The 60s and 70s of the 19th century were a time of fundamental transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of life, both society and the state.

The reason for the transformation was the lost Crimean War. The defeat of Russia in the war showed the complete failure of the political and economic system of Russia. The abolition of serfdom (peasant reform) occupies a central place in the transformations of Alexander II.

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom:

1. Serfdom was immoral and condemned by all sections of Russian society.
2. The preservation of serfdom made it impossible to modernize the country and overcome technical and economic backwardness.
3. The labor of the serfs was unproductive and therefore unprofitable.
4. Since dependent peasants were deprived of the opportunity to fully participate in market relations, serfdom caused the narrowness of the internal market and hindered the development of capitalism.
5. The continuation of the serf policy created the threat of a repetition of Pugachevism.
6. The presence of serfdom, very similar to slavery, undermined the international authority of Russia.

In January 1857, Alexander II established Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs. At the end of 1857, a decree was issued “On the organization and improvement of the life of landowner peasants” (“ Rescript to Nazimov”), according to which in each province, from among the local landowners, provincial editorial commissions were formed to develop a project for the abolition of serfdom. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

In 1859, the drafts drawn up in the provincial committees were submitted for generalization to the editorial commissions formed under the Main Committee.

A significant role in the commissions was played by liberal-minded figures - Ya.I. Rostovtsev (chairman of the commission) and, who replaced him in this post, N.A. Milyutin.

February 19, 1861 Mr. Alexander II signed " Regulations on peasants who emerged from serfdom" and " Manifesto about the liberation of the peasants.

The main provisions of the peasant reform:

1. Peasants received personal freedom (without redemption).
2. The peasants received the land allotment for ransom. About 20% of the ransom amount the peasant had to pay the landowner at a time. The remaining amount received a loan from the state for 49 years.
3. Before the redemption of the land, the peasant was considered " temporarily liable» in relation to the landowner, i.e. continued to bear feudal duties: he paid dues (“ share-cropping"") and worked out the corvee (" working off»).
4. The redeemed land became the property of the peasant community. The right of private ownership of land was the privilege of only noble landowners.
5. The “Regulations” determined the minimum amount of land that the landowners should keep. In the chernozem zone, it was 2/3 of the earth, in the non-chernozem - 1/2, in the steppe - 1/3.
6. If the pre-reform peasant land plot exceeded the post-reform one, then the surplus went to the landowner (the so-called " segments»).
7. Relationships between peasants and landowners were regulated by Statutory letters". They determined the size of allotments and duties. The landowner signed the charter not with each individual peasant, but with the community.
8. The peasants received the right to engage in entrepreneurship, to enter into any legal relations, to move to other classes.

In 1863, under the same conditions, the specific (royal) peasants were released.

In 1866 the state peasants received their freedom. They did not have to redeem their land, but were heavily taxed.

The peasant reform was the result of a compromise between the interests of the landlords, peasants and the government. Moreover, the interests of the landowners were taken into account as much as possible.

One of the consequences of the reform was the massive ruin of the landed estates. The nobles simply could not properly manage the redemption payments and rebuild their production in a capitalist way.

The burden of the peasants with various payments and duties, the peasant shortage of land, agrarian overpopulation caused by the preservation of the community, and the presence of large landownership became sources of constant conflicts between peasants and landowners (the so-called. agrarian question).

The reform prevented mass protests by peasants, although local ones did take place. The most significant of them date back to 1861 - peasant uprisings in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and Kandeevka, Penza province.

Zemstvo reform of 1864

The main reasons for the zemstvo reform was the need to create an effective system of local self-government and the improvement of the Russian village. Local government bodies were created in the provinces and districts - provincial and district Zemsky assemblies. Zemstvo councilors (deputies) were elected by curiae. Most of the deputies were representatives of the landowning curia, i.e. The zemstvo reform increased the political influence of the landlords (this was one of the goals of the reform), however, the zemstvo bodies were considered all-estate.

The zemstvos were in charge of local economy, trade, industry, health care, public education, the organization of charitable institutions, etc. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. Inter-provincial associations of zemstvos were forbidden.

Zemstvo reform is an attempt to create a new system of local self-government based on all-estate representation. Subsequently, zemstvo institutions became centers of liberal opposition to the government.

AT 1870 City reform was carried out, in accordance with which city Dumas were created - an analogue of Zemsky assemblies in the city.

Judicial reform of 1864

It was based on the following principles: classlessness of the court, equality of all subjects before the law, independence of the court from the administration, creation of a court jurors and the institute of sworn attorneys (lawyers).

During the reform process, Justices of the Peace for peasants, established in the counties. They tried minor criminal offenses and civil cases. Justices of the peace were elected by the county zemstvo assemblies.

Decisions in criminal cases in the district courts were made by jurors who delivered a verdict to the accused. They were elected according to special lists from persons of different classes.

The functions of the supreme court were received by the Senate.

The trial became open and competitive. This meant that the prosecutor (state prosecutor) was confronted by a lawyer independent of the administration.

In accordance with the judicial reform, the institution of notaries was created.

The judicial reform was the most democratic, radical and consistent among the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s.

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

The need for military reform was determined by the general military-technical backwardness of the Russian army, which posed a threat to Russia's security and undermined its international prestige. In addition, the army, based on recruitment, did not correspond to the new social structure of Russian society. The initiator and leader of the reform was Minister of War D.A. Milyutin.

In the course of the reform, military settlements were abolished, military districts were created (headed by commanders in chief), the military ministry and the main headquarters were reorganized, and cadet and military schools were established. The military industry began to develop rapidly.

The central element of the military reform was the introduction of 1874 d. universal military service, which applied to the entire male population who had reached the age of 20. The service life was 6 years in the ground forces and 7 years in the navy. For those who had an education, and depending on its level, the service life was reduced from 4 years to 6 months.

Transformations in the army became an important factor in the democratization of society, the modernization of the army, and contributed to an increase in its combat effectiveness - all this was fully manifested in the war with Turkey in 1877-1878.

Significant changes were made to the education system. The university charter of 1863 expanded the autonomy of the universities. In accordance with the Charter of the secondary school (1864), gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The first prepared mainly for admission to the university, the second - to higher technical educational institutions.

In 1865, a censorship reform was carried out. Preliminary censorship was abolished for most books and literary magazines.

Reforms of the 1860s and 70s significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization. However, the political reorganization of the country was not completed. Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy. There were no mechanisms for the influence of society on government policy.

Socio-economic development of post-reform Russia

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. created favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy and the formation of capitalist relations.

Railway construction was the most important direction of the economic development of post-reform Russia, because. this new type of transport made it possible to significantly facilitate the export of grain and strengthen the country's defense capability. AT 1851 The railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow was opened.

In the 60s. began "railway fever" - a real boom in railway construction. Private capital, including foreign capital, was widely attracted to this industry. Moscow became the center of the railway network. In 1869, a road was put into operation, connecting Moscow with the southern grain-growing provinces of southern Russia.

A new stage of reinforced railway construction began in the 90s. Finance Minister S.Yu. Witte (the author of the monetary reform (introduction of the gold equivalent of the ruble), later Chairman of the Government) attached particular importance to it. Now it was carried out mainly at public expense. In 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began. In 1896, the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), the eastern branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway, began in Manchuria.

The abolition of serfdom caused a short hitch in the industrial development of the country, because. Possession peasants left the manufactory. Soon, however, industrial development revived. The most significant successes were observed in textile production, which at that time was the leading branch of Russian industry. Significant growth was observed in the food industry, especially in the sugar industry.

It was very difficult for the metallurgical industry to adapt to the new conditions, where it was necessary not only to switch to civilian labor, but also to carry out technical re-equipment. Many Ural factories are falling into decay. However, at the same time (since the mid-70s) a new center of industrial production began to form in the Donets Basin.

The Russian economy gradually entered the world economy and began to experience cyclical fluctuations in its development. AT 1873 Russia was first affected by the global industrial crisis.

In the first post-reform 20th anniversary, the main industrial regions of Russia were finally formed - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ural and Yuzhny (Donbass). The textile industry dominated in the Moscow region. Petersburg - metalworking and mechanical engineering. The Ural and Southern regions were the base of the metallurgical industry.

Back to top 1890 -s. in Russia ends, which began in 1830-40 years, industrial revolution, i.e. the transition from manufactory to factory, from manual labor to machine. It had an industrial revolution and social consequences - there was a transition from the class structure of society to the class one. The main classes of society were the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

The agricultural development of Russia in the post-reform period was not so successful. It was especially difficult in the black earth regions, where the peasants had difficulty switching to new ways of farming.

The main supplier of export grain remained the landowners' farms. This indicates that the development of agriculture in Russia proceeded mainly along Prussian way.

Signs of the Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Large sizes of allotments - latifundia.
• The owners of the latifundia are the privileged latifundist landowners.
• The plots are cultivated by numerous low-paid hired workers (farm laborers) or slaves (as in the USA or in pre-reform Russia).

Only in the steppe Trans-Volga region and in the North Caucasus, where landownership was weak or non-existent, did agriculture develop according to American(farm) way. These areas became the breadbasket of Russia and the main supplier of bread for export.

Signs of the American way of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Put on small sizes.
• The allotment belongs to the farmer. In Russia they are called fists.
• The farmer himself and a few laborers handle the allotment.

After the reform of 1861 in the Russian countryside, the social differentiation- the process of separation from the total mass of the peasantry of the rural bourgeoisie ( fists), owners of strong peasant farms serving their own needs ( middle peasants) and the rural poor ( laborers).

The development of capitalism in the countryside was hampered by the preservation of the community ("rural society"). The community acted as the owner of the land. She was engaged in the distribution of land allotments (in order to equalize the chances of a good harvest, the peasants received land in strips, that is, in different parts of the communal lands). The main organs of community administration were the village assembly and the village headman elected by him. One of the fundamental principles for the community was the principle of mutual responsibility.

Social movement of the second half of the 50-60s of the XIX century.

The reforms of Alexander II provoked opposition from the conservatives. The brightest representative of this trend was M.N. Katkov is the editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti, who left after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. liberal camp. He believed that the reforms led to the separation of the intelligentsia from the people and violated the previously existing unity of the people with the king.

In the second half of the XIX century. in Russia, the ideas of liberalism are being further developed, which are approved in a number of zemstvos. Liberal zemstvo leaders put forward the slogan of "positive work in the field", and attempts were also made to create an all-Russian zemstvo center. The Russian liberals saw the main goal in the establishment of constitutional government. The most famous figures of the liberal Zemstvo movement were I.I. Petrunkevich, D.N. Shipov, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin.

At the same time, a significant part of the educated society was captured by revolutionary sentiments. This direction of the social movement quickly lost its noble character. The children of peasants, philistines, the clergy, the impoverished nobility quickly turned into intellectuals - raznochintsev standing outside the estates. Parting with their past, they quickly ceased to respect the foundations, traditions ( nihilism). The mood of general pessimism and hatred of the state was intensified by the introduction in 1861 of high tuition fees at universities. It was the raznochintsy intelligentsia that became the main base of the revolutionary movement in post-reform Russia.

