The formation of modern science is a topic that has been sufficiently developed, but has not lost its relevance today: to understand the nature of science that determined the nature of industrial civilization, the study of its genesis is of paramount importance. Despite the fact that many aspects of this topic have been studied quite well by historians of science, philosophy and culture, there are still many questions concerning, in particular, the period that could be called the prehistory of the formation of modern European science and which played a very important role in the revision principles of ancient ontology and logic, thereby preparing the transition to a different type of thinking and worldview, which formed the prerequisite for science and philosophy of modern times. This refers to the period of the late Middle Ages - XIV-XVI centuries. This era is characterized by a general atmosphere of skepticism, which until now has not been sufficiently taken into account, but which is essential for understanding the intellectual shifts that took place at the end of the 16th-17th centuries. and which is called the scientific revolution.

Medieval science developed in large cities, where higher educational institutions appeared for the first time in Europe - universities (Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, Prague). Universities contributed to the development and dissemination of knowledge, as well as the creation of new branches of knowledge, which a little later took shape in various sciences - medicine, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, etc. Science began to reproduce itself, which accelerated its progress.

Gradually, a completely new layer of society is being formed - students, which to this day is the engine of education and science in modern society.

Medieval universities created such effective forms of education that they are used to this day. For example, a lecture (literally, a reading) at a medieval university was by necessity the main form of communication of knowledge. Books were scarce and expensive, and so reading and commenting on theological and scientific writings was an important form of information. Universities have formed academic titles and degrees, faculties as educational units. Disputing, a form of education that was widespread in medieval universities, has died out, but scientific discussions and seminars are of great importance both in modern science and in higher education.

Teaching was conducted in Latin, as well as worship in Catholic churches. Until the 18th century Latin was the international scientific language; Copernicus, Newton and Lomonosov wrote in it. Until now, solemn speeches are read in European universities, and diplomas are written in Latin. At solemn acts, professors appear in medieval doctoral robes and caps. Thus, modern science preserves the memory of the first universities, the emergence of which was one of the main prerequisites for scientific progress.

In the Middle Ages, many technical discoveries were made that contributed to the development of science later, many of these achievements we use to this day. Around the 11th century the first watch with a chime and wheels appears, and two centuries later - a pocket watch. At the same time, a modern steering design was created, which made it possible in the 15th century. cross the ocean and discover America. The compass was created. Of greatest importance was the invention of the printing press; printing made the book accessible. Thus, the time, which is considered the period of "darkness and obscurantism" created the prerequisites for the emergence of science. In order to form scientific knowledge, it was necessary to be interested not in what is unusual, but in what is repeated and is a natural law, i.e. from relying on everyday experience, based on the testimony of the senses, to move on to scientific experience, which happened gradually in the Middle Ages.

European medieval science

The era of the Middle Ages is attributed to the beginning of the II century. n. e., and its completion by the XIV-XV centuries. The Middle Ages is based on theological values. The Church intervenes in all spheres of human life. Philosophy, like science, act as "servants" of theology. Positions diverging from Christian dogmas are condemned.

Therefore, science in the Middle Ages is often assessed as a kind of intellectual aspiration, deprived of the freedom of search and fettered by prejudices and delusions. The tasks of scientific research are also directed towards the attainment of grace and salvation.

In the Middle Ages, the postulates of creation implied the allocation creative nature ( nature naturers ) and created nature ( nature natural ) . Middle Ages knew seven liberal arts — triumvium: grammar, dialectic, rhetoric; quadrium: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music. Every scientist was obliged to master all these sciences - arts. In the XII-XIII centuries. the texts of Arabic-speaking scientists devoted to natural scientific research were known, Arabic numerals were widely used. The most important inventions of the compass, gunpowder, clock, horse collar, steering rack came from the East. Science was dominated by the scholastic method with its necessary component - citing authorities, which deprived the significance of the task of studying natural laws.

Medieval scholars, as a rule, came from Arab universities, called their knowledge natural magic, understanding by it a reliable and deep knowledge of the secrets of nature. Magic was understood as a deep knowledge of the hidden forces and laws of the Universe without violating them, and, therefore, without violence against Nature. Patristics (from lat. pater - father) - the teaching of the church fathers - was the first stage in the development of medieval philosophy. From the 1st to the 6th centuries the problems of philosophy within the framework of patristics were represented by: Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, Gregory of Nyssa, Tertullian, Origen, and others. They discussed the problems of the essence of God, the movement of history towards a certain final goal (“city of God”), the relationship between free will and the salvation of the soul. Of great importance was the fact that the mind was conceived as striving to expand its boundaries, and the intelligible nature placed its hopes on the possibilities of the human mind.

Medieval patristic classic Tertullian(160-220) exposed the gulf between the reality of faith and the truth of speculation, each time showing the disproportion between faith and reason. Faith does not need rational-theoretical argumentation; the truths of faith are revealed in the act of revelation. His creed "I believe because it is absurd" shows that cognitive-rational structures have no power in the sphere of faith's attraction.

Representative of early patristics Origen(about 185-253/254) drew attention to the fact that Nature surpasses the clearest and purest human mind. The universe is co-eternal with God, before our world and after it there were and will be other worlds. The process of changing the world in his Christological teaching was associated with the depth of the fall of the spirits, their return (salvation) to the original state of goodness, which was not final, since the spirits, by virtue of free will, could experience a new fall.

Scholasticism (from Latin - school), which took shape in the 9th-12th centuries, seeks to update religious dogmas, adapting them to the convenience of teaching at universities and schools. Great importance is attached logic reasoning, in which they see the way to comprehend God. With the flourishing of scholastic scholarship, the honing of the logical apparatus, rational methods of justifying knowledge, in which thesis and antithesis, arguments and counterarguments collide, is associated. Everyone who is engaged in teaching activities calls himself a scholastic: Eriugena, Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, Abelard, Anselm of Canterbury.

