Examples of violations of the norms of the literary language. Violation of the norms of the modern Russian literary language

Lecture 3. Norms of the modern Russian literary language and speech errors

1. Lexical and phraseological norms, types of their violation.

2. Morphological norms and morphological speech errors.

3. Syntactic norms and their deviations from them.

4. The concept of literary editing

Lexical norms regulate the rules for the use of words, ᴛ.ᴇ. the accuracy of the choice of the word in accordance with the meaning of the statement and the appropriateness of its use in the social meaning and generally accepted combinations. When determining lexical norms, one should take into account changes in the vocabulary of the language: the polysemy of the word, the phenomena of synonymy, antonymy, stylistic consideration of vocabulary, the concept of active and passive vocabulary, the social sphere of the use of vocabulary, the extreme importance of a justified choice of a word in a particular speech situation, and many other.

Changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language occur in parallel with changes in the life of society; to designate new phenomena in social life, a new word must either be created using the word-formation means existing in the language, or a foreign word should be borrowed, or a complex, compound name should be formed, or, finally, a word that already exists in the language is adapted, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ in this case, in a certain way, modifies its meaning (and often at the same time its stylistic coloring).

Polysemy refers to the presence of several (two or more) meanings in a word. The consequences of a careless attitude to polysemantic words are the ambiguity and ambiguity of the expression, as well as the unlawful, excessive expansion of the meanings of known words.

Homonymy should be distinguished from ambiguity. Homonyms - ϶ᴛᴏ words that sound the same, are identical in form, but whose meanings are in no way related to each other, ᴛ.ᴇ. do not contain any common elements of meaning.

Synonymy is the opposite of polysemy and homonymy. With synonymy, a different form expresses the same (or similar content). Synonyms- ϶ᴛᴏ words that sound differently, but are the same or very close in meaning. Synonyms are conceptual (close, not quite identical in meaning) and stylistic (identical in meaning, but having a different stylistic coloring). The presence of synonyms ensures the expressiveness of speech and at the same time obliges all speakers and writers to be careful about choosing a word from a number of close, similar ones.

Antonyms are ϶ᴛᴏ words with the opposite meaning. Οʜᴎ has long been used as a technique to create contrasting patterns, to sharply contrast signs, phenomena, etc.

A number of words are provided in explanatory dictionaries with the marks “high”, “bookish”, on the one hand, and “colloquial”, “colloquial” - on the other. These marks indicate the stylistic stratification of vocabulary. The main part of the vocabulary fund is the so-called. “neutral” vocabulary, against which the expressive possibilities of stylistically colored words appear, the use of which in speech requires a developed linguistic instinct and aesthetic taste.

Some words (or meanings of words) are perceived as obsolete (archaisms and historicisms), but their relation to passive and active vocabulary remains unchanged: individual obsolete words “return” to the active fund of the dictionary, sometimes acquiring new meanings, cf.
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thought, governor, banker, goalkeeper.

From the point of view of the social sphere of use, all the words of the Russian language can be divided into the vocabulary of an unlimited sphere of use and the vocabulary of a limited sphere of use, which includes professionalisms, dialectisms, terms. Words of limited use may eventually enter the lexical composition of the literary language. At the same time, regional words lose their dialect coloring (cf.: outskirts, plow, stubble), and the terms are determinologized (for example: social reaction, environment, atmosphere). Closely related to the problem of stylistic and social stratification of vocabulary is the question of the use of foreign words in modern Russian speech. Focusing on the United States as a political, economic, scientific and technical center determines the prestige of the English language, contributes to the penetration into our speech of a whole stream of borrowings - Americanisms. In some cases, there is an unjustified duplication of Russian words by foreign vocabulary. For example:

1. Many are now experiencing ʼʼfuture shockʼʼ(ʼʼfuture shockʼʼ).

2. Electorate gathered in long queues for ballots by twelve o'clock.

3. The deadline for the implementation of the law must be prolonged.

Words should be used strictly according to their meaning.

Lexical meaning - ϶ᴛᴏ display in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object ͵ quality, relationship, action, state). With a clear, precise presentation of thought, the words we use fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning. The use of words without taking into account their meaning leads to a speech error - inaccuracy of word usage. For example:

1. ʼʼThere were mostly people in the hall fair ageʼʼ.

2. ʼʼThis fight is under thesis protection of human rightsʼʼ.

3. ʼʼThousands of Leningraders gathered at the microphonesʼʼ.

for the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning, it is extremely important to take into account the peculiarities of lexical compatibility, ᴛ.ᴇ. the ability of words to connect with each other.