The reform of 1861 in no way satisfied the radical public. Chernyshevsky becomes her idol and inspiration. Obviously, he was the main organizer of the "proclamation campaign" of 1861. The proclamations circulating in Moscow and St. Petersburg contained demands for more decisive and consistent reforms, reinforced by the threat of a popular uprising. In response, the authorities in 1861-1862. made a number of arrests, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to hard labor. Throughout the 1860s. the radical intelligentsia tried several times to create a strong organization. However, neither the "Land and Freedom" group (1861-1863, Chernyshevsky's organization), nor the circle of N.A. could become such. Ishytin (whose member D.V. Karakozov shot at Alexander II in 1866), nor “National Reprisal” (1869) under the leadership of S.T. Nechaev (members of the organization killed student Ivanov on suspicion of betrayal). S.T. Nechaev is the author of the book " Revolutionary catechism».

Revolutionary Populism

At the turn of the 1860-1870s. the formation of the ideology of revolutionary populism. It found its final expression in the works of M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrova, P.N. Tkachev. Firmly convinced that mankind in its development must inevitably come to socialism, these ideologists placed special hopes on the peasant community in Russia, considering it as the germ of socialism (the theory of “communal socialism” by A.I. Herzen). The populists were characterized by a negative attitude towards capitalism, which could destroy the peasant community. Converging on the basic theoretical principles, the leading ideologues of populism proposed various means for their implementation.

M.A. Bakunin ( 6untarian direction of populism) saw such a means in an immediate peasant revolt, to which the peasants should be inspired by their example by the revolutionary intelligentsia. At the same time, Bakunin and his supporters denied the need for a state, relying on the self-government of communities. M.A. Bakunin and his colleague P. Kropotkin became the founders of Russian anarchism.

P.L. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) supported the idea of ​​a peasant revolution and considered revolutionary intellectuals as a force capable of inspiring the masses to participate in it through prolonged propaganda.

P.N. Tkachev ( conspiratorial direction) proceeded from the fact that the gap between the people and the intelligentsia is too significant and, in essence, insurmountable. It is impossible to raise the peasants to a conscious revolutionary movement. The intelligentsia must liberate the community by seizing power by means of an armed coup and carrying out the necessary transformations from above.

In the late 1860s - early 1870s. in Russia, a number of populist circles arose among the students. AT 1874 d. their members start mass going to the people for the purpose of conducting revolutionary propaganda. However, it was not possible to raise the peasants to the revolution - all their calls were met with distrust and hostility among the peasantry. The reason for this lay in the belief in the "good king" that persisted among the peasantry.

After unsuccessfully going to the people, the populists decide to change their tactics and move on to " settled» (constant, systematic) propaganda. AT 1876 g. arises " Earth and Will"(second) - an organization that played the role of a coordinating center for populist propaganda. Its unsuccessful activities lead the populists to the idea of ​​the need to abandon propaganda methods of struggle. AT 1879 Zemlya i Volya is split into Black Repartition and Narodnaya Volya.

« Black redistribution”, whose leaders were G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod and V.I. Zasulich, remained on the positions of propaganda. Soon its members left Russia and in 1883 created the first Russian Marxist organization in Geneva. Emancipation of labor».

« People's Will” united the populists - supporters of the tactics of individual terror. This method of struggle also existed earlier as a disorganizing method of work for Land and Freedom. The most famous terrorist of that time was V. Zasulich (later a member of the Black Redistribution), who in 1878 made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor D.F. Trepov. Later, the jury acquitted Zasulich, thereby justifying political terror in general. Zasulich herself later retired from terror.

The leaders of the "Narodnaya Volya" were A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Perovskaya and V.N. Figner.

The activities of the "Narodnaya Volya" led to retaliatory measures from the government. Not wanting to completely curtail the reformist policy, Alexander II begins to pursue a kind of policy (“ Dictatorship of the Heart"). On February 12, 1880, the Supreme Administrative Commission was formed. M. T. Loris-Melikov was put at its head, who, on the one hand, continued the merciless struggle against the revolutionary underground; on the other hand, he carried out a number of measures that softened the censorship and arbitrariness of the local administration. In addition, Loris-Melikov presented to the tsar a draft of democratic reforms, providing, in particular, for the convening of a central all-Russian zemstvo body (“ Constitution of Loris-Melikov"). He was enthusiastically received by the liberals and approved by Alexander II.

March 1, 1881 Mr. Alexander II was killed by Narodnaya Volya. His son Alexander III came to power. Loris-Melikov's project was rejected. Reaction reigned in the country, and the populist organizations were crushed. People's Volunteers Perovskaya, Mikhailov, Kibalchich, Zhelyabov and Rysakov were hanged.

In the post-reform period, under conditions of intensive development of industry, the labor movement becomes a noticeable phenomenon in social life. In 1875, the "South Russian Union of Workers" (headed by E.O. Zaslavsky) appeared in Odessa, in 1878 in St. Petersburg - the "Northern Union of Russian Workers" (V.P. Obnorsky, S.N. Khalturin). Their participants advocated the overthrow of the autocracy, political freedom, social reorganization. The workers' organizations, being essentially Marxist, were strongly influenced by the Narodniks during this period.

In the 80s. the labor movement becomes more organized, mass strikes begin. The most significant of these took place in 1885 city ​​at Morozov's textile factory in Ivanovo-Voznesensk ("Morozov strike"). In the 90s. there is a new upsurge in the strike movement. The protests of the workers prompted the government to adopt a number of laws.

The internal policy of the autocracy at the end of the XIX century.

The reign of Alexander III (1881 - 1894) went down in history as the time of "counter-reforms". The ideologists of the new political course were Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev (educator of the new emperor), Minister of the Interior D.A. Tolstoy, well-known publicist and public figure M.N. Katkov, who considered any borrowing from the West harmful and insisted on correcting the reforms already carried out.

The practical implementation of the new course was reduced to the following:

1. The introduction of the institute of Zemsky chiefs ( 1889 ). They were appointed by the Minister of the Interior from among the local noble landlords and exercised administrative and police control and judicial functions over the peasants. The power of the zemstvo chiefs strengthened the positions of the landlords and the government.
2. Zemstvo counter-reform ( 1890 ). During the elections to the zemstvos, the number of vowels from the landowners increased due to the reduction of the property qualification. For urban residents, the qualification, on the contrary, increased. All these measures were designed to strengthen the position of the nobility in local governments.
3. The property and educational qualifications for jurors increased, which increased the representation of the nobility (1887).
4. University Charter 1884 effectively abolished the autonomy of universities. Representatives of the "lower classes" found it difficult to get an education. " Cook's Children Circular» ( 1887 ) recommended closing the doors of the gymnasium to children not from noble families.
5. In accordance with " Regulations on Measures for the Protection of State Security and Public Peace» ( 1881 ) a state of emergency could be declared in any part of the empire. Local authorities received the right to arrest "suspicious persons", exile them without trial for up to 5 years in any locality and bring them to a military court, close educational institutions and press organs, and suspend the activities of zemstvos.
6. The attitude towards religious dissent was toughened, the rights of persons of non-Orthodox faith, especially Jews, were limited. The government pursued a policy of forcible Russification of the national outskirts.

Considering the domestic policy of Alexander III, it is important to emphasize that the government carried out a number of measures aimed at improving the situation of peasants and workers.

AT 1881 d. all former landlord peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption, i.e. temporary relationships were cancelled. The Peasants' Bank was created (1882), which was supposed to assist peasants and peasant societies in the purchase of privately owned lands. In 1883 - 1885. the poll tax from the peasants was reduced and then abolished.

In the 1980s, the first attempts were made to regulate relations between workers and industrialists, to develop the foundations of labor legislation: the labor of minors was prohibited, fines were reduced, and a factory inspectorate was established to monitor compliance with working conditions.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

After the end of the Crimean War, the main task of Russian foreign policy was the revision of the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856). Taking advantage of the contradictions between European states (primarily Prussia and France), Russian diplomacy, headed by A.M. Gorchakov was able to successfully solve this problem by declaring in 1870 of the refusal to comply with the terms of the Paris Treaty. Already in the early 1870s. Russia creates a navy on the Black Sea, restores destroyed fortresses and proceeds to resolve the Eastern Question.

1877-1878 gg. - the last Russian-Turkish war.

Reasons for the war:

1. Russia's desire to solve the Eastern question.
2. The need to assist the fraternal Balkan peoples in their liberation struggle against the Ottoman yoke.
3. Russia is faced with the task of returning South Bessarabia, lost as a result of the Crimean War.
4. Russia is striving to regain the international prestige it lost after the defeat in the Crimean War.

April 12, 1877 d. Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The fighting went on simultaneously in the Balkans (under the leadership of I.V. Gurko and M.D. Skobelev) and in the Transcaucasus (M.T. Loris-Melikov). The main events of the war were the defense of the Shipka Pass and the siege of the Turkish fortress of Plevna (it was only possible to take it in November 1877, E.I. Totleben participated in the siege). In Transcaucasia, the fortresses of Batum and Erzurum were taken. AT February 1878 in the town San Stefano an agreement was signed near Constantinople, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received complete independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. Russia returned South Bessarabia.

However, the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and in the Middle East region frightened the Western European powers and, above all, Germany. They protested against the terms of the San Stefano Treaty. Summer 1878 A congress was held in Berlin, at which Russia found itself in complete isolation. As a result, the Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania retained their independence, but Bulgaria was divided into two parts: the North received full autonomy, and the South remained a Turkish province. Turkey's colonies were divided among European states.

At the end of the nineteenth century. The German Empire is growing stronger and is beginning to be perceived by the Russian government as the most dangerous enemy. Also in 1873 d. Russia agrees to the creation of " Union of the Three Emperors"with the participation of Austria-Hungary and Germany, hoping in this way to prevent an aggravation of relations with them. However, the disagreements between its members turned out to be too great and in 1878 the "Union" broke up.

In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy concluded the so-called. Triple Alliance, directed against France, but also threatening Russia.

The Russian government was forced to start looking for an ally, now for a joint struggle against the Triple Alliance. In 1891-92. a Franco-Russian alliance is created. That's how it started Entente(from French - consent), opposing the Triple Alliance.

An important task facing the Russian Foreign Ministry was the demarcation (clear definition) of the border with China. AT 1858 The Aigun Treaty was signed, according to which the border was drawn along the Amur River. The Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur remained in the joint possession of both states. AT 1860 d. - Beijing Treaty. Taking advantage of China's weakness, Russia annexes the Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur.

Another direction of foreign policy was the accession of Central Asia.

In 1864, the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva, having suffered a series of military defeats, recognized their vassal dependence on Russia. The Kokand Khanate, which declared a gazavat to Russia, was destroyed as a state: in 1876 its lands were included in the Turkestan region. The fight against the Turkmen tribes ended only in 1881, when M.D. Skobelev took Ashgabat and Geok-Tepe.

Accession to Russia was a boon for the local population: feudal civil strife ceased; blood feud began to fade into the past; slavery was abolished. The local population retained their language, religion, culture, and national customs.

AT 1867 Alaska was sold to the US for $7.2 million.

Culture of the second half of the XIX century.

The basis of secondary education was still made up of gymnasiums, real and commercial schools. However, the right to enter the university was given only to gymnasiums. In 1878, the Higher Women's (Bestuzhev) Courses were opened, which laid the foundation for higher education for women.