Important questions remain about the relationship reason and faith, science and religion. The relationship between philosophy and theology is interpreted ambiguously. Anselm of Canterbury(1033-1109) believes that truths obtained by reason, but contrary to the authority of Holy Scripture, should be forgotten or rejected. Abelard(1079-1142) strives for a clear distinction between faith and knowledge and proposes to first examine religious truths with the help of reason, and then judge whether they deserve faith or not. He owns the famous principle: "To understand in order to believe." Unlike faith, philosophy, like knowledge, relies on the evidence of reason.

The Middle Ages were characterized by a struggle between nominalism and realism that touched the being general concepts - "universals". The nominalists denied the ontological (existential) meaning of general concepts. Universals exist only in the mind. In the XIV century. Ockham expresses this idea of ​​nominalism by declaring that only single things, i.e., individuals, can be the object of knowledge. Realists argued that universals exist in reality and independently of consciousness.

Nominalists created the doctrine of dual truth who insisted on the separation of the truths of theology and the truths of philosophy. What is true in philosophy can be false in theology, and vice versa. The principle of the duality of truth pointed to two fundamentally different pictures of the world: the theologian and the natural philosopher. The first associated truth with divine revelation, the second with natural reason.

The famous scientist Albert the Great (1193-1207) sought to reconcile theology (as an experience of the supernatural) and science (as an experience of the natural). He considered observation to be the main method of scientific research and was sure that in the study of nature it is necessary to turn to observation and experience. In his secret workshop, he performed countless experiments.

For Roger Bacon (c. 1214-1294) there were three main modes of knowledge: authority, reasoning and experience. He considered experimental science to be the mistress of speculative sciences. Having an encyclopedic education and a broad outlook, he emphasized the importance of studying works from originals and the need for knowledge of mathematics. R. Bacon sought to create a kind of encyclopedia of sciences, in which, in addition to mathematics, there were physics, optics, astronomy, alchemy, medicine, and ethics. Interestingly, R. Bacon distinguished three types of experience: external, acquired with the help of the senses, internal, interpreted in the spirit of mystical illumination, and fore-experience, which God endowed the "holy fathers of the church."

In teaching Thomas Aquinas(1225-1274) there are indications of the intellectual method, i.e. comprehending contemplation, which grasps not the image of the object, beyond which neither physics nor mathematics can go, but the prototype of this image, the actual form of the object, "which is being itself and from which being comes."

Interesting ideas about the process of cognition developed by the English philosopher and logician Occam(c. 1285-1349). He was confident in the independence of scientific truths from theology, their close connection with experience and reliance on reason. Sensory knowledge deals with single objects. However, it loses the character of their exact reproduction. “Representation as such is a state or act of the soul and forms a sign for the external thing corresponding to it.” Therefore, in the soul we find a sign for the corresponding manifestation in the external world. Occam distinguishes between intuitive knowledge, associated with the perception and experience of a single thing, and abstract knowledge, which can be abstracted from a single thing. The well-known principle of Occam ("Occam's razor"), which says that "essences should not be multiplied unnecessarily", entered the treasury of human intellectual thought, which means that each term denotes only a certain subject. The formation of concepts in Ockham is due to potency - the aspiration of the human soul for the subject of knowledge. His doctrine of concepts is called terminism . Natural concepts referring to things themselves, Occam calls "terms of the first intention", and artificial ones, referring to many things and the relations between them, are called "terms of the second intention". It is they who become the object of analysis in logic. Occam limited the application of the concept of causality to the sphere of empirical ascertainment. Ockham's ideas were widespread in medieval universities.

Among the peculiarities of medieval science, scientists consider its orientation to a set of rules in the form of comments, a tendency to systematize and classify knowledge. Compilation, so alien and unacceptable to the science of modern times, is a characteristic feature of medieval science, associated with the general ideological and cultural atmosphere of this era.

The emergence of the first universities

The Middle Ages is a complex, important and interesting period of human history. Various events take place at this time: states experience feudal fragmentation (for example, German lands), unite their lands (for example, Spain), cities rise and develop - the most important centers of trade, science, culture, and civilization. Its own culture is being formed, the ancient one is being revived. All this calls to life a strong machine of state power, and, accordingly, there is a need for qualified employees - lawyers, theologians, doctors, so science, education, and schools begin to actively develop.

In the XII century, the world's first higher schools - universities - began to appear in Europe. Some universities, for example, in Seville, Paris, Toulouse, Naples, Cambridge, Oxford, Valencia, Bologna were founded in the XII - XIII centuries. The rest, for example, in Uppsala, Copenhagen, Rostock, Orleans were founded later - in the XIV - XV centuries.

For all European (especially Western European) countries, the language of science, as well as worship, was Latin. Thousands of schoolchildren were required to learn Latin at that time. Many could not stand it and ran away from cramming and beatings. But for those who still endured, Latin became a familiar and understandable language, and therefore the lecture in Latin was understandable to listeners from different countries.

On the professorial chair, which was supported by a triangular music stand, lay a huge book. The word "lecture" means "reading". Indeed, a medieval professor read a book, sometimes interrupting the reading with explanations. The content of this book students had to perceive by ear, learn by memory. The fact is that books in those days were handwritten and were very expensive. And not everyone could afford to buy it.

Thousands of people flocked to the city where the famous scientist appeared. For example, at the end of the 11th century in the city of Bologna, where Irnerius, an expert on Roman law, appeared, a school of legal knowledge arose. Gradually, this school became the University of Bologna. It was the same with Salerno, another Italian city that became famous as the main university center of medical science. Opened in the 12th century, the University of Paris won recognition as the main center of theology. Following several higher schools of the XII century. most medieval universities arose in the 13th and 14th centuries. in England, France, Spain, Portugal, Czech Republic, Poland and Germany.

The first universities were the organs of medieval science, which was the same in all countries of Latin influence and was taught in the same way, in the Latin language common to all peoples; in addition, the universities have taken on the forms of medieval guilds, the essential features of which are the sworn partnership, the regulation and monopolization of labor and production, and are repeated in all countries.