Violation of lexical compatibility is a common lexical error. For example:

1. In Moscow schools a new tradition was born.

3. In deep childhood he looked like his mother.

The semantic accuracy of speech must be impaired as a result of speech insufficiency(excessive laconism) - missing the necessary words. For example:

1. Oil Paintings placed in frames.

2. Due to the cold in the x-ray room We only make emergency cuts.

3. Persons you are interested in we will send by mail.

The inability to find the exact words for naming certain concepts leads to speech redundancy- verbosity. For example:

1. They were shocked by the sight of the fire, which they were witnesses.

2. He could not stay away from family conflicts as husband of a woman and father of children.

3. The dead corpse lay motionless and showed no signs of life.

Speech redundancy can take the form pleonasm(from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore unnecessary words ( main essence, valuable treasures, dark darkness). Pleonasm is a type tautology(from the Greek tauto - the same thing, logos - a word - a repetition of words with the same root (to tell a story, ask a question, resume again).

The word serves to name and designate an object in a variety of situations and relationships. It can have several meanings, which are revealed when the word is used, in context. There are direct, figurative and substitutive words. A figurative (or metaphorical) meaning is associated with the transfer of the properties of one object to another on the basis of a feature common or similar to comparable objects. For example, the word ʼʼtalkʼʼ should be used to characterize the noise of waves, and the word ʼʼbronzeʼʼ should be used to characterize body colors. The replacing (metonymic) meaning of a word arises when one word is replaced by another on the basis of the connection of their meanings by adjacency. For example, ʼʼthe audience got upʼʼ - instead of ʼʼstudents got upʼʼ, ʼʼthe neighbor is on fireʼʼ - instead of ʼʼthe neighbor's house is onʼʼ.

In the event that the ambiguity of the word is not taken into account, there is ambiguity or inappropriate semantic associations:

1. Our chess player lagged behind her opponent in development.

2. People saw in him good leader.

3. The plane flies much faster than the train.

Similar in appearance to polysemy homonymy(from the Greek homos - the same, onima - name), ᴛ.ᴇ. coincidence in sound and spelling of words with different meanings. Mistakes in the use of homonyms are extremely widespread in speech. For example:

1. Now judges endure glasses.

2. Growth of young figure skaters is stimulated with the help of demonstration dances.

3. You see on the screen Gavrilov in a beautiful combinations.

Phraseological norms - ϶ᴛᴏ rules for the use of phraseological units, non-free word combinations that are not produced in speech, but are reproduced in it. Phraseologisms are distinguished by a stable ratio of semantic content, lexical composition and grammatical structure, in connection with this, any changes in the composition and structure of these expressions lead to speech errors.

There are the following main types of phraseological speech errors:

1. Stylistically unjustified change in the composition of a phraseological unit: with all her long legs she rushed to run.

2. Unjustified reduction in the composition of a phraseological unit: this is an aggravating circumstance(instead of aggravating circumstance).

3. Distortion of the lexical and grammatical composition of a phraseological unit: he entered himself (instead of leaving ); he thought that these words would come true in his fate to the full extent (instead of to the full extent).

4. Distortion of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit: Oblomov was a sign of the times (instead of a sign of the times).

The grammatical norms of the Russian literary language include morphological and syntactic . Morphological norms- ϶ᴛᴏ rules for the use of forms of different parts of speech (gender forms, number of a noun, degree of comparison of an adjective, verb forms, etc.). Syntactic norms- ϶ᴛᴏ rules for using phrases and sentences. Violations of the grammatical norms of the Russian literary language are gross speech errors.

Morphological norms are numerous and relate to the use of forms of different parts of speech. These norms are reflected in grammars and reference books. Let's take a look at some of the rules.

1. Nouns with a stem in a soft consonant and a zero ending can be both masculine and feminine. Some semantic groups can be distinguished among them. Thus, the names of animals, birds, fish, insects are usually masculine, with the exception of the words: bittern, moth, owl, mouse. Among real and specific nouns there are words of masculine and feminine gender, which is determined only by the traditions of use, in this regard, in cases of doubt, one should refer to dictionaries. Morphological norms are numerous and relate to the use of forms of different parts of speech. These norms are reflected in grammars and reference books. Let's take a look at some of the rules.

2. Nouns with subjective assessment suffixes (-yshk-, -ishk-, -ushk-, -ish-) retain the gender of the word to which the suffixes are attached: house - big house, barn - old shed, sparrow - young sparrow, perch - a small perch, a strong voice, an absurd letter.