Russian science and technology in the post-reform period was represented by a galaxy of outstanding scientists. In the field of mathematics, P.L. Chebyshev, A.M. Lyapunov, S.V. Kovalevskaya (the world's first female professor of mathematics). In chemical science A.M. Butlerov proposed the theory of the chemical structure of substances, D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic law of chemical elements.

Major scientific discoveries have been made in physics. A.G. Stoletov investigated and described photoelectric phenomena. P.N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp and for the first time carried out the transformation of alternating current. A.N. Lodygin designed an incandescent lamp. The main direction of scientific activity of A.S. Popov was the study of electromagnetic phenomena, its result was the invention of radio. The works of N.I. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern hydro- and aeromechanics. The first experiments on the design of aircraft (aircraft) were made by A.F. Mozhaisky.

Biological sciences during this period developed under the influence of evolutionary doctrine. Works by I.I. Mechnikov in evolutionary embryology, pathology and immunology were recognized by scientists around the world. At the origins of the national physiological school was I.M. Sechenov. One of the directions of his scientific activity was the study of the human psyche. I.P. Pavlov carried out extensive experimental research in the field of higher nervous activity and formulated the main provisions of the theory of conditioned reflexes. The development of agronomic science is associated with the names of V.V. Dokuchaev (the founder of modern soil science) and K.A. Timiryazev (researcher of plant physiology).

New generalizing works on Russian history appear: the 29-volume " History of Russia since ancient times" CM. Solovyov and " Russian history course» his student V.O. Klyuchevsky. Such prominent representatives of Russian historical science as S.F. begin their scientific, pedagogical and social activities. Platonov and M.N. Pokrovsky. A notable event in scientific life was the work of M.M. Kovalevsky on world history.

Russian geographers and travelers continue to explore the little-studied territories of our planet. Admiral F.P. Litke carried out a survey of Kamchatka, Chukotka and some islands in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. N.M. Przhevalsky, P.K. Kozlov, P.P. Semenov-Tienshansky during his travels studied the regions of Central and Central Asia. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay - the coast of New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.

The main process taking place in Russian literature and art of this period was democratization. Artistic culture acquires a simpler, generally accessible character.

Second half of the 19th century - the most important stage in the development of domestic literature. Creativity L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, I.S. Turgenev, E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.A. Fet and many others had a huge impact on Russian and world literature.

In painting, as well as in literature, the realistic direction becomes dominant. AT 1870 g. arises " Association of Traveling Exhibitions”, which united the majority of realist artists - I.N. Kramskoy (portrait of L.N. Tolstoy), A.K. Savrasov (" The Rooks Have Arrived”), I.E. Repin ( "Barge Haulers on the Volga", "They Didn't Wait", "The Cossacks Write a Letter to the Turkish Sultan"), IN AND. Surikov ( "Boyar Morozova", "Morning of the Streltsy Execution", "Conquest of Siberia by Yermak"), who opposed "academism" in the visual arts.

In terms of his aesthetic views, the outstanding Russian sculptor M.M. Antokolsky. He is the author of sculptural portraits "Ermak", "Nestor the Chronicler", "Ivan the Terrible".

According to the project of M.O. Mikeshin in Novgorod erected a monument " Millennium of Russia". Mikeshin was also the author of monuments to Catherine II in St. Petersburg and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv. Monuments erected according to the designs of A.M. Opekushin (Pushkin - in Moscow and Lermontov - in Pyatigorsk).

The use of folk motifs was distinguished in these years by the musical art. The motifs of folk music were most vividly presented in the operas of A.S. Dargomyzhsky (" Mermaid”), M.P. Mussorgsky (" Boris Godunov"), ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov royal bride”), A.P. Borodin (" Prince Igor”), who made up a circle of musicians known as“ mighty bunch". The most popular in these years was the work of P.I. Tchaikovsky, who created outstanding opera ( "Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades"), ballet ( "Swan Lake", "The Nutcracker") and symphonic (1st Piano Concerto) works.

In a number of architectural styles, eclecticism dominated (a combination of features of different styles in one work). A variety of eclecticism was the pseudo-Russian style.

Buildings in Moscow became examples of this style. Historical Museum(architects A.A. Semenov and V.O. Sherwood), City Duma(architect D.N. Chichagov), the current Gumma(architect A.N. Pomerantsev).

For the widest strata of Russian society, one of the most accessible forms of art was theater. The basis of the repertoire of both metropolitan and provincial theaters were plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov, N.V. Gogol. Realistic traditions in acting, established by M.S. Shchepkin, successfully continued and developed by outstanding Russian actors M.P. and O.O. Sadovskie, G.N. Fedotova, M.N. Ermolova, P.A. Strepetova. The Maly Theater in Moscow was rightfully considered the center of the theatrical life in Russia.

Ministry of the Russian Federation

Civil Defense, Emergencies and Disaster Relief

Academy of State Fire Service

Russian Emergency Situations Ministry

abstract

Department:"Domestic History and Economic Theory".

Discipline: Russian history.

on the topic:"Great reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century".

Completed:

1B course student

Speciality:"Technospheric security" Checked: _______________________________

Moscow 2014

Introduction…………………………………………………………………….……3

1. Prerequisites for the liberal reforms of Alexander II……………………..5

2. The need for reform…………………………………………...…………8

2.1. Abolition of serfdom………………………………………………… 10

2.2. Peasant reforms …...………………………………………………... 13

2.3. Zemstvo reform ……………………………………………………………… 15

2.4. City Reform…………………………………………………………… 16

2.5. Judicial Reform……………………………………………………………. 17

2.6. Military reform……………………………………………………………... 18

2.7. Financial Reform………………………………………………………. 20

2.8. Reform in the field of public education and press…………………... 21

2.9. Higher state institutions…………………………………... 24

3. Socio-political consequences of the reforms and their assessment in the historical literature………………………………………………..…… 25

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..29

Bibliography……………………………………………………...…….30

Introduction

Dividing Russian history of the 19th century into its first and second halves, 1861, the year of the peasant reform, is often chosen as a milestone. In this regard, one can also speak of pre-reform and post-reform Russia.

Carrying out large-scale reforms, comparable in their significance to the reforms of Peter the Great, fell to the lot of Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881). He was not known as a man of liberal convictions. As the heir to the throne and acting in the public arena in the shadow of his father Nicholas I, he never expressed any ideas that ran counter to the policy of conservation. But at the same time, Alexander was a pragmatist - a man who, above his convictions, set the solution to the most pressing problems in accordance with the spirit of the times.

The emperor understood the need to abandon the feudal economy, to carry out the modernization of the country, the inevitability of which became obvious after Russia's humiliating defeat in the Crimean War. The crisis was exacerbated by the breakdown of the financial system.

Alexander II and his entourage received a lot of reports about the growth of popular discontent, they felt a democratic upsurge in an “enlightened society”. The country was on the verge of a revolutionary explosion. In an effort to prevent it, the emperor at the beginning of his reign told the representatives of the nobility about his unwillingness to "give freedom to the peasants", but was forced to recognize the need to start preparing for their release in view of the danger of further preservation of serfdom.

Thus, the government, seeking to resolve the most acute social contradictions, did not take the path of tightening the regime, but chose the tactics of "preemptive reform." With the help of reforms, Alexander II also sought to solve foreign policy tasks - to restore the international prestige of the Russian Empire, to create a combat-ready army of a new model.

In a constant struggle with the conservatives, the emperor managed to rely on liberal-minded representatives of the state bureaucracy, who contributed to the implementation of the course of reforms. Among them, the tsar's brother, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, one of the leaders of the Main Committee on the Peasant Question, Ya.

Prerequisites for the liberal reforms of Alexander II

At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia remained the only European power that retained a feudal-serf economy and an absolute monarchy. The efficiency of the Russian economy was an order of magnitude lower than in developed European countries. By the middle of the XIX century. Russia's lagging behind the Western countries, which have made a huge leap in their development, has not decreased, but increased. By this time, there were practically no joint-stock companies and banks in Russia, without which a large capitalist economy could not develop. But serfdom continued to be the main brake on the path of bourgeois development. This was fully demonstrated by the Crimean War (1853-1856), which ended in the defeat of tsarism.

The defeat in the Crimean War revealed many internal shortcomings of the Russian state. A direct consequence of the economic and military autocratic-serf policy was the decline in the living standards of the people, stagnation in the economy. The discontent of the people grew, it became obvious that it was impossible to live like this any longer. Social conflicts intensified. The peasantry more and more actively rose to fight for their liberation. It fought for the complete abolition of serfdom, for freedom and land. Thousands of peasants rushed south, to the Crimea, “for freedom,” as a rumor spread that there they were handing out land to those who wished and freed them from serfdom.

Most of the landlords were against the liberation of the peasants, as this meant the end of the unconditional rule of the noble class. But the most far-sighted representatives of this class understood the need for reform. The advanced part of them, the so-called liberals, began to openly criticize the backwardness of Russia, the dominance and abuses of officials. They were especially afraid of the threat of revolution. In order to prevent it, to preserve the dominant position of the landowners in the country, they proposed some transformations. They advocated the abolition of serfdom from above. The liberation of the peasants, according to their plan, should take place in such a way that the landowners suffered the least, and the peasants had to pay a large ransom for their personal liberation. After such a "liberation" the peasants would remain in complete economic dependence on the landowner.

Under these conditions, the tsarist government was forced to begin preparations for the abolition of serfdom, the most important reform of that time.

In the historical literature, there are two opinions about the reasons for the abolition of serfdom. According to the first of them, by the middle of the 19th century, the serf economy was still far from having exhausted its possibilities and the actions against the government were very weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia, but by retaining serfdom, it could drop out of the ranks of the great powers. According to the second, the labor productivity of the serfs began to decline, as the landowners wanted to produce more products and thereby undermined the strength of the peasant economy. Many landlords tried to introduce new farming systems, apply the latest technology, purchase improved varieties, thoroughbred cattle. Such measures led them to ruin, and, accordingly, to increased exploitation of the peasants.

After the death of Nicholas I, his eldest son Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who was well prepared for state activity, ascended the royal throne. For several years he participated in the work of the Peasant Committee and, being a realist, he was fully aware of the need for change.

Alexander II, who was inclined towards the abolition of serfdom with the provision of a certain economic independence to the peasants, i.e. land, went to an extraordinary measure. Instead of the previously practiced departmental committees engaged in upholding local interests, a non-departmental body was created - the Editorial Commissions, directly subordinate to the tsar. They included radical officials, as well as independent experts from the landowners.

The commissions took into account the opinion of the provincial committees. An innovation was publicity in the work of the commissions: the results of their work were regularly inquired about by the highest officials of the state and leaders of the nobility. In addition, in their work, the commissions relied on scientifically substantiated economic calculations. The results of the work of the commissions were reflected in the Tsar's Manifesto of February 19, 1861, which announced the abolition of serfdom in Russia. The reform was a compromise that took into account the interests of the peasants, various groups of landowners and the authorities.