There was another feature that marked the medieval university: its ecclesiastical character. Whoever was the founder of the university—whether a city commune, or a secular or ecclesiastical prince, or, finally, the universal power of the pope or emperor—its members are indifferently called clerics (clerici), and the economic well-being of the school rests primarily on ecclesiastical prebends.

At the beginning of the 15th century, students in Europe attended 65 universities, and at the end of the century - already 79. The most famous among them were: Paris, Bologna, Cambridge, Oxford, Prague, Krakow.

Two effects accompanied the activities of universities. The first is the birth of a certain class of scientists, priests and lay people, to whom the church entrusted the mission of teaching the truths of revelation. The historical significance of this phenomenon lies in the fact that, along with the traditional two authorities - ecclesiastical and secular - a third one appeared - the power of intellectuals, whose influence on social life became more and more tangible over time.

The second effect is associated with the opening of the University of Paris, where students and teachers of all classes flocked. University society from the very beginning did not know caste distinctions; rather, it formed a new caste of heterogeneous social elements. And, if in subsequent eras the university acquires aristocratic features, the medieval one was originally “folk”, in the sense that the children of peasants and artisans through a system of privileges (in the form of low tuition prices and free housing) became students. Their "nobility" was no longer determined by their class origin, but hung over the accumulated cultural baggage.

Structure of a medieval university

University teachers created associations in subjects - faculties. They were headed by deans. Teachers and students elected the rector - the head of the university. Medieval high school usually had three faculties: law, philosophy (theology) and medicine. But if the preparation of the future lawyer or physician took 5-6 years, then the future philosopher-theologian - as much as 15 years. Before entering one of the three main faculties, the student had to complete the preparatory - artistic faculty, which studied the already mentioned "seven liberal arts" ("artist" in Latin - "art"). In the classroom, students listened to and recorded lectures (in Latin - "reading") of professors and masters. The teacher's erudition was manifested in his ability to explain what he read, to connect it with the content of other books, to reveal the meaning of terms and the essence of scientific concepts. In addition to lectures, debates were held - disputes on issues raised in advance. Hot in heat, sometimes they turned into hand-to-hand fights between the participants.

In the XIV-XV centuries. there are so-called colleges. At first, this was the name of the student hostels. Over time, lectures and debates also began to be held in them. The collegium founded by Robert de Sorbon, the confessor of the French king, the Sorbonne, gradually grew and gave its name to the entire University of Paris. The latter was the largest higher school of the Middle Ages.

Bachelor, licentiate and master

In medieval universities, there were four faculties: the lowest - artistic, or "liberal arts", which gave the right to study further, and three higher - medical, legal and theological. The main task of the faculty was to control the quality of teaching. At the artistic faculty, training lasted from 5 to 7 years; the student became first a bachelor and then a master of arts. According to the statutes, this degree could not be obtained by a person under the age of 21. The master received the right to teach, but he could continue his studies at one of the higher faculties. The highest degree awarded by the faculties was the degree of Doctor, or Master, i.e. professor (teacher, lecturer) who received this degree, subject to the fulfillment of the requirements that the issuance of a license implies. The title "Master" was gradually assigned to the professors of the Artistic Faculty, and the title "Doctor" - to the professors of the three higher faculties. Due to the variability of national traditions, "masters" could also be called those who received the highest academic degree at the senior faculty.

The educational process was multi-stage; the passage of each stage ended with the receipt of a certain title, which fixed a certain level of qualification in accordance with a strict standard. Over time, additional degrees appeared in the practice of the medieval university - bachelor's and licentiate. The bachelor's degree, which was actually an apprentice of the scientific workshop, opened access to obtaining other degrees. To obtain it, it was necessary to pass the appropriate exam. Continuing education bachelors were entitled to teaching, performing the duties of teachers of the lowest rank. For example, at the Faculty of Theology, they began their teaching career as a bachelor-tutor ("cursor"), then successively moved to the following degrees: "biblicus" (Bible commentator); "Sententiary" (teacher of "Sentences" by Peter Lombard). The highest bachelor's degree was the degree of "baccalariusformatus" (an established teacher, practiced in disputes and sermons, ready to receive a licentiate degree).

The procedure for awarding a bachelor's, doctor's or master's degree was theatrical, its details determined by the university statute. The bachelor's candidate was offered a plot for the interpretation of an authoritative text. It was forbidden to answer according to pre-made notes. In the case of correct answers, the student was given bachelor's clothes, putting on which he took a place among the bachelors. After that, he again demonstrated his knowledge, took an oath of allegiance to the faculty. His mentor gave a speech in honor of the applicant, giving an assessment of his personal qualities.

To obtain higher degrees, the candidate had to conduct many hours of debate, read sermons and trial lectures. The introduction of a licentiate into the college of professors was accompanied by a well-known ritual. He was to receive a doctor's hat as a symbol of teaching dignity. In the procedure, furnished with great solemnity, the main role was played by a dispute that took place over more than one day. Disputes were not just a form of qualification tests: they were the essence of scholastic science, subject to the laws of the intellect (ratio). They were preceded by commenting on some authoritative text. Of great importance was the ability to isolate the main problem and break it down into questions in order to further conduct a debate, the result of which was the product of the subject's own thought ("determinatio"). Bachelors took part in the debate. The final decision of the controversial issue belonged to the new doctor. Getting a doctor's hat was a big expense. For many licensed, it was beyond their means. Thus, an independent degree appears - a "licentiate", an average between a bachelor's degree and a doctorate, or master's degree.

The Western European higher school - university was distinguished by a high degree of institutionalization and structure. It developed sufficiently reliable methods to protect the academic community from corruption.

What was taught in medieval universities

The goals of learning at the dawn of university life are set out in a document from the early 13th century: “Some (students) studied solely for the purpose of knowing ... others to become famous ... others studied in order to gain later benefits ... few of them studied to receive edification or edification others…teachers and doctors multiplied their prebends and solicited places…”.