3. The gender of indeclinable nouns is associated with the meaning of the word. Inanimate nouns are usually neuter: aloe, coat, taxi, cocoa, piano, potpourri, popsicle, jersey, jelly, jury, landau, muffin, kimono, mashed potatoes, stew, radio, etc. At the same time, some deviations from the norm are registered in the modern literary language, for example: avenue - for women. genus, and also less often cf.
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genus; bolero (Spanish national dance) - male. and cf.
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genus; whiskey (vodka) cf.
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and wives. genus; kohlrabi (cabbage) - for women. genus; mango (fruit of a tropical tree) - husband. and cf.
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genus; sirocco (hot wind in Africa) - husband. genus; penalty - husband. and cf.
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genus; salami (sausage variety) - for women. genus; Urdu, Hindi (languages) male. clan, coffee - husband. genus; in times. speech - cf.
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clan and a few others.

The names of persons are masculine or feminine based on the gender of the designated person, for example:

Some words belong to the common gender, as they can denote males and females: vis-a-vis, incognito, protégé, Sami (nationality), Somali (nationality).

The names of animals, in accordance with the literary norm, are masculine, for example: dingo, jaco, zebu, hummingbird, cockatoo, kangaroo, marabou, pony, chimpanzee. The exception is the words: ivasi (fish) - female. genus; tsetse (fly) - female. genus.

The names of animals in a sentence can be used as feminine words, if the text refers to a female animal: the kangaroo was feeding the cub.

4. For alphabetic abbreviations (complex abbreviated words read by the names of the letters), the gender is associated with their morphological form. If the abbreviation is inclined, then its gender is determined by the ending: university - husband. gender, since in the nominative case it has a zero ending (cf .: in a university, university, etc.); tsum - husband. clan (in tsume, tsumom). If the abbreviation is not declined, then usually its gender is determined by the gender of the core word from which the abbreviation is formed: Central Committee - Central Committee - husband. kind, VDNKh - exhibition - for women. genus. At the same time, this kind of abbreviations often deviates from this rule, especially in cases where abbreviations become familiar and break away from the core word. For example, NEP is a husband. gender, although the core word is feminine (politics); MFA - husband. gender, although the core word of the middle gender (ministry); VAK - husband. gender, although the commission is feminine.

5. A large number of masculine words in Russian denote both males and females. Such nouns designate persons by profession, occupation, name positions and titles, for example: hero, associate professor, professor, lawyer, economist, accountant, lawyer, prosecutor, etc. Over the past decades, constructions such as director have become widespread in literary use. came with the designation of females. Moreover, if the predicate in the designation of females is put in the feminine gender, then definitions for them are used only in the masculine form: the young prosecutor Ivanova, an experienced economist Petrova made a report.

6. In the instrumental case of the singular, for feminine nouns, in accordance with the literary norm, variant endings -oy, -oy, (-ey, -ey), which differ only stylistically: endings -oy (-ey) are characteristic of the book, official or poetic speech, and the endings - oy (-ey) have a neutral character, ᴛ.ᴇ. are used in any style: water - water, country - country.

7. For masculine nouns that name substances, in the genitive case of the singular, variant endings -a and -y are possible: snow - snow, sugar - sugar, forms with these endings differ either in meaning or stylistically. The difference in meaning lies in the fact that the forms ending in -y denote part of the whole: bought sugar, but: sugar production, got drunk on tea, but: growing tea. Stylistic differences are manifested in the fact that forms with the ending -a are neutral (characteristic of any style), and forms with the ending -y are primarily characteristic of oral, colloquial speech. In written speech, the forms in -y are found in stable combinations: give heat, there was no agreement, give a blunder, no passage, no passage, without asking. These forms are also found in words with a diminutive meaning: a beam, a seagull, a kvass.

8. In the nominative plural, according to the traditional norms of the literary language, most words correspond to the ending -ы, -и: locksmiths, bakers, turners, searchlights. At the same time, the ending -a occurs in a number of words. Forms with the ending -a usually have a colloquial or professional coloring. Only in some words the ending -a corresponds to the literary norm, for example (70 words are stable): addresses, banks, sides, sides, centuries, bills, director, doctor, tunic, master, passport, cook, cellar, professor, variety, watchman , paramedic, junker, anchor, sail, cold.

Sometimes forms with endings -a and -s (-i) differ in meaning, cf .: furs (dressed animal skins) and furs (blacksmith's); corps (torsoes of people or animals) and corps (buildings; large military formations); camps (socio-political groups) and camps (parking lots, temporary settlements); breads (cereal plants) and breads (baked); sable (furs) and sables (animals); wires (electrical) and wires (of someone); orders (insignia) and orders (in medieval society, for example, the Order of the Sword).

Here are examples of nouns ending in -s, -and: boatswains, accountants (accountants - razᴦ.), winds (winds - razᴦ.), elections, reprimands, jumpers (jumpers - razᴦ.), contracts (contracts - razᴦ.), inspectors , instructors (instructors - razᴦ.), engineers (engineers - razᴦ. and vernacular), designers, sweaters (sweaters - razᴦ.), drivers (chauffeurs - razᴦ.), turners.