Under the new law, the serfdom of the landlords over the peasants was abolished forever, and the peasants were recognized as free without any redemption in favor of the landowners. At the same time, the land on which the peasants lived and worked was recognized as the property of the landowners. The peasants were freed with the fact that the landlords would provide them with their estate settlement and a certain amount of field land and other lands (field allotment) for use. But the peasants for the estate and field plots had to serve in favor of the landlords duties in money or work. Therefore, until the conclusion of redemption transactions, the peasants were considered "temporarily liable" and had to serve, as before, corvée or pay dues. The final stage in the liberation of peasants from serfdom was the redemption of land. Up to 80% of the ransom amount was paid to the landowners by the state. The loan was issued to the landowner in profitable interest-bearing papers and was credited to the peasants as government debt. The peasants became debtors of the state, repaying for 49 years with a payment of 6% the amount of the ransom. Thus, during this time, the peasant had to pay up to 300% of the "loan" granted to him.

The centralized redemption of peasant allotments by the state solved a number of important economic and social problems. The government credit provided the landowners with a guaranteed payment of the ransom and saved them from a direct confrontation with the peasants. The ransom turned out to be, in addition, an operation that was also beneficial to the state. The landlords managed to carry out land management in such a way that the peasants were cut off part of the land that they cultivated for themselves before the reform. All this laid the foundation for the impoverishment and landlessness of the peasantry. Thus the great deed of the abolition of serfdom was accomplished.

The liberation of the peasants significantly changed all the foundations of Russian state and social life. It created a new populous social class in the central and southern regions of Russia. And the government was supposed to manage it. The peasant reform entailed the transformation of all aspects of state and public life. A number of measures were envisaged to restructure local government, the judiciary, education and, later, the army.

Alexander Nikolaevich, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I and his wife Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, ascended the throne on February 18, 1855. Alexander II was crowned on August 26, 1856 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

In historical science, traditionally 50-60s. 19th century consider a revolutionary situation, which is understood as a set of features independent of the will of individual groups, classes or parties, making a social revolution quite possible. Russian revolutionary situation in the 50-60s. 19th century had its own characteristics:

1) the crisis of the feudal-serf system - the stage of the disintegration of feudalism, when feudal production relations entered a dead end and became fetters in the development of capitalism;

2) the extraordinary acuteness of the agrarian (peasant) issue - the issue of relations over land ownership and the socio-political struggle associated with this (according to statistics, by the middle of the 19th century in Russia there were 22 million serfs for 110 thousand landowners);

3) the most severe national catastrophe - the defeat in the Crimean War (1853 - 1855): according to the Paris Treaty (1856), Russia lost Southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube; she was forbidden not only to have a fleet, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea (the so-called principle of neutralizing the sea), but also to participate in the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Balkans against Turkish rule. In addition, the war revealed the technical and military backwardness of Russia from the advanced European countries - England and France.

Thus, reforms were a vital necessity, otherwise the revolutionary situation threatened to develop into a revolution, the result of which, given the peculiarities and specifics of Russia, was impossible to predict. Failures in the Crimean War caused a wave of public discontent. The social movement noticeably intensified after the death of Nicholas I in February 1855. As always, in Russia, special hopes were placed on the new emperor. The so-called. "glasnost era". The actions of the government were accelerated by the socio-political movement for the abolition of serfdom that developed after the war, since this problem was of paramount importance. In 1855 - 1857. writers, publicists, scientists, government officials submitted 63 notes to the emperor with options for resolving this issue. The approach to the problem and the program of practical actions were different, but everyone was united by the understanding of the need for fundamental changes. Three main directions clearly stood out in the social movement.

1. The radical left direction was grouped around the Sovremennik magazine and foreign publications by A. I. Herzen. Supporters of this movement criticized the entire socio-political system of Russia. On the extreme flank were N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov, who rejected all sorts of compromises and projects for the liberation of the peasants from above, by the actions of the government. They considered the most desirable mass movement of peasants and the abolition of serfdom from below, since they were adherents of socialist ideas and dreamed of a new social structure of society based on equality, justice and universal inspired labor.

2. The moderate-liberal trend was the most influential and included the color of the then Russian intelligentsia. In terms of composition, it was heterogeneous and included Slavophiles (Yu. F. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev), Westerners (B. N. Chicherin, K. D. Kavelin, A. M. Unkovsky), as well as many major officials of various ministries and departments of the tsarist government. The program of the liberal camp was outlined by K. D. Kavelin in the "Note on the Liberation of the Peasants in Russia", intended for the tsar, but widely publicized. The document sharply criticized feudal relations, which were a "time bomb", which in a few decades "will blow up the entire state". Therefore, the government needs to abolish serfdom in a short time, allocate land to the peasants by voluntary agreement with the landowners and for ransom, and provide financial support to the peasants. The liberal program, after some hesitation, became the basis of government policy on the peasant question.

3. The conservative direction was supported by the majority of the nobility. Understanding the need for change, it believed that this should be done gradually, without breaking the foundations of landownership. The conservative program received a concrete embodiment in the notes of 1855-1856. Alexander II, compiled by the Poltava landowner MP Posen: peasants receive personal freedom for ransom; redemption of land is carried out only with the consent of the landowner; the government must provide loans to the peasants for this.

Thus, followers of all social currents converged on the need for change. The fear of an explosion of peasant discontent, a "new Pugachevism," united liberals and conservatives. The differences were in the depth, ways and pace of the inevitable reforms. The liquidation of the serf system has historically matured not only in the course of the objective development of the country, but also in the minds of people. With the political system that existed in Russia, reforms could be carried out at the will of the emperor. The opinion prevailing in the historical literature about the possibility of liberating the peasants "from below", by way of a general revolt, is unrealistic and would only lead to chaos and destruction. And there were no prerequisites for a general peasant uprising at that time.

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century associated with the name of Emperor Alexander II (1855 - 1881). In the conditions of the Russian autocratic system, the sovereign played a decisive role. There are different opinions about the character and personal qualities of Alexander II. He was not an outstanding personality like Peter I. A pupil of the famous poet V. A. Zhukovsky, the tsar did not have a broad outlook and was not a convinced reformer, but he really perceived the events taking place and had sufficient determination to carry out fundamental changes to strengthen and preserve the existing autocratic building. The heir to the Russian throne, brought up in the spirit of European humanism in the first half of the 19th century, knew how to select talented assistants who could put his ideas into practice, as well as listen to public opinion and change their positions if necessary.

The abolition of serfdom radically changed the structure of social relations. The changed system required the adoption of new laws, the introduction of new management institutions. This task was fulfilled to a certain extent by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. 19th century

Judicial reform(1864). The reform was prepared by professional lawyers - N. A. Budkovsky, S. I. Zarudny, K. P. Pobedonostsev, D. A. Rovinsky, N. I. Stoyanovskiy.

The preparation of the reform began in 1861. According to the new Judicial Charters (November 20, 1864), the trial was organized as a competition between a lawyer (defence) and a prosecutor (prosecution). The meetings were public. When considering criminal cases, there were jurors (12 people) representing the society (they were elected from local residents of all classes). The regular lists included men aged 25-70, Russians owning property of at least 200 rubles, peasants with experience in local self-government. Judges were appointed for life and therefore were independent of the administration.

The principle of classlessness of the court was introduced (its decisions did not depend on the class of the accused). The main courts were the magistrate's court (decided on petty criminal and civil cases): magistrates were elected by all estates at county meetings for a period of three years and approved by the government), as well as the crown court: district judges, judicial chambers, the ruling Senate as the supreme court of cassation .

Zemstvo reform(1864). The reform of local self-government was developed by a commission under the Ministry of Internal Affairs from 1859 under the chairmanship of N. A. Milyutin and from 1861 by P. A. Valuev. The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were county and provincial assemblies, whose members were called vowels. Executive zemstvo bodies were elected from the vowel assembly - councils consisting of a chairman and several members), as well as commissions for developing local economy issues: collecting state taxes and taxes, caring for health care and public education, etc.

Zemstvo elections were held once every three years. Voters were divided into three curia (electoral assemblies): landowning, urban and peasant. To participate in the elections for the first two curiae, one had to have a certain property qualification (from 500 rubles and more). Small proprietors who did not have full qualifications could participate in the elections through representatives whom they elected at their congresses.

The number of representatives was equal to the number of full qualifications, which gave the addition of the value of the property of small owners. Elections in the peasant curia were multistage: first, candidates were elected, who then chose the required number of vowels from their midst.

Vowels of the provincial zemstvo assembly were elected by the district assemblies from among their members. It was impossible to implement all the tasks assigned to the zemstvos by the forces of the vowels alone, therefore the zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy - doctors, teachers, agronomists, etc. - who were called zemstvo employees. Contrary to the expectations of the government, the zemstvos did not focus on solving local economic affairs, but were actively involved in the political struggle, becoming the basis of the liberal movement in Russia.

urban reform(1870). Its preparation was carried out simultaneously with the Zemstvo reform. N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin and other well-known Russian reformers stood at its origins. The basis of city government was the "Letter of Letters to Cities" of 1785. The new "City Regulation" was adopted in 1870. Self-government of cities was built on the same principles as the Zemstvo.

Representative bodies of city self-government were city dumas, elected for four years from among the city owners - payers of city taxes. Voters were listed in order of decreasing amount of tax they pay. Then the list was divided into three equal parts, each of which elected a third of the deputies (vowels) to the City Duma. Persons who did not own property and did not pay city taxes did not participate in the elections. The city duma elected members of the city council and the mayor (executive bodies of city self-government).

Military reforms(1862 - 1874). They were held under the leadership of D. A. Milyutin, F. A. Geyden, N. A. Isakov, N. N. Obruchev, E. I. Gotleben participated in the development of military reform projects. After the defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the shameful Peace of Paris, the government was forced to take a number of measures to improve the army and increase its combat effectiveness:

1) a change in the system of leadership of the armed forces (1862 - 1864 - the formation of military districts and increased centralization in the management of the ground forces; 1865 - the creation of the General Staff as the central link in the management of the army; 1868 - the reorganization of the military ministry);

2) rearmament of the army;

3) replenishment of the officer corps with qualified personnel (expansion of the network of military educational institutions, creation of cadet schools in 1863-1866);

4) change in tactics (adoption of new military regulations);

5) the abolition of the recruiting system of manning the army (1874) and the introduction of universal military service;

6) reduction in service life (service in the ground forces and the navy consisted of active (up to 6 - 7 years) and in reserve (3 - 9 years). Family status (only son) and public (clergymen, scientists), as well as education gave benefits for exemption from military service or reduction of its term);

7) reorganization of the army (1871) with the allocation of field (active) and local (auxiliary, reserve) troops.

Reforms in the field of public education(1863 - 1864). During the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions increased significantly, incl. for children from low-income, usually peasant, families. In post-reform Russia, women's education was widely developed. Women's gymnasiums were opened, under which pedagogical courses were created. Diocesan schools were created for the daughters of clergy, preparing teachers for elementary schools. In 1878, social activists led by Professor of St. Petersburg University K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin achieved the opening in the capital of the Higher Women's Courses, equated to the university. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the guidance of Professor V. I. Guerrier. The beginning of women's medical education was laid. The reform in the educational sphere gave rise to a new type of Russian intellectual: a well-educated, critical thinker, striving for active social and practical work.

censorship reform(1865). The first draft law on censorship was worked out by a commission chaired by Prince. D. A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Public Education (A. V. Golovnina), and the second draft was drawn up by a new commission of D. A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Internal Affairs (P. A. Valuev). The law was put into effect on September 1, 1865. In two cities of the empire - St. Petersburg and Moscow - the procedure and conditions for the publication of books and the press were partially changed. Serious scientific books and expensive periodicals could be printed without prior censorship with the permission of the Minister of the Interior. If a "harmful" direction was found in them, the perpetrators (author, publisher, translator or editor) were prosecuted by the court. A system of administrative penalties was introduced - warnings from the Minister of Internal Affairs with the right to suspend a periodical for up to 6 months or its final prohibition by the highest decision.