The whole university system demanded the strictest external order, quite the opposite of modern academic freedom. Not only the academic year, but also the day was precisely delineated. In the early morning (usually not later than 5 o'clock in summer) the obligatory lectures (ordinariae) began and ended at about 8 or 9 o'clock in the morning. After dinner or in the evening, optional readings (extraordinariae) took place. At the beginning of the academic year, the teachers of the art department distributed among themselves the books to be read, and at first there was no division of labor, and each "artist" had to gradually sort through all the books, which made it completely impossible to delve into the specialty. This system was especially inconvenient in the senior, special faculties, where the number of associate professors was negligible; among physicians, for example, one read all theoretical, the other all practical medicine. Even books in many universities were divided by a special commission, chaired by the rector, into sections (puncta), for the reading of which exact dates were set (puncta taxata). The slightest deviation from the planned order entailed large fines. The university authorities even resorted to spying on professors, for which students and students were involved. For example, 12 weeks were allotted for the Nicomachean Ethics in Paris, 50 lectures for the aphorisms of Hippocrates, and 38 lectures for a book on fevers. During lectures, the associate professor took a seat in the department; the scholars of the senior 3 faculties sat on the benches, while the "artists" were instructed to sit on the floor, on a straw bedding, "in order to inspire them with humility." Street in Paris, on which the auditoriums of artists were located, in the 14th century. was nicknamed Rue de Fouarre (Vicus straminis, Straw Street). In 1366, Pope Urban VI prescribed the same "order" for Oxford artists. Associate professors were forbidden to dictate their lectures; yet this way of teaching became so ingrained in some universities that some of the noble scholars began to send their servants to take notes of the lectures.

The regulation of student life followed from the rules of the organization of the corporate system: everything had to be scheduled, deviation from the rules seemed to be a violation of the usual norms of life.

Over time, faculties appeared in every medieval university: legal, medical, theological. But the training began with the "preparatory" faculty, where the so-called "seven liberal arts" were taught. And since in Latin art is “artes”, the faculty was also called artistic. Students - "artists" first studied grammar, then rhetoric, dialectics (by which logic was meant); only after that did they move on to arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. The "artists" were young people, and according to the university regulations, they could be flogged, like schoolchildren, while older students were not subjected to such punishments. These facts are reflected, for example, in the poetry of the Vagantes.

Medieval science was called scholastic (literally - school). The essence of this science and its main vice was expressed by an old proverb: "Philosophy is the servant of theology." And not only philosophy, but also all the sciences of that time had to strengthen the truths of religion with each of their conclusions. The scholastic method did not question faith, but the methods used in scholasticism made a real revolution in mental attitudes, they helped to accept the possibility of the existence of different opinions, weaned fear of innovations, used observation and experiment, contributed to the development of inner spiritual life.

The auditorium of a medieval university resembled the auditorium of a modern university: in the same way, benches are arranged in stepped rows, below there is a massive oak pulpit, behind which stands a professor lecturing. The students listened and wrote with lead on waxed boards. The age of the students was the most diverse. You could see people of different nationalities: Spaniards, Germans, French, English. For all European (especially Western European) countries, the language of science, as well as worship, was Latin. The word "lecture" meant "reading". A medieval professor read a book, sometimes interrupting the reading with explanations. The content of this book students had to perceive by ear, assimilate by memory, rewrite. The teacher's erudition was manifested in his ability to explain what he read, to connect it with the content of other books, to reveal the meaning of terms and scientific concepts.

Disputes occupied an important place in the academic life of the medieval university. At the so-called master's disputes, the master who taught the students skillfully drew them into the dispute. Offering to confirm or dispute the theses put forward by him, he forced students to mentally compare these theses with the opinions of the "fathers of the church", with the decisions of church councils and papal messages. During the dispute, each thesis was opposed by the opponent's counterthesis. The offensive tactic is to lead the enemy to such a forced confession, which either contradicted his own statement, or diverged from the unshakable church truths, which was tantamount to accusation of heresy. Hot on the heat, sometimes disputes developed into hand-to-hand fights between the participants.

The course at the university was designed for a long time. However, in those days, younger students came to the university than today. So in the 13th century in Paris, students first studied at the Faculty of Arts for six years. During this period, a student could become a "bachelor" and help in secondary roles in teaching others. But he could not start teaching until he was twenty years old. The theology course was taught for eight years at first, but tended to lengthen. After completing the course at the Faculty of Arts and several years of teaching, the student devoted four years to the study of the Bible and two to the study of the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard. After that, he could become a bachelor and lecture on the Bible for two years, and for one year on the Maxims. He received a master's or doctoral degree in another four to five years.

Some students, of course, withstood such a long study in the hope of moving up the church ladder. However, the curriculum itself was clearly oriented toward teaching, toward graduating teachers or professors. And since the study of the "art" prepared for the study of higher sciences and theology, which was considered the queen of all sciences, obtaining a master's or doctoral degree in theology, giving the right to teach, was naturally seen as the pinnacle of an academic career. From this it is easy to understand why the most prominent thinkers of the Middle Ages were theologians.

Conclusion

The formation of the first universities in Europe, starting from the XII century, was caused by the strengthening of the development trends of feudal society. If in the early Middle Ages society did not particularly need educated people, and in general society itself was formed on the basis of the remnants of ancient civilization and the traditions of the barbarian kingdoms, then in the developed Middle Ages, due to the growth of cities, the complication of public relations, people felt the need for knowledge, intellectual skills . Church and monastic schools could not meet the needs of secular society, the laity, society needed a new type of school - city schools and universities.

The algorithm for the development of medieval educational needs can be defined as follows: from the elementary rudiments of knowledge, through the study of traditional ancient sciences, to mastering the sciences in demand in medieval society and, if desired, the search and study of scientific and spiritual truths, various jobs where knowledge and skills were required .