Variant forms, forms corresponding to the literary norm, are described in detail in the book: L.K. Graudina, V.A. Itskovich, L.P. Katlinskaya. Grammatical correctness of Russian speech: Experience of the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants. – M.: Nauka, 1976, p. 116-119.

9. Particular attention should be paid to the inclination of surnames of non-Russian origin and geographical names. Here are just a few norms of the literary language.

a) Surnames on ʼʼkoʼʼ such as Shevchenko, Sidorenko in official speech and in written form of the literary language are not inclined.

In colloquial speech and in fiction, these surnames are used in two versions, ᴛ.ᴇ. they are inflexible, but they can also be inclined: he sent to Semashka, talking about Ustimenka.

b) If the surnames coincide with common nouns, then female surnames do not decline (met Anna Sokol), but male ones decline (met Vladimir Sokol), while several cases are possible: surnames with suffixes -ets, -ek, -ok, -ate better to decline without dropping out a vowel: Ivan Zayats, Timothy Peretz; surnames ending in a soft consonant, denoting males, are declined as masculine nouns, although, being common nouns, they are feminine words. Wed: lynx - female. kind, but: Ivan Rys, far - wives. genus, but: Vladimir Dahl.

c) Russian surnames ending in -in, -ov in the instrumental case have the ending -y: Frolov, Ivanov, Kalinin. Geographical names in the instrumental case have endings -om: ᴦ. Kalinin, s. Golyshmanov. The ending -om also has foreign-language surnames in -in, -ov: Darwin, Chaplin, Colvin. Female foreign-language surnames do not decline: Darwin, Zeitlin, etc. [For more on this, see the book cited above, pp. 150–160]

The norms for the use of numerals in modern Russian are peculiar and specific.

So, for example, complex numbers like eighty, seven hundred - ϶ᴛᴏ is the only group of words in which both parts are declined: eighty, seven hundred (creation.
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Pad.), about eighty, about seven hundred (adv. Pad.). In modern colloquial speech, the inflection of complex numbers is lost, which is also facilitated by the professional speech of mathematicians, however, in official speech, the norm requires the declination of both parts of complex numbers.

Collective numbers (two, three, ..., ten) are not used in official speech, although they coincide in meaning with cardinal numbers. But in colloquial speech, their use is limited: they are not combined with the names of feminine persons, with inanimate nouns, with the names of high ranks, positions (hero, general, professor, etc.). Collective numerals are combined with the names of males (except for the names of high ranks, positions): two boys, six soldiers; with the names of the cubs: seven kids, five wolf cubs; with substantiated adjectives: seven cavalry, four military.

In the field of adjectives, the formation of a complex form of a comparative degree belongs to frequent violations of the norm. The norm corresponds to forms like “more + the initial form of the adjective”: more interesting. Formation of the type more interesting is erroneous.

There are many rules regarding the use of verbs.

1. So, when forming aspectual pairs of a verb, there are norms regarding the alternation of vowels in the root:

a) Alternation is mandatory if the stress does not fall on the root (shorten - shorten);

b) There is no alternation, if the stress falls on the root (to lure - to lure), however, in a number of words, the absence of alternation is archaic, artificial (earn, procure, master, challenge, adapt, finish, reassure, double, triple).

c) About 20 verbs allow fluctuations (options) in the formation of aspect pairs (with alternation in colloquial speech, without alternation - in book, business), for example: agree - agree and agree, honor - honor and honor, condition - condition and condition .

2. There are verbs in Russian that end in -ch. In the personal forms of these verbs, except for the 1st person singular and the 3rd person plural, the alternation of the consonants Mrs., k-ch is obligatory: burn, burn, but: burn, burn, burn, burn; dragging, dragging, but: dragging, dragging, dragging, dragging.

Residents of the Tyumen region often do not have this alternation of consonants in such verbs, which is explained by the influence of dialects and vernacular: bake (instead of bake), it will flow out (instead of it will flow out) and so on.

The appearance of syntactic speech defects is due to ignorance of 1) the order of words in a sentence, 2) the coordination of the subject and the predicate, 3) the coordination of definitions and applications, 4) the rules of management. B) the rules for the use of participial and adverbial phrases.

1. In Russian, there is a relatively free order of word arrangement, that is, there is no strictly fixed place for one or another main or secondary member of the sentence. At the same time, there is a more or less accepted order of the members of the sentence in declarative, motivating and interrogative sentences - direct order and deviation from it - reverse order (inversion - lat. inversio - permutation). Inversion is used in colloquial speech and in works of fiction to give speech a special expressiveness.