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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Saratov State University named after N.G. Chernyshevsky

Institute of History and International Relations

on the topic: "The liberal reforms of Alexander II in 1860-1870"

Prepared by:

Khanzhov G.A.

Kochukova O.V.

Saratov 2016

Introduction

Chapter 1. Peasant reform

1.1 The need for reform

1.2 Peasant reform

1.3 Implementation of the reform

1.5 Size of allotments

1.6 Duties of temporarily liable peasants

2.1 Urban reform

2.2 City public administration

2.3 Duma elections

2.4 Zemstvo reform

Chapter 3 Judicial Reform

3.2 Preliminary work of the State Chancellery

3.3 Development and adoption of new Judicial statutes

3.4 Introduction of the Judicial Statutes

Chapter 4. Military reform

4.1 Military reform

4.2 Importance of military reform

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

By the middle of the XIX century. the lag of Russia in the economic and socio-political spheres, from the advanced capitalist countries, was clearly expressed. A number of international events revealed a significant weakening of the Russian state in the foreign policy field. This was fully denounced by the Crimean War (1853-1856), which revealed all the internal inconsistency of our fatherland, and our former way of life. And as a result, the need to carry out a complete transformation of many spheres of public life appeared.

This need for reform has become more and more tangible and urgent every day. But serfdom stood in the way of any improvement as an insurmountable obstacle. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the XIX century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time. At the same time, an equally important task was to preserve the autocracy and the dominant position of the nobility.

The reign of Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881) was marked by a number of "great reforms" that significantly advanced Russian life. Of these transformations, the most important are: the liberation of the peasants, in 1861 and the publication of the "regulations on the organization of the peasants", the granting to the subjects in 1864 of a public, right, speedy, gracious and native court for all, zemstvo and city self-government, the publication in 1874 of the charter of military service, mandatory for all classes of the state, the establishment of a number of universities, the opening of women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums, and the improvement of communications.

Chapter 1. Peasant reform

1.1 The need for reform

At the end of the Crimean War, many internal shortcomings of the Russian state were revealed. Changes were needed, and the country was looking forward to them. Then the emperor uttered the words that became for a long time the slogan of Russia: "Let her internal improvement be affirmed and improved; let truth and mercy reign in her courts; let the desire for enlightenment and all useful activity develop everywhere and with renewed vigor ..."

In the first place, of course, was the idea of ​​liberating the serfs. In his speech to representatives of the Moscow nobility, Alexander II said: "It is better to cancel it from above than to wait until it is itself canceled from below." There was no other way out, since every year the peasants expressed their dissatisfaction with the existing system more and more. The corvée form of exploitation of the peasant expanded, which caused crisis situations. First of all, the labor productivity of the serfs began to decline, as the landlords wanted to produce more products and thereby undermined the strength of the peasant economy. The most far-sighted landowners realized that forced labor was much inferior in productivity to hired labor (For example, a large landowner A.I. Koshelev wrote about this in his article “Hunting more than captivity” in 1847). But hiring workers required considerable expenses from the landowner at a time when serf labor was free. Many landowners tried to introduce new farming systems, apply the latest technology, purchase improved varieties of thoroughbred cattle, and so on. Unfortunately, such measures led them to ruin and, accordingly, to increased exploitation of the peasants. The debts of landowners' estates to credit institutions grew. Further development of the economy on the serf system was impossible. In addition, having existed in Russia much longer than in European countries, it has taken very harsh forms.

However, there is another point of view regarding this reform, according to which, by the middle of the 19th century, serfdom was still far from exhausting its capabilities and the opposition to the government was very weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia, but by retaining serfdom, it could drop out of the ranks of the great powers.

The peasant reform entailed the transformation of all aspects of state and public life. A number of measures were envisaged to restructure local government, the judiciary, education and, later, the army. These were really major changes, comparable only to the reforms of Peter I.

1.2 Peasant reform

As historians point out, in contrast to the commissions of Nicholas I, where neutral persons or experts on the agrarian question prevailed (including Kiselev, Bibikov, and others), now the preparation of the peasant question was entrusted to large feudal landowners (including the ministers Panin and Muravyov, who replaced Kiselyov and Bibikov, and A.F. Orlov, chairman of the Secret Committee on Landlord Peasants), which largely predetermined the results of the reform. At the same time, the historian L. G. Zakharova points out that among them were representatives of the “liberal bureaucracy” (N. A. Milyutin), who were guided by the moral idea of ​​eliminating serfdom.

On January 3, 1857, a new Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs was established, consisting of 11 people (the former chief of gendarmes A. F. Orlov, M. N. Muravyov, P. P. Gagarin, etc.) July 26, the Minister of Internal Affairs and a member Committee S. S. Lansky presented an official draft of the reform. It was proposed to create noble committees in each province with the right to make their own amendments to the draft. This program was legalized on November 20 in a rescript addressed to Vilna Governor-General V. I. Nazimov.

The program of the government, set out in the rescript of Emperor Alexander II of November 20, 1857 to the Vilna Governor-General V.I. Nazimov, provided for the destruction of the personal dependence of the peasants while maintaining all the land in the ownership of the landowners (patrimonial power over the peasants also, according to the document, remained with the landlords) ; providing peasants with a certain amount of land, for which they will be required to pay dues or serve corvee, and over time - the right to buy out peasant estates (a residential building and outbuildings). Legal dependence was not eliminated immediately, but only after the transition period (10 years). According to Nazimov's rescript, the provincial marshal of the nobility, one elected representative of the nobility from each county, and two experienced and authoritative landowners from the same province were to participate in the work of the provincial committees to discuss the reform, according to Nazimov's rescript. The general commission was to consist of two members of each of the provincial committees of their choice, one experienced landowner from each province appointed by the governor general, and one member of the Ministry of the Interior. The rescript was published and sent to all the governors of the country.

The nobles greeted the rescript given to Nazimov with complete incomprehension. And they were completely surprised when a circular from the Ministry of the Interior came literally with the following content: “Since the St. Petersburg nobility expressed a desire to improve the situation of the peasants, they are allowed to set up a committee, etc.” The nobility wondered why they gave such an occasion to the sovereign and the minister. The whole situation took on a completely phantasmagoric look for the Russian nobility. In fact, the prehistory of the last circular is as follows: somehow, introducing himself to the emperor, the Voronezh governor Smirin turned to S. S. Lansky for clarification of the sovereign’s words about improving the situation of serfs and for receiving some order on this subject for the Voronezh nobility. Immediately, the Ministry of Internal Affairs recalled that the St. Petersburg nobility also applied with a similar desire to find out the exact position of peasant duties in favor of landowners. However, this appeal was abandoned in the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Here they immediately remembered him, removed him from the paper blockage and compiled a rescript addressed to the St. Petersburg Governor General Count Ignatiev. The result was the distribution of such "tortured" and "cunning" state documents to the regions for the organization of committees to resolve the peasant issue. Resistance to the Secret Committee (reformed as the Main Committee) was now dangerous, and the nobility were forced to discuss reform. Since 1858 provincial committees began to open in the provinces. The first is in the Ryazan province. The last one is in Moscow, since the Moscow nobility opposed the reform most of all.

A struggle began within the committees for measures and forms of concessions between liberal and reactionary landowners. The committees were subordinate to the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs (transformed from the Secret Committee). The fear of an all-Russian peasant revolt forced the government to change the government's program of peasant reform, the drafts of which were repeatedly changed in connection with the rise or fall of the peasant movement.

The new program of the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs was approved by the tsar on April 21, 1858. The program was based on the principles of the rescript to Nazimov. The program provided for the mitigation of serfdom, but not its elimination. At the same time, peasant unrest became more frequent. The peasants, not without reason, were worried about landless liberation, arguing that "the will alone will not feed bread."

On December 4, 1858, a new peasant reform program was adopted: giving the peasants the opportunity to buy out land allotments and creating peasant public administration bodies. Unlike the previous one, this program was more radical, and numerous peasant unrest (along with pressure from the opposition) largely pushed the government to adopt it. This program was developed by Ya. I. Rostovtsev. The main provisions of the new program were as follows:

getting peasants personal freedom

Provision of peasants with plots of land (for permanent use) with the right to purchase (specially for this, the government allocates a special loan to peasants)

approval of a transitional (“urgently obligated”) state

To consider the projects of the provincial committees and develop a peasant reform, in March 1859, Editorial Commissions were created under the Main Committee (in fact, there was only one commission) chaired by Ya. I. Rostovtsev. In fact, the work of the Editorial Commissions was led by N. A. Milyutin. The project drawn up by the Editorial Commissions by August 1859 differed from that proposed by the provincial committees with an increase in land allotments and a decrease in duties.

At the end of August 1859, deputies from 21 provincial committees were called. In February of the following year, deputies from 24 provincial committees were called. The "second convocation" turned out to be even more conservative. He was determined to finally slow down the cause of the abolition of serfdom. In October 1859, Ya. I. Rostovtsev noted in his letter to the emperor that “the commissions wished with all their hearts to balance the interests of the peasants with the interests of the landlords,” but this balance “has not yet been reached.” Unable to withstand the heat of relations between the government and the nobility, Ya. I. Rostovtsev dies, an emotional man who took everything to heart. After Rostovtsev's death, V. N. Panin, a conservative and serf-owner, took over as chairman of the Editorial Commissions. The more liberal project aroused the discontent of the local nobility, and in 1860, with the active participation of Panin, allotments were somewhat reduced and duties were increased. The editorial commissions, led by Count VN Panin, completed their work in October 1860, drawing up five drafts of general and local regulations on the arrangement of peasants; the collection of all materials in general, developed, discussed and compiled by the Editorial Committees, took up 35 printed volumes. Altogether, the Drafting Commissions considered in detail 82 drafts of provincial committees. When considering the reform in the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs in October 1860, and when it was discussed in the State Council from the end of January 1861, a conservative attitude prevailed. On January 28, 1861, Emperor Alexander II delivered a speech to the State Council, in which he demanded that the State Council complete the case for the release of the peasants in the first half of February of this year, so that it would be announced before the start of field work. The emperor resolutely declared: “I repeat, and this is my indispensable will, so that this matter is now over ... Any further delay can be detrimental to the state.”

On February 19, 1861, in St. Petersburg, Emperor Alexander II signed the Manifesto "On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants" and "Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom", which consisted of 17 legislative acts. The manifesto was published in Moscow on March 5 (art.

Art.) 1861, on Forgiveness Sunday in churches after mass, in St. Petersburg, Moscow and other cities. In the Mikhailovsky Manege, the decree was read out to the people by the tsar personally. In some remote places - during March of the same year.