The rights to the university were originally given by patrons: kings, dukes, bishops, city administration, in a word, the authorities of those lands on which the university was organized. But the Pope himself won in this series. Knowledge was associated with the concept of the word of God, before knowledge was concentrated in churches and monasteries, so the church tried to put the inner life of the university under its control. This applied to the sciences (theology first of all), and benefices, and even appearance and rules of life at school and at home. But the motley student environment made its own adjustments, the kings and their administration intervened in the affairs of the universities, and little by little the universities achieved various privileges, turning into a special corporation with their own laws and rules. The regulation of university life corresponded to the guild rules of the Middle Ages. But intellectual life could not be driven into the limits of shop-floor restrictions. So there was a motley environment and mores of universities. Here teachers from the mendicant monastic orders, and illustrious professors, had weight. Persons of various classes, including wandering schoolchildren, became students. The university corporation consisted of many federations: faculties, nations, colleges, hostels, boarding houses, merchants, and so on. The life of the university was run by an elected person - the rector. The university intervened in the intellectual and political collisions and conflicts of the era. Universities have become a significant part of urban life and the intellectual life of Europe.

This is how the medieval university developed: from city schools to a guild organization that grew into a powerful corporation, and then into a state within a state.

The focus of university education was higher than the need for elementary arithmetic, reading, and writing. Medieval society felt the need for a deeper study of law, theology, and medicine. The first step towards comprehending these sciences was the study of the seven liberal arts, the traditions of which were laid down in antiquity: grammar was studied, then rhetoric, dialectics (by which logic was meant); only after that - arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. Graduated specialists in the majority became professional teachers, many others occupied various jobs in society, where knowledge and skills were required. When considering students, one should separate the student elite who have already taught, the bulk of the students, and the undergraduate students.

The educated elite of universities and practitioners were concerned about many intellectual issues. To obtain a diploma, it was necessary to study for many years, re-read many books, master the art of eloquence, and for lawyers and doctors also practical knowledge. It is no wonder that popes, cardinals, famous poets and writers, clever administrators, lawyers, famous surgeons, scientists and warlock alchemists came out of the university environment. The same environment provided the basic foundation of knowledge for the humanists. In general, the issues of compatibility of comprehending divine knowledge with the need to take money for one’s work, issues of searching for true nobility (by blood or knowledge), issues of reforming science (from scholasticism), searching for secret, uncommon, knowledge, questions about the compatibility of knowledge and art.

But the bulk of the students and also teachers were worried about the search for earnings. This mass flowed directly into the life of cities and villages (organization of schools) and contributed to the formation of the profession of practicing physicians, notaries, secretaries, prosecutors, school teachers. Near the university environment, scribes, booksellers and other suppliers of the necessary working supplies for writing and sciences were fed, a city dweller could choose in various life situations between acting at his own peril and risk (in legal incidents, in treatment, and even in drafting petitions) and the experience of a specialist .

Such corporate formations and free associations of students and mentors with their privileges, established programs, diplomas, titles and knowledge, like universities and their inhabitants, have not been seen in antiquity either in the west or in the east.

List of used literature

1. Verger J. Prototypes (History of the Medieval University) // Higher School Bulletin. 1991.

2. Ivanovsky V.N. Public education and universities in the Middle Ages // Reading book on the history of the Middle Ages. Under the editorship of P.G. Vinogradov. M., 1898. T.4.

3. From the history of universities in Europe XIII - XV centuries. Voronezh, 1984.

4. Copston F. History of medieval philosophy. - M.: Enigma, 1997

5. Kokhanovsky V.P., T.G. Leshkevich, T.P. Matyash, T.B. Fathy. "Philosophy of Science in Questions and Answers". Rostov-on-Don, 2006.

6. Kublanova B.M. How they studied at a medieval university // A book for reading on the history of the Middle Ages. M., 1951. Part 1.

In the XII century. as a result of the increased need for scientific knowledge and the people who possess it - scientists - the process of education began on the basis of cathedral schools in the largest cities of Western Europe, higher schools - universities. Initially, the concept of "university" (from the Latin universitas - set) meant a corporation of teachers, professors and students, "scholars", the purpose of which is to study and increase a single Christian knowledge.

The first universities appeared in Bologna (1158), Paris (1215), Cambridge (1209), Oxford (1206), Lisbon (1290). It was in these educational institutions that the basic principles of academic autonomy were formulated, and democratic rules for managing higher education and its internal life were developed. Thus, universities had a number of privileges granted to them by the Pope: issuing permits for teaching, awarding academic degrees (previously it was the exclusive right of the church), exempting students from military service, and the educational institution itself from taxes, etc. rector and deans.

In the XIII century. 25 more universities were opened, including universities in Prague (1347), Pisa (1343), Florence (1349) and others. There were about 60 universities in Europe.

Usually the structure of the university included four faculties: artistic, legal, medical and theological. In medieval higher schools, a hierarchy was established: the theological faculty was considered the senior, then the legal, medical and artistic faculties. On this basis, the artistic faculty, where the "seven liberal arts" were studied, is called junior or preparatory in some historical and pedagogical studies, however, the rules of the university did not provide for this. At the theological faculty, they studied mainly the Holy Scriptures and "Sentences" Peter Lombard(early XII century - 1160), the training lasted about 12 years, students, continuing their studies, could teach themselves and hold church positions, at the end of their studies they were awarded the title of master of theology, and then a licentiate (a teacher admitted to lecturing, but not yet defended his doctoral dissertation).

The Faculty of Law considered Roman and Catholic law, after four years of study, students received a bachelor's degree, and after another three years - a licentiate. Education at the Faculty of Medicine included the study of the works of Hippocrates, Avicenna, Galen and other famous doctors. After four years of study, students were awarded a bachelor's degree, and for two years they had to practice medicine under the guidance of a master. Then, after five years of study, they were allowed to take examinations for the title of licentiate.