In declarative sentences with direct word order, the subject precedes the predicate, and the topic (initial information) is the rheme (new information). If this provision is not observed, we receive an ambiguous sentence and hardly understand its content. For example, sentences with the same forms of the nominative and accusative cases in the subject and object: ʼʼThe sun covered the cloudʼʼ - ʼʼThe cloud covered the sunʼʼ, ʼʼThe bike crashed the busʼʼ - ʼʼThe bus crashed the bikeʼʼ. Only the words ʼʼcloudʼʼ (it could cover the moon, stars, mountain, lake, etc.) and ʼʼbusʼʼ (it could crash a motorcycle, car, pole, etc.) are the only topic here. But in the sentences ʼʼThe tram crashed the busʼʼ or ʼʼThe bus crashed the tramsʼʼ only submission to the direct word order allows you to understand the true meaning of the information. Compare the sentences: ʼʼTruck is towing a dump truckʼʼ and ʼʼDump truck is towing a truckʼʼ, ʼʼOar hit the dressʼʼ and ʼʼDress hit the oarʼʼ. How does the meaning of statements change in connection with the change of topic in rhemes?

In the declarative sentence ʼʼThere is a bookcase in the cornerʼʼ, the subject (initial information) is the predicate ʼʼworthʼʼ and the adverbial place ʼʼin the cornerʼʼ, and the rheme (new information) is the subject ʼʼcaseʼʼ. If the subject and circumstance are interchanged (ʼʼThe closet is in the cornerʼʼ), the ratio of rheme and theme will change, and, consequently, the meaning of the transmitted information. The subject can be located after the predicate if: 1) denotes a period of time or a natural phenomenon with a predicate with the meaning of being, becoming, the course of an action - ʼʼAutumn has comeʼʼ, ʼʼA day has passedʼʼ, ʼʼThere was an equal winterʼʼ; 2) the text is descriptive: ʼʼThe sea sings, the city hums, the sun shines brightly, creating fairy talesʼʼ (M. Gorky); 3) in the words of the author, standing after or inside a direct speech: ʼʼWe will have to spend the night here, - said Maxim Maksimych, - you won’t move through the mountains in such a snowstormʼʼ (M. Lermontov); ʼʼWhy aren't you going?ʼʼ - I asked the driver impatientlyʼʼ (A. Pushkin).

2) Coordination (lat. con - with, together, jointly + ordinatio - ordering, arrangement) (the term ʼʼagreementʼʼ is used in the school course) of the subject and predicate - ϶ᴛᴏ syntactic connection, in which there is a complete or partial assimilation of word forms. The laws of coordination are generally well acquired in a natural way, but there are cases that cause difficulties. Οʜᴎ are associated with fluctuations in number forms in gender. The verb can take both the singular form and the plural form in the following cases: if the subject is expressed by a word or phrase with the meaning of quantity - ʼʼtwo came (came)ʼʼ, ʼʼsome of the students did not appear (did not appear)ʼʼ; if the subject is expressed by a combination with the meaning of compatibility - ʼʼ came (came) brother and sister ʼʼ; if the subject is expressed by the pronoun ʼʼwhoʼʼ, ʼʼsomeoneʼʼ, ʼʼsomeoneʼʼ, ʼʼsomeoneʼʼ, ʼʼsomeoneʼʼ, indicating many, - ʼʼEveryone who came (came) was placed in the standsʼʼ. The norm prescribes to use only the singular form of the verb-predicate when: a) subjects expressed by the phrase ʼʼnoun of quantitative-collective meaning + noun in the genitive plural ʼʼ: ʼʼA flock of swans flew to warm climesʼʼ; b) with the subject expressed by the phrase ʼʼ indefinitely quantitative numeral + noun ʼʼ; ʼʼIn the yard he brought up several wolf cubsʼʼ.

Gender fluctuations can occur when the subject is expressed by a quantitative-nominal combination - ʼʼletters survived (preserved) very littleʼʼ; a masculine noun, naming a person by occupation, but in this sentence referring to a female person, - ʼʼthe doctor came (came)ʼʼ.

In sentences with the link ʼʼwasʼʼ or with a semi-significant verb, if the generic and numerical meanings of names in the subject and predicate do not match, there may be fluctuation in the generic forms of the verb - ʼʼthe wedding was (was) a joyful eventʼʼ.

3) In accordance with the norm of the literary language, the gender of the definition for nouns of the general gender depends on the gender of the person in question. For this reason, about a girl, a girl, a woman, we will say: ʼʼShe is a terrible confusion (a messy, dirty, sweet, etc.)ʼʼ, and about a boy, a young man, a mane: ʼʼHe is an incorrigible bully (a couch potato, an evildoer, a sleepyhead, etc. .)ʼʼ. In colloquial speech, it is permissible to use a feminine definition to characterize the quality of a male person: ʼʼHe is such a messʼʼ.