1.3 Implementation of the reform

The "Manifesto" and "Regulations" were promulgated from March 7 to April 10 (in St. Petersburg and Moscow - March 5). Fearing dissatisfaction of the peasants with the terms of the reform, the government took a number of precautionary measures (redeployment of troops, secondment of the imperial retinue to the places, appeal of the Synod, etc.). The peasantry, dissatisfied with the enslaving conditions of the reform, responded to it with mass unrest. The largest of them were the Bezdnensky and Kandiev uprisings.

In total, during 1861 alone, 1176 peasant uprisings were recorded, while in 6 years from 1855 to 1860. there were only 474 of them. Thus, the number of peasant uprisings in 1861 was 2.5 times higher than the previous "record" of the second half of the 1850s. According to other sources, only from January to June there were 1340 peasant uprisings, and in 718 cases of unrest were eliminated with the help of the army. The uprisings did not subside even in 1862 and were suppressed very cruelly. In the two years since the announcement of the reform, the government had to use military force in 2,115 villages. This gave many people a reason to talk about the beginning of the peasant revolution. So, M. A. Bakunin was in 1861-1862. convinced that the outbreak of peasant uprisings will inevitably lead to a peasant revolution, which, as he wrote, "essentially has already begun." “There is no doubt that the peasant revolution in Russia in the 60s was not the fruit of a frightened imagination, but a completely real possibility ...”, wrote N. A. Rozhkov, comparing its possible consequences with the Great French Revolution. As P. A. Zaionchkovsky noted, the government had fears that the troops used to suppress the uprisings of the peasants might go over to the side of the latter.

The implementation of the Peasant Reform began with the drafting of charters, which was basically completed by the middle of 1863. Charters were concluded not with each peasant individually, but with the “world” as a whole. "Mir" was a society of peasants who were owned by an individual landowner. On January 1, 1863, the peasants refused to sign about 60% of the letters. It is interesting that the nobles also paid keen attention to the conditions of the reform, when the peasant was forced to acquire land, and not receive it free of charge. So, in 1862, an address was drawn up for the monarch from the Tver nobility. In it, the nobles noted that such a state of affairs puts "society in a hopeless situation, threatening the death of the state." In this address, the Tver nobility turned to the sovereign with a request to extend the payment of taxes to the nobility, and to the peasants - the opportunity to choose "people to govern the state."

The problem is that the buyout price of the land was much higher than its market value at the time; in the non-chernozem zone, on average, 2-2.5 times (in 1854-1855 the price of all peasant lands was 544 million rubles, while the ransom was 867 million). As a result of this, in a number of districts the peasants sought to receive donation allotments, and in some provinces (Saratov, Samara, Yekaterinoslav, Voronezh, and others) a significant number of peasants-gifts appeared.

Under the influence of the Polish uprising of 1863, changes took place in the conditions of the Peasant Reform in Lithuania, Belarus and the Right-Bank Ukraine: a law of 1863 introduced compulsory redemption; redemption payments decreased by 20%; peasants, landless from 1857 to 1861, received their allotments in full, previously landless - partially.

The transition of peasants to ransom lasted for several decades. By 1881, 15% remained in temporary relations. But in a number of provinces there were still many of them (Kursk 160 thousand, 44%; Nizhny Novgorod 119 thousand, 35%; Tula 114 thousand, 31%; Kostroma 87 thousand, 31%). The transition to redemption was faster in the black-earth provinces, where voluntary transactions prevailed over mandatory redemption. Landowners who had large debts, more often than others, sought to speed up the redemption and conclude voluntary deals.

The transition from "temporarily liable" to "redemption" did not give the peasants the right to leave their plot (that is, the promised freedom), but significantly increased the burden of payments. The redemption of land under the terms of the reform of 1861 for the vast majority of peasants dragged on for 45 years and represented real bondage for them, since they were not able to pay such amounts. The size of arrears on redemption payments constantly increased. So, in 1871, there were eight provinces in which arrears exceeded 50% of the salary (of which in five they were over 100%); in 1880 there were already 14 of them (of which in 10 provinces the arrears were more than 100%, in one of them - Smolensk - 222.2%). And by 1902, the total amount of arrears in peasant redemption payments amounted to 420% of the amount of annual payments, in a number of provinces this figure already exceeded 500%. Only in 1906, after the peasants burned about 15% of the landowners' estates in the country during 1905, the redemption payments and accumulated arrears were canceled, and the "redemption" peasants finally received the freedom promised to them 45 years ago.

The abolition of serfdom also affected the appanage peasants, who, by the "Regulations of June 26, 1863", were transferred to the category of peasant proprietors by compulsory redemption on the terms of the "Regulations of February 19". On the whole, their cuts were much smaller than those of the landowning peasants. The average size of the allotment of a former specific peasant was 4.8 acres per capita. The redemption of land by appanage peasants was carried out on the same terms as serfs (that is, with a capitalization of 6% of the quitrent). Unlike the landlord peasants, who were transferred for redemption after 20 years, the specific peasants were transferred for redemption after 2 years.

The law of November 24, 1866, began the reform of the state peasants. They retained all the lands that were in their use. According to the law of June 12, 1886, the state peasants were transferred for redemption. At his own request, the peasant could either continue to pay dues to the state, or conclude a redemption deal with him. The average size of the allotment of a state peasant was 5.9 acres.

In relation to the state peasants, there were no cuts or inflated prices - as D. Blum points out, redemption payments for a tithe were on average 2-2.5 times lower than for serfs, therefore, they generally corresponded to market prices for land . However, earlier, when preparing this law, the Minister of State Property, a large landowner M. Muravyov, hatched a plan to take away part of their land from state peasants and worsen the conditions for redemption, similar to what was done with respect to serfs. Perhaps his resignation in 1862 and the refusal to worsen the terms of redemption for state peasants were associated with the beginning of the 1861-1862. "peasant revolution".

The peasant reform of 1861 led to the abolition of serfdom in the national outskirts of the Russian Empire. On October 13, 1864, a decree was issued on the abolition of serfdom in the Tiflis province, a year later it was extended with some changes to the Kutaisi province, and in 1866 to Megrelia. In Abkhazia, serfdom was abolished in 1870, in Svaneti - in 1871. The conditions of the reform here retained serfdom survivals to an even greater extent than according to the "Regulations of February 19". In Armenia and Azerbaijan, the peasant reform was carried out in 1870-1883. and was no less enslaving than in Georgia. In Bessarabia, the bulk of the peasant population was made up of legally free landless peasants - the tsarans, who, according to the "Regulations of July 14, 1868", were endowed with land for permanent use for service. The redemption of this land was carried out with some deviations on the basis of the "Regulations on the redemption" of February 19, 1861.

The peasant reform of 1861 marked the beginning of the process of rapid impoverishment of the peasants. The average peasant allotment in Russia in the period from 1860 to 1880 decreased from 4.8 to 3.5 acres (almost 30%), a lot of ruined peasants, rural proletarians who lived by odd jobs appeared - a phenomenon that practically disappeared in middle of the 19th century

1.4 Main provision of the reform

The main act - "The General Regulations on the Peasants Who Emerged from Serfdom" - contained the main conditions for the peasant reform:

· Peasants ceased to be considered serfs and began to be considered "temporarily liable"; peasants received the rights of "free rural inhabitants", that is, full civil legal capacity in everything that did not relate to their special estate rights and obligations - membership in a rural society and ownership of allotment land.

· Peasant houses, buildings, all movable property of the peasants were recognized as their personal property.

· The peasants received elective self-government, the lowest (economic) unit of self-government was the rural society, the highest (administrative) unit was the volost.

· The landowners retained ownership of all the lands they owned, but they were obliged to provide the peasants with "estate settlement" (adjacent plot) and field allotment for use by the peasants; the lands of the field allotment were not provided personally to the peasants, but for the collective use of rural communities, which could distribute them among the peasant farms at their discretion. The minimum size of a peasant allotment for each locality was established by law.

· For the use of allotment land, the peasants had to serve a corvée or pay dues and did not have the right to refuse it for 49 years.

· The size of the field allotment and duties had to be fixed in charter letters, which were drawn up by the landowners for each estate and checked by amicable mediators.

Rural communities were given the right to buy out the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the field plot, after which all obligations of the peasants to the landowner were terminated; the peasants who redeemed the allotment were called "peasant-owners". Peasants could also refuse the right to redeem and receive from the landlord free of charge an allotment in the amount of a quarter of the allotment that they had the right to redeem; when endowing a free allotment, the temporarily obligated state also ceased.

· The state, on preferential terms, provided the landlords with financial guarantees for receiving redemption payments (purchase transaction), accepting their payment; peasants, respectively, had to pay redemption payments to the state.

1.5 Allotment size

According to the reform, the maximum and minimum sizes of peasant allotments were established. Allotments could be reduced by special agreements between peasants and landlords, as well as upon receipt of a donation. If the peasants had smaller allotments in use, the landowner was obliged either to cut the missing land from the minimum size (the so-called "cuts"), or to reduce duties. Pruning took place only if the landowner was left with at least a third (in the steppe zones - half) of the land. For the highest shower allotment, a quitrent was set from 8 to 12 rubles. per year or corvee - 40 men's and 30 women's working days per year. If the allotment was larger than the highest, then the landowner cut off the “extra” land in his favor. If the allotment was less than the highest, then the duties decreased, but not proportionally.

As a result, the average size of the peasant allotment of the post-reform period was 3.3 acres per capita, which was less than before the reform. In the black earth provinces, the landowners cut off a fifth of their land from the peasants. The peasants of the Volga region suffered the greatest losses. In addition to cuts, other instruments of infringement of the rights of peasants were resettlement to barren lands, deprivation of pastures, forests, reservoirs, paddocks and other lands necessary for every peasant. Difficulties for the peasants were also represented by the striped land, forcing the peasants to rent land from the landowners, which went like wedges into the peasant allotments.

1.6 Duties of temporarily liable peasants

The peasants were in a temporarily obligated state until the conclusion of a redemption deal. At first, the period of this state was not indicated. On December 28, 1881, by the Decree of Alexander III “On the redemption of allotments by peasants in the provinces still in obligatory relations with the landlords, consisting of Great Russian and Little Russian local positions on February 19, 1861”, he was finally established. According to the decree, all temporarily liable peasants were transferred for redemption from January 1, 1883. A similar situation took place only in the central regions of the empire. On the outskirts, the temporarily obligated condition of the peasants remained until 1912-1913.

Under a temporarily obligated state, the peasants had to pay dues for the use of land or work on corvée. The amount of quitrent for a full allotment was 8-12 rubles a year. The profitability of the allotment and the size of the quitrent were in no way connected. The highest dues (12 rubles a year) were paid by the peasants of the St. Petersburg province, whose lands were extremely infertile. On the contrary, in the chernozem provinces the amount of dues was much lower.

Another vice of quitrent was its gradation, when the first tithe of land was valued more than the rest. For example, in non-chernozem lands, with a full allotment of 4 acres and a quitrent of 10 rubles, the peasant paid 5 rubles for the first tithe, which was 50% of the quitrent (for the last two acres, the peasant paid 12.5% ​​of the total quitrent). This forced the peasants to buy land, and gave the landowners the opportunity to profitably sell infertile land.

All men aged 18 to 55 and all women aged 17 to 50 were required to serve corvee. Unlike the former corvée, the post-reform corvee was more limited and streamlined. For a full allotment, a peasant was supposed to work on corvée no more than 40 men's and 30 women's days.

