whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and side results of his action, who is rational considers the ratio of means to ends according to secondary results, that is, it acts, in any case, not affectively (first of all, not emotionally) and not traditionally, i.e., not on the basis of one or another tradition, habit. This action is characterized clear understanding, firstly, the goal: for example, a student wants to get a manager's profession during his studies. Secondly, it is characterized by the choice of ways and means, adequate the set goal. If a student does not attend lectures and prepare for seminars, but goes in for sports or earns extra money, then such an action is not purposeful. Thirdly, it is important price the result obtained, possible negative effects. If the profession of manager will cost the student the loss of health, then such an action cannot be considered purposeful. In this regard, the enormous price paid for victory (a Pyrrhic victory) reduces the purposefulness of the latter.

Thus, in goal-oriented actions, the goal, its means, the expected results (positive and negative) are calculated (mentally modeled). There is no affect, attachment to tradition, etc., but there is freedom of thought and behavior. That is why the Protestant ethic, and not private property, according to M. Weber, created capitalism: in the beginning, goal-oriented behavior arose; then it acquired a leading position in the agrarian market formation; finally, capitalist action arose, oriented towards profit and capital accumulation. There were quite a few purposeful people everywhere, but only in Western Europe did they get the opportunity for self-expression and development as a result of the confluence of a multitude of people from Guards.

Price whines irrational actions realize people's beliefs and beliefs, regardless of the damage they cause. This action is not free in relation to beliefs, traditions and customs, and therefore to the situation in which the actor is located. Due to a number of natural (the size of the territory and climate), historical (despotism, etc.) and social (dominance of the community) circumstances, this type of social action has become predominant in Russia. Together with them, a kind of patriarchal-authoritarian system arose and began to reproduce. mentality, including certain beliefs - beliefs, values, types of thinking. This type of mentality and behavior arose in slowly changing (and constantly reproducible) natural and social conditions.

Value-rational action is subordinated (regulated) to certain requirements (values) accepted in a given society: a religious norm, a moral duty, an aesthetic principle, etc. In this case, there is no rational goal for an individual. He is strictly focused on his beliefs about duty, dignity, beauty. Value-rational action, according to Weber, is always subject to "commandments" or "requirements", in obedience to which this person sees his duty. For example, a Muslim must marry only a Muslim woman, the Bolsheviks considered real people mainly proletarians, etc. In this case, the consciousness of the leader is not completely liberated; making decisions, he is guided by the values ​​accepted in society.

AT traditional action the actor is guided by others in the form of a custom, tradition, ritual that exists in a given social environment and society. For example, a girl gets married because she is a certain number of years old. Subbotniks, Komsomol meetings, etc. were traditional in Soviet times. They do not think about such actions, why they are, they are performed out of habit.

affective the action is due to a purely emotional state, carried out in a state of passion. It is characterized by minimal values ​​of reflection of consciousness, it is distinguished by the desire for immediate satisfaction of needs, thirst for revenge, attraction. Examples of such action are crimes in the heat of passion.

In real life, all of the listed types of social actions occur. As for the individual, in his life there is a place for both affect, and strict calculation, as well as the usual orientation towards duty to comrades, parents, and the fatherland. For all the attractiveness and even somewhat romantic sublimity of purposeful rational action, it can never and should not become excessively widespread - otherwise the charm and diversity, the sensual fullness of social life will be largely lost. But the more often a person is purposeful when solving complex problems of life, the higher the likelihood that he and society will develop effectively.

We have identified that studies the behavior of people in a certain natural and social environment. Worldview, mentality, motivation of a person in unity with the conditions (environment) of his life form a way of life, which is the direct subject of sociological analysis. It is a set of life activities of people in a certain natural and social environment, revealing what actions and deeds people perform, how they are connected and in the name of what they are performed. A person's lifestyle includes: 1) worldview, mentality, a motivational mechanism that encourages and orients him in the world (auxiliary system); 2) system of statuses and roles (basic); 3) a set of different forms of life activity typical for a given society (demosocial, professional, educational, political, scientific, etc.), among them some one occupies a leading place (as the initial system). Thus, worldview, mentality, motivation, lifestyle are the most important concepts of sociology.