Special rules exist in the use of the case. When the definition refers to the phrase ʼʼnumeral ʼʼtwoʼʼ (three, four) + noun ʼʼ and stands between its elements, the following forms of agreement are used:

1) with masculine and neuter nouns, the definition is put in the form of the genitive plural, for example, ʼʼfour deep wellsʼʼ, ʼʼtwenty-two small windowsʼʼ; 2) with feminine nouns in this position, the nominative plural form is more often used, for example, ʼʼthree lush lilac branchesʼʼ, ʼʼtwenty-four diligent studentsʼʼ. It is acceptable to use the genitive plural with a feminine noun (ʼʼtwo dark boatsʼʼ, ʼʼthree large roomsʼʼ), but this form is less common. If the definition is before the phrase ʼʼnumeral ʼʼtwoʼʼ (three, four) + nounʼʼ or after it, then most often it is put in the form of the nominative case, for example, ʼʼthe next three yearsʼʼ, ʼʼany four definitionsʼʼ, ʼʼtwo doors, boarded up tightly ʼʼ, ʼʼfour bags filled with groceriesʼʼ.

How to correctly use the number of definitions when agreeing? Quite often there are nouns that have two definitions with them, which indicate the variety of objects. In the singular, the definition is put in the following cases: 1) if the noun does not have a plural form: ʼʼscientific and technical progressʼʼ, ʼʼhappy and carefree childhoodʼʼ; 2) if the noun takes on a different meaning in the plural: ʼʼelectronic and cosmic connectionʼʼ (compare, ʼʼclose tiesʼʼ); 3) If the definitions characterizing the noun are connected (compared or opposed to) among themselves (“right” - “Forest”, “Muzhsky” - “General”, “Enhibited”, “Supervisor”, “Superior” - “Sninzhny”) and form a combination of the Terminological nature, “The rule of the left side and the left -handed side”. ʼʼsingular and plural verbsʼʼ, ʼʼequations of the first and second orderʼʼ. In the plural, a noun is put when the presence of several objects is emphasized, for example, ʼʼwooden and plastic framesʼʼ, ʼʼJapanese and Chinese dictionariesʼʼ, ʼʼbasketball and football teamsʼʼ.

There are expressions where one definition refers to two or more nouns: ʼʼmy father and motherʼʼ, ʼʼsiblingsʼʼ. What should be followed to avoid mistakes? We use the definition in the singular, if it is clear from the meaning that it refers not only to the first (nearest) noun, but also to the rest: ʼʼtraffic vanity and confusionʼʼ, ʼʼwinter cold and coldʼʼ, ʼʼnight silence and peaceʼʼ. In the plural, we use the definition when it may be unclear whether it refers only to the nearest noun or to the entire series of homogeneous members: house and school (the house is multi-storey, but the school is not)ʼʼ.

When matching applications, difficulties arise, as a rule, when you need to choose the case form of a geographical name that acts as an application. The names of cities usually agree in all cases with the word being defined: ʼʼin the city of Kazanʼʼ, ʼʼnear the city of Vitebskʼʼ, ʼʼto the city of Rostovʼʼ. Consistent and inconsistent forms for city names on -О are acceptable: ʼʼin the city of Zverevoʼʼ and ʼʼin the city of Zverevoʼʼ. The compound names of cities do not agree: ʼʼnear the city of Velikiye Lukiʼʼ, ʼʼto the city of Velikie Lukiʼʼ, ʼʼwith the city of Nizhny Novgorodʼʼ, ʼʼin the city of Nizhny Novgorodʼʼ.

The names of the rivers, as a rule, are consistent with the word being defined, only little-known ones do not change into compound names: ʼʼbetween the Volga and Donokʼʼ, ʼʼat the Lena Riverʼʼ, in ʼʼon the Shilka Riverʼʼ, ʼʼHide and Seek of the Aksai Riverʼʼ, ʼʼwith the Seversky Donetsʼʼ. The names of bays, straits in bays, islands in peninsulas, mountains and mountain ranges, deserts do not agree. The only exceptions are well-known names, which are often used without a generic word. Compare: ʼʼto the Yamal Peninsulaʼʼ, ʼʼalong the Elton lakes to Baskunchakʼʼ, ʼʼnear the Bosporusʼʼ, ʼʼto the Golden Hornʼʼ, but ʼʼon the Kamchatka Peninsulaʼʼ - ʼʼthe southern part (peninsula) of Kamchatkaʼʼ.