Chapter 2

2.1 Urban reform

In 1862, work began on the preparation of the reform. 509 commissions were set up in provincial and district cities to develop proposals. But the innovation proposed by many on the issuance of voting rights to all estates did not suit the government, in many respects this hampered the reform.

Based on a summary of the materials developed by the commissions, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, under the leadership of Pyotr Alexandrovich Valuev, compiled the “City Regulations” in 1864. The regulation was sent to the State Council, where it lay for another two years. When there was no other choice, Alexander II had to accept the principle of "all-estate", and on June 16, 1870, the amended law was adopted. It marked the beginning of the second reform of local self-government.

2.2 City public administration

Article 2 of the “City Regulations” introduced city public administrations, which were in charge of economic issues: the external improvement of the city, food supply, fire safety, the construction of marinas, stock exchanges and credit institutions, etc.

Article 15 proclaimed that the institutions of city self-government meant the city electoral assembly, the duma and the city government.

The main function of the electoral assembly was the election of vowels to the city duma every 4 years.

The Duma was elected for 4 years, and according to Article 35, anyone who has voting rights could become a member, with the exception - the number of non-Christians should not exceed 1/3 of the total number of vowels. The city head headed the Duma (he could not be a Jew).

The main functions of the Duma were “appointment of elected officials and the affairs of the social organization”, “appointment of maintenance to officials of the city public administration and determination of the amount thereof”, “establishment, increase and reduction of city fees and taxes” and others. The costs of maintaining the Duma were in the department of the governor. Duma sessions could be scheduled "at the discretion of the mayor", at the request of the governor or at the request of at least one fifth of the number of vowels.

The city government was elected by the city duma for 4 years, its functions were:

"Direct management of the affairs of the city economy and public administration"

Gathering the necessary information for the thought

· Preparation of city budgets

Collection and consumption of city fees, a report before the thought of their activities

2.3 Duma elections

In 509 cities of Russia, dumas were introduced - non-estate bodies of city self-government. They were elected every 4 years by taxpayers who had a certain property qualification. According to the size of the tax paid, the voters were divided into three electoral assemblies. The electoral requirements were as follows:

He had to be a subject of the Russian Empire

Be over 25 years of age

・Property ownership

No tax arrears

The voter must not be tried, removed from office or under investigation. According to article 24 of the "City Regulations", a list of voters was compiled, sorted by taxes paid for the year. The first electoral group (assembly, category) included those who paid one-third of the total tax collection, the second - those who also paid a third, and the third - all other voters. The compiled list by category was sent for approval by the City Council. The city head was elected by the governor (in large cities - by the minister of internal affairs) from among the vowels. The voting was secret.

The reform of 1870 served as an impetus for the commercial and industrial development of cities, it consolidated the system of urban public administration. One of the results of the reforms of Alexander II was the inclusion of society in civilian life. The foundation was laid for a new Russian political culture.

But after the reform of urban self-government, the provincial cities faced a new problem - according to the law, part of the income was directed to the maintenance of government agencies, the police and other state structures. Because of this, they experienced some difficulties in solving urban problems.

2.4 Zemstvo reform

The Zemstvo reform project was developed since 1859 by a commission under the Ministry of Internal Affairs (chairman N. A. Milyutin, since 1861 - P. A. Valuev). The reformers sought to replace the system of bureaucratic management in regional institutions, in which regional life was governed by directives from the center, which led to erroneous and belated decisions. The main argument in support of the reform was the belief that only the permanent residents of the region knew the local conditions well, and the officials sent were exactly implementing the program received in the center, without taking into account local specifics. The "Regulations" of 1864 reflected the various interests of noble groups.

In the course of the reform, provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils were created - both of them were elected, on the basis of no estates. Voters were divided into 3 curia: county landowners, city voters and elected from rural societies. Owners of at least 200 acres of land, owners of industrial, commercial enterprises or other real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles enjoyed the right to participate in the elections for the 1st curia. or generating income of at least 6 thousand rubles. per year, as well as authorized from landowners, societies and institutions that owned at least 1/20 of the qualification of the 1st curia. The voters of the city curia were persons who had merchant certificates, owners of enterprises or trade establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6 thousand rubles, as well as owners of immovable property in the amount of 500 rubles or more. (in small towns) up to 3 thousand rubles. (in major cities). Elections in the peasant curia were multistage: rural societies elected representatives to volost meetings, those elected electors, and the latter elected representatives to the county zemstvo assembly.

Provincial and district zemstvo councils consisted of 6 people appointed by zemstvo assemblies. Meetings were convened once a year, but in emergency situations they could meet more often. Councils worked on a permanent basis. The meetings gave orders and controlled their implementation, and the councils were actually involved in the implementation of decisions. Zemstvo assemblies can be compared with local parliaments, and councils with governments. Leaders of the nobility were chairmen of provincial and district congresses.

Zemstvo assemblies and councils were deprived of the right as institutions to communicate with each other, they did not have coercive power, since the police did not obey them; their activities were controlled by the governor and the minister of internal affairs, who had the right to suspend the execution of any decision of the zemstvo assembly.

Zemstvo assemblies and councils were in charge of local economic affairs: the maintenance of communication lines; construction and maintenance of schools and hospitals; hiring doctors and paramedics; the organization of courses for the education of the population and the organization of the sanitary unit in cities and villages; "care" for the development of local trade and industry, the provision of national food (arrangement of grain warehouses, seed depots); concern for cattle breeding and poultry farming; levying taxes for local needs, etc. peasant reform judicial charter

Zemstvo reform was not carried out everywhere and not simultaneously. By the end of the 1870s, zemstvos were introduced in 34 provinces of European Russia, in Bessarabia and in the region of the Don Army (where they were liquidated in 1882). Later, zemstvo bodies appeared on the outskirts: in the Stavropol, Astrakhan, and Orenburg provinces. Many national and other regions of the Russian Empire did not have zemstvos. The law on zemstvos in the western provinces was adopted only in 1911.

Zemstvo reform contributed to the development of local initiative, economy and culture. During the period of counter-reforms, many achievements of the Zemstvo reform were curtailed by the Zemstvo Regulations of 1890.

Chapter 3 Judicial Reform

3.1 Preparation and implementation of judicial reform

The activities of Count D. N. Bludova.

A major dignitary, Count D. N. Bludov, has been taking initiatives related to improvements in the judicial system since the mid-1840s. In 1844, he submitted to Nicholas I a detailed note proposing significant changes in the judicial procedures. Nicholas I, although he repeatedly expressed dissatisfaction with the work of the courts, was not disposed to reform. The legislative work of Count Bludov in his reign was sluggish and was inconclusive. After the accession of Alexander II, in 1858, Bludov, at that time the head of the II branch of the Own E.I.V. office, submitted his note again and met with support from the emperor. Division II was instructed to develop and submit proposals to the State Council for the improvement of the judicial system. In 1857-1860, 14 bills were submitted for consideration to the State Council, devoted to the judiciary, the organization of the bar, the improvement of the criminal and civil process; many of them were the development of ideas 10-20 years ago.

Count Bludov's proposals turned out to be an intermediate stage between the old legislation and the new Judicial Statutes adopted in 1864. On the one hand, the proposals provided for the transparent and partially oral nature of legal proceedings, a broad right to legal protection, and the creation of a professional advocacy. But the trial itself did not provide for adversarial litigation - the parties could only once declare their disagreement with the report considered by the court; verification of the preliminary investigation in the criminal court was not provided. The existing judiciary was largely preserved; it was proposed to continue to choose most of the judges of the provincial and district level according to the nobility, but with the introduction of an educational or professional qualification. The class court of magistrates and town halls was abolished. A jury trial was not provided. The zemsky court (police institution), which dealt with petty offenses, was proposed to be replaced by an independent world court elected from the population. In formally public proceedings, the parties were still required to submit all explanations in writing, and the formal gradation of evidence, permeated with distrust of the judges, was preserved. A significant drawback of Bludov's proposals was their fragmentation and lack of complexity. This was explained by the history of bills: initially, Count Bludov believed that it was enough to improve the legislation with some private amendments; in the course of his work, he became more and more convinced of the need for a complete replacement of the judicial procedure and principles of legal proceedings. However, the legislative works, which began as a collection of incoherent laws, did not become a single whole. By the time the bills were submitted to the State Council, Bludov was already old (he was born in 1785) and was not sure that he could complete his work. By the beginning of 1861, the plans for judicial reform in the form in which they were formed under the leadership of D.N. Bludov did not enjoy wide support in the State Council, the Minister of Justice, Count V.N. Panin, was opposed to any changes; the future of the bills seemed uncertain.

One of the reforms designed by Bludov managed to be put into practice. In July 1860, the investigation was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the police and a special institution of judicial investigators was created, subordinate to the chambers of the criminal court.

3 .2 Preliminary work of the State Chancellery

Consideration of bills in the State Council (in the United Departments of Laws and Civil) led to an unexpected result: the State Council suggested that it was not advisable to consider the bills further and act by amending and amending them, but instead to create a unified concept of the proposed judicial reform, discuss and approve it, and then develop the Judicial statutes anew. In October 1861, Alexander II asked the State Council for a report on the progress of judicial reform; an extensive note of opinion from the Departments, drafted by I.d. Secretary of State S. I. Zarudny, was soon reported to the Emperor by State Secretary V. P. Butkov. Alexander II fully agreed with the opinion of the State Council, and on October 23, 1861, by the Highest Command, the United Departments were ordered to draw up “a general note about everything that can be recognized as related to the main, basic principles of assumptions for the organization of the judicial part in the Empire » , with the direct assignment of this work to the ranks of the State Chancellery. This was a turning point in the history of judicial reform. -- Bludov's projects were, in fact, discarded, and the case was transferred to the hands of a reformist group of statesmen

The State Chancellery formed a group responsible for drafting the concept, including I.D. Secretaries of State S. I. Zarudny and N. I. Stoyanovskiy, Assistant Secretaries of State P. N. Danevsky and D. P. Shubin, Chief Prosecutor of the Senate N. A. Butskovsky, Assistant Chief Prosecutor of the Senate K. P. Pobedonostsev, Moscow provincial prosecutor D. A. Rovinsky, officials of the State Chancellery A. P. Vilinbakhov and A. M. Plavsky. Bludov continued to formally be considered the head of the work, but in reality he lost all influence. The choice of employees was successful. The officials involved in the work were relatively young, energetic, well-educated people who were interested in the assigned work and had a reformist attitude. The leader, the "soul of the case", was S.I. Zarudny, whom the participants in the events recognized as the person who made the greatest contribution to the creation of new Judicial Charters. Zarudny, who knew four foreign languages, was a good connoisseur of modern European legislation.