Is it possible to find a person completely isolated from other people on Earth? Obviously not, since in order to satisfy his needs, a person must interact with other individuals, join social groups, and participate in joint activities. Moreover, mere knowledge of the presence of other people somewhere can change the behavior of an individual quite significantly. In all episodes of his life, a person is connected with other people directly or indirectly. Social relationships have various bases and many shades, depending on the personal qualities of the individuals entering into the relationship. Let us try to trace their development, dwelling on the most important example, namely, social action.

concept "social action"- one of the central in sociology.

Action in general, it is an act, energy, process in view of a personally significant goal. It is always characterized by a set of properties, has meaning and meaning.

The significance of social action is due to the fact that it is the simplest unit, an element of any kind of social activity of people. Indeed, even such social processes as social movements, major social conflicts, the mobility of social strata, consist of individual actions of individuals interconnected in complex chains and systems.

Essence of social action

Essence of social action. For the first time in sociology, the concept of "social action" was introduced and scientifically substantiated by Max Weber. He called social action "the action of a person (regardless of whether it is external or internal, whether it comes down to non-intervention or patient acceptance), which, according to the meaning assumed by the actor or actors, correlates with the action of other people or is oriented towards him."

Thus, in the understanding of M. Weber, social action has at least two features:

Firstly, it must be rational, conscious.

Secondly, it must necessarily be oriented towards the behavior of other people.

Proceeding from such an understanding of social action, it is impossible to call the actions of people associated with an orientation towards non-social, material objects as social actions. For example, tool making, fishing, and hunting are not in themselves social activities if they do not correlate with the behavior of other people. The example cited by M. Weber is typical in this regard: an accidental collision of two cyclists can be nothing more than an accident, like a natural phenomenon, but an attempt to avoid a collision, scolding following a collision, a brawl or a peaceful settlement of the conflict is already a social action. Obviously, it is extremely difficult to draw a clear line between social and non-social, so-called natural, or natural, actions.

It is even more difficult to define awareness, the rationality of behavior, which is an integral feature of social action. Many people's actions are completely unconscious, automatic, for example, a person's behavior as a result of bouts of anger, fear, irritation, when he acts without thinking about what is happening. Even if such actions are aimed at: other people, according to the theory of M. Weber, they cannot be considered social. Another thing is if the individual acts deliberately, setting himself goals and achieving their realization, while changing the behavior of other people. Such actions can be considered social. However, numerous studies show that a person never acts fully consciously. A high degree of awareness and expediency, say, in the actions of a politician who is fighting his rivals, is largely based on intuition, feelings, and natural human reactions. In this regard, fully conscious actions can be considered an ideal model. In practice, obviously, social actions will be partially conscious actions pursuing more or less clear goals.

Social action is a rather complex phenomenon. It should include:

1) the acting person;

2) the need to activate behavior;

3) the purpose of the action;

4) method of action;

5) another actor on whom the action is directed;

6) the result of the action.

Social actions, unlike reflexive, impulsive actions, are never instantaneous. Before they are committed, a fairly stable impulse to activity must arise in the mind of any acting individual. This drive to take action is called motivation.

Motivation

Motivation- this is a combination of factors, mechanisms and processes that ensure the emergence of an incentive to achieve the goals necessary for the individual. In other words, motivation is a force that pushes an individual to perform certain actions. The mechanism of social action thus contains need, motivation, and the action itself.

The importance of studying the genesis and structure of social action, as well as comparing individual social actions, cannot be overestimated. Considering, for example, a number of interactions between managers and subordinates, one can judge by individual actions the causes of tension in relationships, the methods of leadership influence, or, conversely, the consistency of actions of subordinates, etc. Any social organization effectively operates only in the case of one-pointedness, coordination of individual social actions of its members. In this way, social actions are the next step after contacts in the formation and development of complex social relationships.