The names of ports, stations, foreign administrative-territorial units, astronomical names do not agree; ʼʼat the metro station ʼʼKropotkinskayaʼʼ, ʼʼin the port of Murmanskʼʼ, ʼʼin the department of Bordeauxʼʼ, ʼʼin the orbit of the planet Jupiterʼʼ. The names of the streets in the form of the feminine gender are consistent (ʼʼon Ordynka Street, Ostozhenkaʼʼ) and the rest are not consistent (ʼʼnear Krymsky Val Street, Krinichny Proezdʼʼ). The names of foreign countries, including the word ʼʼrepublicʼʼ, are consistent if they end in -IYa: ʼʼagreement with the Republic of Zambiaʼʼ, ʼʼtrade relations between Russia and the Republic of Nigeriaʼʼ, ʼʼtraveled in the Republic of Cyprusʼʼ.

4) The title of management rules allows, using case forms and prepositions, to correctly build phrases. Let's consider constructions in which errors occur most often.

The verb ʼʼpayʼʼ has the meaning of ʼʼpay someone for somethingʼʼ and forms a phrase with a noun in the accusative case without a preposition using control: ʼʼpay expenses (bill, travel, food, accommodation, work)ʼʼ. Most often its nouns, not denoting ʼʼ a specific subject. The verb ʼʼpayʼʼ has the meaning of ʼʼto give money in return for somethingʼʼ and is used in a phrase with a noun in accusative hope with the preposition ʼʼforʼʼ: ʼʼto pay for tickets (for food, for furniture)ʼʼ. In this case, we are dealing with nouns denoting specific objects. The verbs ʼʼpayʼʼ and ʼʼpayʼʼ form an unprepositional construction with the noun ʼʼtaxʼʼ: ʼʼpay taxes, pay taxesʼʼ.

Mastering the rules for constructing phrases with control, you need to remember about such phenomena as synonymy and variability in the meanings of prepositions. ʼʼВʼʼ (inside something) and ʼʼonʼʼ (on the surface of something) are close in meaning in the phrases: ʼʼ ride a tram - ride a tram ʼʼ, ʼʼ fly in an airplane - fly on an airplane ʼʼ. At the same time, they cannot be recognized as identical - the use of the preposition ʼʼinʼʼ indicates being inside a specific named object͵, and the preposition ʼʼonʼʼ indicates the vehicle used.

A great difficulty is the use of the preposition ʼʼpoʼʼ in combination with nouns and pronouns in the dative and prepositional cases. In combination with nouns and personal pronouns of the 3rd person, the preposition ʼʼpoʼʼ governs the dative case: ʼʼmiss your loved onesʼʼ, ʼʼmiss herʼʼ. If the pronoun of the 1st or 2nd lyad is used in the phrase, this preposition requires a prepositional case, in this regard, you should say in writing: ʼʼmiss youʼʼ, ʼʼmiss usʼʼ, and not ʼʼfor youʼʼ and ʼʼfor youʼʼ, as it is can often be heard and read. If the preposition ʼʼpoʼʼ is used in the meaning of the preposition ʼʼafterʼʼ, then the noun must also be put in the prepositional case: ʼʼupon receiving the orderʼʼ, ʼʼafter the end of the sessionʼʼ, ʼʼupon the expiration of the termʼʼ.

It should be noted that there are frequent errors in the use of nouns with the prepositions ʼʼthanks toʼʼ and ʼʼcontraryʼʼ. Both prepositions require the dative case, in connection with this, the expressions ʼʼcontrary to threatsʼʼ, ʼʼcontrary to instructionsʼʼ, ʼʼthanks to a good educationʼʼ and so on are outside the norm. The preposition ʼʼthanks toʼʼ has a pronounced positive connotation, and therefore it should not be used if it is a negative phenomenon - ʼʼdid not come to the exam due to illnessʼʼ.

Ambiguity can arise when a noun or pronoun in the genitive case is used in a sentence. This case can denote the one who performs the action expressed by the verb, be the so-called ʼʼgenitive of the subjectʼʼ. It is extremely important to distinguish it from the ʼʼparent objectʼʼ, which names the object of action, desire, achievement, expectation. In the sentence ʼʼPetrov's treatment turned out to be uselessʼʼ it is impossible to clearly understand whether the doctor Petrov is treating or Petrov's patient is being treated.

In written speech, there is also such a stylistic flaw as ʼʼheapingʼʼ of genitive cases. D.E. Rosenthal and I.V. Golub cites in his manual a construction that describes the owner of a certain book in this way; book my neighbor's son's son's teacher's niece...ʼʼ This speech defect is especially common when trying to express family relationships. The authors of the manual remind about the found by K.I. Chukovsky in a school manual on literature example: ʼʼCreative processing courtyard image walks the line strengthening the display of the tragedy of his fate ...ʼʼ

In constructions with control, often with two control words there is a common dependent: ʼʼrun and jump on the siteʼʼ, ʼʼcollect and scatter stonesʼʼ. Such constructions are flawless if the verbs in them require the same control. At the same time, there is a speech defect caused by the fact that the common dependent word is used with words that require different management: ʼʼtreat and take care of the sickʼʼ, ʼʼI love to be interested in musicʼʼ: treat (whom?) - take care (of whom?), love (what?) - to be interested in (what?).