On the basis of the school course of the trivium, students of the artistic faculty studied the quadrium, especially geometry and astronomy in detail, in addition, they considered scholasticism, the works of Aristotle, and philosophy in the course of study. After two years, students received a bachelor's degree, master's training lasted from three to ten years. The main goal of education in all faculties was the achievement of scientific degrees.

Within the faculties, students on a national basis united in community groups, a corporation of teachers played a decisive role in awarding academic degrees. In managing the university, the rector relied on the activities of the supervisory and academic councils, the latter was elected from among professors and masters. In some universities since the XIV century. the right to elect professors passed to the cities. Gradually to the XV century. public universities emerge.

To enter the first universities, one had to know Latin and pass an interview, the first woman to receive a diploma was the Venetian Elena Lucrezia Cornaro in 1678, and the student communities, the fashion for which appeared in the 17th century, were a copy of the Masonic lodges in structure and the presence of secret rituals . T&P publishes a chapter from the book "The Daily Life of European Students from the Middle Ages to the Age of Enlightenment" by researcher Ekaterina Glagoleva and the Molodaya Gvardiya publishing house on how management was organized in European universities at that time.

Medieval lawyers called a university (universitas) any organized union of people, any corporation (corpus), as they said then, using the term of Roman law. A university could be called both any craft workshop and a city (univers civium). In Italy, there was a tradition of city-republics. Universities also became republics. At the oldest university in Europe, Bologna, students first took power into their hands, uniting in societies. There were immeasurably more students than professors, besides, they paid, and, as they say, whoever pays orders the music. In Padua, as in Bologna, students approved the charter of the university, elected a rector from among their fellows, chose professors and a curriculum.

In Bologna, there were two main student clubs, consisting of different communities: Italians and non-Italians. Each club elected its own chairman-rector. For the latter, there was an age limit: not younger than twenty-four years. Professors swore an oath of obedience to him and had to, under pain of a fine, comply with the instructions of students, their employers, regarding the conduct of classes. On the other hand, the teachers formed their own “trade union”, which was called a collegium, that is, an artel. All professors were natives of Bologna and did not accept outsiders into their ranks. Teachers were divided into "reading" (titled) and "not reading", that is, not giving lectures. Other universities that arose in the 12th century in Europe took this system as a model, but it did not become universal. For example, in Paris, professors immediately seized the reins of government. The rector there was chosen first by the procurators of the four "nations" and delegates from the teachers, and then only by the teachers. This was not surprising: for the most part, the Parisian scholars were still too young for their fragile voices to sound weighty in the general choir, and even more so, they could not be trusted with negotiations with the authorities, which were often very difficult. But in Scotland, in Glasgow and Aberdeen, rectors until the 19th century were elected exclusively by students.

In Oxford, the head of the university was called chancellor from 1201, and the teachers formed their own corporation in 1231. The "mandate" was given to the rector for a short period: initially for a month and a half. The papal legate in France, Simon de Brion (1210-1285), who was later elected pope (1281) under the name of Martin IV, realized that such a frequent change of leadership did not lead to anything good, and proposed to increase the term of office of the rector to three months. This rule was observed for three years, and then the period was further extended: in Paris it was six months, in Scotland - three years.

At the Sorbonne, the main faculty was theological, but the rector of the university was supplied exclusively by the faculty of arts (in the provinces this rule was not followed). This position did not shine for doctors - the rector was elected from among the bachelors or licentiates. The rector was addressed as "monseigneur" and called him in conversation and in writing "Votre Amplitude" ("your value"). The university paid him a pension, his formal dress was rich and noble. Every three months, the rector led a procession through Paris at the head of the four faculties. Everyone went to the church indicated by him, and there the doctor of theology, dressed in furs, read a sermon in the presence of the rector. Sermons could not be read in any other church at that time. A purse hung at the rector's side; it always contained 50 ecu, which the monseigneur was obliged to give to the king of France if he met him on the right bank of the Seine, and the king had to count him the same amount if he wandered onto the left bank. It is said that Henry IV and some other kings purposely lay in wait for the university procession in order to receive this money, and its participants always stepped onto the bridge with trepidation. For the king, 50 ecu was a trifle, but for the university - a significant amount.

The rector was elected by the teachers, but when on December 16, 1485, their choice fell on the Flemish monk Johann Standonck, the students rebelled. Standonck was then a professor at the Sorbonne, but became famous as the founder of the Montagu College, notorious for its austere charter. The new rector intended to apply his methods of education to students, which sharply set them against him. In German universities, the rector was called "monarch", although he, of course, was subordinate to the king or emperor. If the rector belonged to the noble class, he was supposed to be addressed with the words “your excellency” (Erlaucht) or “your lordship” (Durchlaucht). German universities had both a rector and a chancellor. The latter had a degree and was sometimes a professor; he was subject to the bishop and the pope; at first he was appointed, but then they began to elect. If the chancellor, whose task it was to supervise the church over the university, interfered too actively with the administration, his relationship with the rector could be quite tense.

In Russia, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna appointed two curators for the higher management of the university, and an office headed by the director for educational and economic orders. The first curators of Moscow University were I.I. Shuvalov and L.L. Blumentrost (although the latter died before the opening of the university), the first director was A.M. Argamakov (until 1757).