The State Chancellery worked quickly, and in January-March 1862, "Considerations" were drawn up, an extensive preliminary draft of judicial reform, which includes questions of the judiciary, civil and criminal justice. On April 9, 1862, Alexander II ordered that the "Considerations" be submitted for consideration to the United Departments of Laws and the Civil Council of State. The United Departments, after devoting 16 meetings to the case, issued a huge decision (the decision log consists of 370 pages), representing, in general, the approval and further development of the proposed reform. Conservative members of the State Council, who spoke with numerous objections (Count V. N. Panin, A. S. Norov, Prince Peter of Oldenburg), invariably found themselves in the minority. The decision of the United Departments was then considered in 3 sessions by the General Assembly of the State Council and presented to Alexander II. On September 4, 1862, the emperor ordered the development of new Judicial Statutes to begin, setting a deadline for completion of work on January 15, 1863; On September 29, the emperor approved the "Basic provisions for the transformation of the judiciary in Russia" (abbreviated draft) and ordered the publication of this document. In October 1862, D.N. Zamyatnin, an active supporter of judicial reform, was appointed Minister of Justice, through whose efforts some humanization of substantive law was started: in April 1863, the most cruel types of corporal punishment were abolished.

3 .3 Development and adoption of new Judicial Statutes

The State Council formed a commission to develop new Judicial Statutes, which included all the persons who had previously worked on draft laws. State Secretary V.P. Butkov presided over the commission, and in his absence - A.M. Plavsky. The commission was divided into three departments, the department of judiciary was headed by A. M. Plavsky, the department of criminal proceedings - N. A. Butskovsky, the department of civil justice - S. I. Zarudny. In total, the commission included 34 persons. The development of legislation on legal proceedings in the magistrates' courts was carried out by the II Department of the Own E.I.V. office.

In December 1864, the commission completed its work and submitted bills to the United Departments. The new Judicial Statutes consisted of four basic laws: the Establishment of Judicial Places, the Statute of Criminal Procedure, the Statute of Civil Procedure, the Statute on the Punishments Imposed by Justices of the Peace, and were accompanied by a number of technical regulations defining the staffs of judicial institutions and transitional provisions in the process of their introduction. In March-July 1864, the bills were considered by the United Departments, which approved them practically without disagreement, and in September-October - by the General Meeting of the State Council. On November 20, 1864, Alexander II approved the new Judicial Charters. The imperial decree declared to the Senate: “Having considered these projects, we find that they are fully consistent with Our desire to approve in Russia a court that is fast, just, merciful and equal for all Our subjects, to elevate the judiciary, give it proper independence and generally approve it among Our people. that respect for the law, without which public welfare is impossible.

3 .4 Introduction of Judicial Statutes

When adopting the Judicial Statutes, the State Council spoke in favor of extending them to the entire empire within 4 years. In reality, the process dragged on for more than 25 years, and when the Charters were introduced in many localities, significant deviations from their original ideas were made.

The first new courts were opened in 1866 in St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow, Vladimir, Kaluga, Ryazan, Tver, Tula and Yaroslavl provinces. The opening of the first courts in the capitals in April 1866 was accompanied by a solemn ceremony with the participation of the Minister of Justice D. N. Zamyatnin, numerous guests of honor and foreign diplomats. In 1868, the new judicial system was fully extended to the Kharkov, Kursk, Orel and Voronezh provinces, to the Transcaucasian region (Stavropol, Tiflis, Baku, Kutaisi, Erivan, Elisavetpol provinces), and in 1869 to Bessarabian, Yekaterinoslav, Nizhny Novgorod , Poltava, Taurida and Kherson provinces In 1870-1871, new courts were introduced in full in Kazan, Simbirsk, Samara, Saratov, Penza, Tambov, Smolensk and Kostroma provinces, in the Don Army Region. In 1871, judicial institutions were introduced in the Perm province and in part of the Vologda province. In 1873, new judicial institutions were introduced in Chernigov and Vyatka provinces, and in 1876 - in all 10 Privislenskie provinces (Kingdom of Poland). In 1878, new judicial institutions were supposed to be introduced in 9 provinces of the Western Territory, but the process was stopped due to the Russian-Turkish war; in 1880, the reform was carried out only in the Kiev, Podolsk and Volyn provinces. In 1879, the new Judicial Statutes, also with exceptions, were extended to the Batumi and Kars regions. Thus, in the first 14 years, the new Judicial Statutes were extended, in part or in full, to 54 provinces and regions.

In 1883, new judicial institutions were introduced in the North-Western Territory (Vilna, Kovno, Grodno, Minsk, Mogilev and Vitebsk provinces), after which the process of introducing a new court was suspended, and resumed only after 7 years. In 1890, new judicial institutions, with significant changes, were introduced in the Baltic provinces (Livland, Courland and Estland provinces). In 1894, the Judicial Charters were introduced in full in the Olonetsk, Orenburg, Ufa and Astrakhan provinces. Thus, in the reign of Alexander III, the Judicial Charters were extended to another 13 provinces.

In 1896, new courts were opened in the Arkhangelsk province, and in 1897 (with significant changes) - in Siberia (Irkutsk, Yenisei, Tobolsk and Tomsk provinces, Transbaikal, Yakutsk, Amur, Kamchatka, Primorsky and Sakhalin regions). In 1899, also with significant deviations, the Judicial Charters were introduced in Central Asia and in the northern part of the Vologda province, which completely completed the process of distribution of the Judicial Charters of 1864.

When opening new courts, the Ministry of Justice had to solve a difficult personnel problem: people with a legal education, judicial experience and an impeccable reputation had to be appointed to the reformed courts. The first post-reform ministers of justice, D.N. Zamyatnin and Count K.N. In general, in the first decade, the new judicial system was staffed with the best personnel transferred from the provinces with the old courts, and then lawyers with sufficient experience, who grew out of candidates for judicial positions, began to appear already inside the new courts. The personnel policy of the ministry turned out to be extremely successful, the new judiciary from the first day was distinguished by competence, dedication and honesty.

Simultaneously with the beginning of the gradual opening of new courts, limited reforms were carried out in the remaining old courts, which were similar to the previous proposals of D.N. Bludov. In October 1865, the Provisional Rules were adopted, which abolished clerical secrecy, gave the defendants the right to be present at the presentation of their cases to the courts and submit objections, deprived the governors of the right to cancel court decisions, reduced procedural terms, canceled part of the procedures for transferring cases to higher instances. The temporary and incomplete reform proved effective, and the speed of cases passing through the old judicial institutions increased markedly.

Chapter 4. Military reform

4.1 Military reform

The lessons of the Crimean War, which revealed the military-technical backwardness of the Russian army, showed that the military machine of serf-owning Russia was clearly unable to withstand the advanced armies of the Western European states. A radical restructuring of the entire military system was necessary.

In 1861, 45-year-old General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin, brother of N.A., was appointed to the post of Minister of War. Milyutin, a highly educated and military and statesman, known for his liberal views. The personnel choice of Alexander II turned out to be spoiled.

Dmitry Alekseevich rose to the rank of professor at the Academy of the General Staff. He wrote a number of major works on military history, among them Suvorov's Italian Campaign. In the late 50s, he was appointed head of the Caucasian army, participated in the development of the operation to capture Shamil, which served to end hostilities in this region. Having excellent theoretical training, the necessary combat experience and skills, and also possessing outstanding personal talents, D.A. Milyutin, like no one else, was up to the task: to reorganize the military force of Russia.

...

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Reforms of Alexander II - liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century in the Russian Empire, carried out "from above" on the initiative of Emperor Alexander II in an acute internal crisis, affecting all aspects of public life.

Land reform. The peasant reform also entailed the transformation of all aspects of public and state life. 1864 became the year of birth of zemstvos - local self-government bodies. The lower link was the county zemstvo, which was elected by representatives of all estates. The county zemstvos, in turn, sent deputies to the provincial zemstvo assembly. Zemstvo deputies were called vowels. These meetings were headed by the leaders of the noble assemblies - self-governing bodies of the nobility. Zemstvo councils, which were formed by zemstvo assemblies, became the local executive bodies. The scope of competence of the zemstvos, though limited, was wide enough: they had the right to collect taxes for local needs and hire employees, they were in charge of economic issues, schools, medical institutions, as well as charity issues.
The Zemstvo reform project was developed by a commission headed first by N. A. Milyutin and then by P. A. Valuev. The electoral, property and estate principles were put in the basis of the electoral system. The electoral system ensured a significant predominance of the landowners in the zemstvos. The activities of zemstvo assemblies and councils were controlled only by the governor and the minister of internal affairs, who had the right to suspend the execution of any decision of the zemstvo assembly. Zemstvo institutions were only in charge of local economic affairs: the maintenance of communication lines, the construction and maintenance of schools and hospitals, "care" for the development of local trade and industry, and so on.
Zemstvo reform was carried out gradually. Despite its limitations, it contributed to the development of local initiative, bourgeois economy, bourgeois culture and was a step towards the transformation of the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one.

City reform of 1870. This reform was aimed at raising the economy of the cities and attracting the big financial and commercial bourgeoisie to their management. The reform replaced the former class dumas with all-class city institutions of local self-government. City councils became administrative bodies, and city councils elected by the city councils became executive bodies. Members of city dumas were elected for four years and were called "vowels". The right to vote in city councils was enjoyed only by persons who had reached the age of 25 and owned real estate, owners of industrial and commercial enterprises, and merchants. The competence of the city government was the external improvement of the city, trade, industry, health care, education.

MILITARY REFORM. The army has traditionally played an important role in the social and political life of Russia. The defeat in the Crimean campaign exposed many of the weaknesses of the Russian army, its technical and tactical backwardness. The European powers were rapidly increasing their military potential, which, in the conditions of the emerging military-political alliances, could not but pose a threat to Russia's security. The military reforms of the 1860s and 1870s are understood as the transformation of the Russian armed forces under the leadership of Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. Russia was divided into fifteen military districts. Military educational institutions and the military field court were modified (a new military judicial charter was adopted). Corporal punishment was abolished in the army. The reform introduced a lot of new things into the training of officers: cadet schools were created to train junior officers, military academies for middle and high command personnel.

From 1874, instead of recruitment sets, universal military service was introduced. The army introduced a system of benefits depending on education, which in turn was supposed to stimulate him. One of the goals of the military reform was the creation of a trained reserve - the reserve, as well as the formation of a military district management system, the rearmament of the army with rifled small arms and artillery, etc.

JUDICIAL REFORM. The most radical and consistent was the judicial reform, among the authors of which were progressive lawyers - S.I. Zarudny, D.A. Rovinsky, N.A. Butskovsky. It was carried out on the basis of judicial charters adopted on November 20, 1864. They reflected a number of bourgeois principles of the judiciary and legal proceedings: the separation of the court from the administration, the irremovability of judges and investigators, the creation of a jury, the establishment of the bar, the proclamation of publicity and competitiveness of the process, the election of some judicial bodies. Chairmen and members of district courts and judicial investigators were required to have higher legal education. The chairmen and members of district courts and judicial chambers were approved by the emperor, and justices of the peace - by the Senate. At the same time, the judicial reform retained a number of elements of the former estate court: the participation of estate representatives in the process, special jurisdiction over the cases of senior officials, the preservation of peasant, "foreign" and spiritual courts, etc.

The judicial reform was of progressive importance, since the new system replaced a very fragmented system of courts (courts by class, by type of case, with multiple instances, behind closed doors, etc.). This reform was subjected to a radical revision (counter-reforms of the 1870s) earlier than other reforms of the 60s.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s. The 19th century, called "great", brought the socio-political structure of Russia in line with the needs of the second half of the 19th century, mobilized all representatives of society to solve national problems. The first step was taken towards the formation of the rule of law and civil society. Russia has entered a new, capitalist path of its development.