In Montpellier, students elected from among their ranks a prosecutor, an official with a distinguishing sign in the form of a baton, who was in charge of university finances. According to the charter of 1534, the prosecutor had the right to chastise negligent teachers. Teachers were paid salaries only if the prosecutor had no complaints against them. In 1550 the office of procurator was abolished, replaced by four baccalaureate councillors; the collection of entrance fees was entrusted to the watchman of the university church. However, the students themselves took an active position. Felix Platter recalled how in November 1556 a fellow countryman named Hochstetter took him away from Dr. Saporta's lesson to a "demonstration" against careless mentors: lining up in a column one by one, students with swords bypassed the colleges of all "nations", calling their comrades. “We went to the seat of parliament. The public prosecutor chosen by us filed a complaint on our behalf against the negligence with which the professors treat their classes, and demanded the exercise of our ancient right to appoint two public prosecutors to withhold the salaries of professors who do not lecture. In turn, the doctors filed their complaint through their chosen prosecutor. Our request was granted; two prosecutors were appointed on November 25, and everything calmed down.” A similar incident, which occurred two centuries later in St. Petersburg, also ended to everyone's satisfaction. University students filed a complaint with the higher academic authorities about the negligence of their mentors. The authorities, as usual, removed the shavings from the professors, which was limited; professors read several lectures to "too smart" students, examined them, issued certificates and released them to all four sides.

In those distant times, the thin line between students and teachers sometimes became transparent, or even completely dissolved. Here is just one example. Julien Beret taught at the College of Harcourt for eight years, and then suddenly decided to sit on the student's bench at the medical faculty of the University of Paris. This did not prevent him from being elected in 1573 as prosecutor of the French "nation" at the Faculty of Free Arts, and the following year as rector of the university, which he represented at the funeral of King Charles IX. Even after becoming director of the College of Le Mans in 1575, he continued to study.

Bologna students of the German "nation". 15th century miniature

In the XV-XVI centuries, the affairs of the university were run by a permanent council, which in England was called a "congregation". In Paris in the 17th century, a "professional oligarchy" finally took shape; with the establishment of absolutism in France, the same model of power was adopted in the universities. The university councils drew up the charter, which for a long time existed in oral form (the oldest written editions preserved in Paris and Oxford date back to the beginning of the 13th century). At first, the charter consisted of a few simple prescriptions relating to examinations, dress code, etc. All members of the university solemnly swore to uphold the charter. Only a special commission could revise it. In Florence, the same commission was engaged in this, which monitored the execution and updating of the charters of craft workshops.

Robert Curzon (circa 1660-1219) - an Englishman who studied at Oxford, Paris and Rome, was appointed chancellor of the University of Paris in 1211, and in 1212 at a meeting of cardinals (consistory) he was elected cardinal priest.

According to the charter of 1215, drawn up by Cardinal Robert Curzon, the University of Paris was considered an association of masters and scholars, each of whom had rights and duties; the emphasis was on mutual assistance. Thus, the university, on the one hand, opposed the not too friendly population, and on the other hand, the local authorities. In addition, only mutual assistance allowed us to live and study normally. Each student was to be attached to a teacher who had the power to judge him. Schoolchildren and teachers, if they do not have the opportunity to achieve justice in another way, could swear to each other to protect their rights. Upon the death of students who did not leave a will, an inventory of their property was made by the rector of the university.

The charter established rules for teachers. To teach the free arts, one had to be at least twenty-one years of age, study the arts for at least six years, and enter into something like a two-year contract. In order to receive a chair in the theological faculty, a candidate was supposed to be at least thirty years old and study theology for eight years, with the last three years specially prepared for teaching under the guidance of a mentor. Finally, he had to be as highly moral as he was highly educated. Nothing was said about teachers of law or medicine, probably due to the poor development of these disciplines.

To become a professor, one had to obtain a teaching license, which was issued by the rector after examining the applicant. The license was issued free of charge and did not require an oath. If the applicant was worthy of it, the rector had no right to refuse him. Subsequent revisions of the statutes provided clearer rules relating to studies and curricula (they even included lists of required and "undesirable" books), teaching methods, dissertation defenses and the awarding of academic degrees, as well as the dress of teachers and funeral ceremonies for teachers and schoolchildren. .

Each university had its own seal. In Paris, it was kept in a special chest, locked with four locks, and the dean of each of the four faculties had the key to one lock, so that the only way to open the chest was to bring them together. The university received its own seal at the beginning of 1221, but already in April of the same year, Pope Honorius III ordered his legate to destroy it. This act caused student riots, two people from the legate's retinue were killed. In 1246, Pope Innocent IV returned to the university the right to use the press, but only for seven years; however, after this period it was extended for another ten years. The charter of 1253 with an imprint of this seal is now the oldest document of its kind that has survived to this day. Some faculties (for example, theological in Paris and medical in Montpellier), "nations", student societies and the administration had their own seals.

The first universities in Western Europe appeared precisely in the classical Middle Ages. So, at the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. Universities were opened in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge and other European cities. Universities then were the most important and often the only source of information. The power of universities and university science was exceptionally strong. In this regard, in the XIV-XV centuries. the University of Paris stood out especially. It is significant that among his students there were completely grown-up people and even old people: everyone came to exchange opinions and get acquainted with new ideas.

University science - scholasticism - is formed in the XI century. Its most important feature was boundless faith in the power of reason in the process of knowing the world. In the course of time, however, scholasticism becomes more and more dogma. Its provisions are considered infallible and final. In the XIV-XV centuries. scholasticism, which used only logic and denied experiments, becomes an obvious brake on the development of natural science in Western Europe. Almost all departments in European universities were then occupied by monks of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and the usual topics of disputes and scientific papers were: “Why did Adam eat an apple in paradise and not a pear? and "How many angels can fit on the point of a needle?".

The whole system of university education had a very strong influence on the formation of Western European civilization. Universities contributed to the progress in scientific thought, the growth of public consciousness and the growth of individual freedom. Masters and students, moving from city to city, from university to university, which was a constant practice, carried out cultural exchange between countries. National achievements immediately became known in other European countries. Thus, the "Decameron" by the Italian Javanni Boccaccio was quickly translated into all the languages ​​​​of Europe, it was read and known everywhere. The beginning of book printing in 1453 also contributed to the formation of Western European culture. Johannes Gutenberg, who lived in Germany, is considered the first printer.

FERDINAND AND ISABELLA

Europe is the beautiful face of the world: important in Spain, handsome in England, playful in France, reasonable in Italy, ruddy in Germany. » These words belong to the Spanish writer Baltasar Gracian, who lived in the 17th century. However, they are true today, and even more so at the end of the 15th century - when the forehead of Spain acquired this significant importance.

Isabella, daughter of King Juan II of Castile, as often happened among the crowned heads of Europe, was intended to be the wife of the Portuguese monarch Alfonso V. There were other contenders for her hand and heart, but. The 18-year-old princess made a daring challenge to tradition and court etiquette. Few chivalric novels of that era could match the poignancy and unpredictability of the plot with the story of her marriage.

Renaissance, Florence, Medici - three words, inextricably linked. The Renaissance is the time of the brilliant flowering of culture, which came in Europe after the long bloody troubles of the early Middle Ages. Florence is a city-republic that has become one of the centers of the Renaissance. The Medici family is a famous Florentine family, many of whose members were typical people of the new time - talented, enterprising, cruel, inspired, like all true Florentines, by the ideas of freedom and devotion to the motherland.

Woolen fabrics made in Florentine factories are sold in many cities of Europe, Asia and Africa. Enterprising city merchants found shopping centers around the world. No wonder Pope Boniface VIII said with irony that the Florentines, like earth, water, air and fire, are the basis of the universe.

medieval universities

The goal of science and education was the same as in ancient Greece, but was not the concern of private people, but was proclaimed a universal and mandatory task. The care of the soul was carried out not independently, but under the control of the church.

The most characteristic form of cognitive organization has become a university - a corporation, a community of people of learning. The first universities appeared in the XII century. They were created to bring order, as there were often skirmishes between the townspeople and the arriving students.

Organizational structure of the university. Education was not divided into disciplines. Among the general educational faculties were the faculties of law, medicine, liberal arts, but the main one was the faculty of theology. Here theology is the science of Holy Scripture, attempts to formalize the conversation about God and the other for the purpose of definition, determination. At the University of Paris, the term of study was 8 years. The medieval university was similar to a professional workshop, nations stood out. Education began with a long apprenticeship, the exam was held in the form of a public debate, a successful performance at which was admission to lecturing. Education at the university was free, but he himself embodied poverty; usually the university was located at the monastery. New knowledge was not developed in medieval universities. The purpose of education was to streamline, preserve and transfer existing knowledge.

University management. There was no single funding system, but there were sponsors who represented rival ecclesiastical and royal authorities. State power began to establish universities in the 14th and 15th centuries, before only the church was engaged in this. The support of the university was carried out not in the form of salaries, but in the form of gifts, sometimes scholarships, and not necessarily money: for example, libraries were presented as gifts. Tariffs were one source of funding. In the 16th century, the paid position of royal lecturer appeared. The medieval university is a self-governing organization; Each faculty has its own stamp. But this right was achieved gradually and not always completely. The bull of Gregory IX of 1231 established the subordination of the University of Paris only to the church, in particular, only to the ecclesiastical court.

Sources: www.bibliotekar.ru, murzim.ru, otherreferats.allbest.ru, lects.ru, revolution.allbest.ru

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• How did faith, reason and experience correlate in medieval science and philosophy?

§ 18.1. medieval universities

The development of cities and other changes in the life of society were accompanied by changes in school education. If in the early Middle Ages education could be obtained mainly in monasteries, then later the best schools began to operate in cities.

In large cities, at the cathedrals, schools arose in which they studied law, philosophy, medicine, read the works of Latin, Greek and Arabic authors. The school in the city of Chartres was considered one of the best. Its leader is credited with the words: “We are dwarfs sitting on the shoulders of giants. We owe it to them that we can see beyond them.” Reliance on tradition, respect for it is an important feature of medieval culture.

Students at the lecture. Relief of the 14th century. Bologna

Some of the city's schools eventually grew into the first universities. A university (from the Latin word "universitas" - a set, association) is a community of teachers and students organized with the aim of giving and receiving higher education and living by certain rules. Only universities could award degrees, give their graduates the right to teach throughout Christian Europe. Universities received this right from those who founded them: popes, emperors, kings, that is, those who had the highest power. Universities were proud of their traditions and privileges.

The founding of universities was attributed to the most famous monarchs. It was said that Charlemagne founded the University of Paris, and Alfred the Great founded Oxford. In fact, the biographies of the oldest universities begin in the 12th century (Bologna in Italy, Paris in France). In the 13th century, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in England, Montpellier and Toulouse in France, Naples in Italy, and Salamanca in Spain arose. In the XIV century, the first universities appeared in the Czech Republic, Germany, Avaria, Poland. By the end of the 15th century, there were about a hundred universities in Europe.

The head of the university was usually an elected rector. The university was divided into faculties, each headed by a dean. At first they studied at the faculty of liberal arts (in Latin, arts is “artes”, therefore the faculty was called artistic). After listening to a certain number of courses here, the student became a bachelor, and then a master of arts. The master received the right to teach, but could also continue his studies at one of the "higher" faculties: medicine, law or theology.

University education was open to every free man. Among the students, people from rich families predominated, but there were also children of the poor. True, the path from the moment of admission to the highest degree of a doctor sometimes dragged on for many years and few people went through it to the end. But a degree provided honor and career opportunities.

Many students moved from city to city and even from country to country in search of the best lecturers. Ignorance of the language did not bother them, because everywhere in Europe they taught in Latin - the language of the church and science. They led the life of wanderers and were nicknamed "Vagants" (meaning "wanderers"). Among them were excellent poets, whose poems still arouse keen interest.

The student's daily routine was simple: lectures in the morning, repetition and deepening of the material covered in the evening. Along with memory training, great attention was paid to the ability to argue, which was practiced in disputes. However, the life of students consisted not only of classes. It was a place for both solemn ceremonies and noisy feasts. Schoolchildren were very fond of their university, where they spent the best years of their lives, gained knowledge and found protection from strangers. He was called a nursing mother (in Latin "alma mater").