5) Proper use of participial phrases requires knowledge of the following rules; a) op

Lecture 3. The norms of the modern Russian literary language and speech errors - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Lecture 3. Norms of the modern Russian literary language and speech errors" 2017, 2018.

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/

NRU HSE - Nizhny Novgorod

Faculty of Business Informatics and Applied Mathematics

On the Russian language and culture of speech

Violations of the norms of the Russian language. Common Mistakes

Russian literary language norm

Prepared

Zelenov Alexey Alexandrovich

Group: 12PMI

Lecturer: Batishcheva T.S.

Nizhny Novgorod, 2012

Many, including myself, believe that a language (no matter what) resembles a self-learning machine that develops under the influence of people and it is not possible to stop or leave its development within certain limits. But, of course, each language at a certain point in its development has its own norms, and the language, as a rule, has an oral or written form.

Let's move on to the Russian language, the ideal use of the language is described by the "Law on the state language of the Russian Federation", which states that "3. The procedure for approving the norms of the modern Russian literary language when it is used as the state language of the Russian Federation, the rules of Russian spelling and punctuation is determined by the Government of the Russian Federation.

4. The state language of the Russian Federation is a language that promotes mutual understanding, strengthening interethnic ties between the peoples of the Russian Federation in a single multinational state.

Unfortunately, this is not always the case, and the state simply cannot regulate the Russian language and its development, except perhaps the literary language, which, at the current pace of development, is not so easy to keep track of. So what are the norms of the Russian language? Are they really government regulated? There are 2 norms in the Russian language - linguistic and literary. “Language norm is a historically conditioned set of commonly used language means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a particular historical period. The norm is one of the essential properties of the language, ensuring its functioning and historical continuity due to its inherent stability, although not excluding the variance of linguistic means and noticeable historical variability, since the norm is intended, on the one hand, to preserve speech traditions, and on the other hand, to satisfy current and changing needs of society "Language norm -https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0% D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0.

The literary norm is aimed at “preserving the means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations” Literary norm - https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0% BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0. Who must follow these rules? Naturally the media, writers, and other organizations/people working in the cultural field. But do they always follow these rules? - No. Often, in order to interest a person, it is necessary to use a language that is more “close to the people”, i.e. resort to colloquial turns and vernacular, and here language norms come into force, which, in my opinion, are wider than literary ones. How often are the rules broken? Yes, the rules are violated, and often, and this cannot be avoided.

“When analyzing the Second World War, American military historians discovered a very interesting fact, namely: in a sudden clash with the forces of the Japanese, the Americans, as a rule, made decisions much faster and, as a result, defeated even superior enemy forces. Having studied this pattern, scientists came to the conclusion that the average word length for Americans is 5.2 characters, while for the Japanese it is 10.8, and, therefore, it takes 56% less time to issue orders, which plays an important role in a short battle ... For the sake of of interest, they analyzed Russian speech, and it turned out that the length of a word in Russian is on average 7.2 characters per word. However, in critical situations, the Russian-speaking command staff switches to profanity and the word length is reduced to ... 3.2 characters per word. This is due to the fact that some phrases, and even phrases, are replaced by ONE word” Order Joke - http://vvv-ig.livejournal.com/25910.html

We can conclude that it is almost impossible to get rid of the mat, although it is recognized as petty hooliganism, the rules exist to break them, which people do, because it is not fatal. But my attitude to swearing is negative, because a person gave meaning to all words, therefore, if swear words were given some negative meaning, then you should not use such words.

It is worth talking about slang, "Slang (from English slang) is a set of special words or new meanings of existing words used in various human associations (professional, social, age and other groups)" Slang - https://ru. wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3. Most often, slang is used by representatives of certain professions or social groups, most often slang is used by young people. What's wrong with slang? The main plus is the acceleration of communication, but the minus is misunderstanding, i.e. not everyone can understand what a person is talking about, especially this applies to the past generation, where technical progress has not gone so far. You can give an example: “yesterday I found a bug in the program”

Here you can clearly see the use of slang, and professional ones, and many will not understand that a person has found an error in his program, but representatives of the corresponding profession will immediately understand what is the matter and communication between them will happen faster if they use slang.

Another type of the most common violations is the incorrect placement of stress in words. Most of all, such mistakes are made in the words “spoil (a child), contract, leisure, extraction, (he) calls, (you) call, invention, tool, catalog, self-interest, more beautiful, medicines, intention, start, facilitate, provide , convict, put, reward, means, carpenter, Ukrainian, deepen (knowledge), deepened (knowledge), phenomenon, intercession, hosts, cement, linguistic (culture) "emphasis - http://ege-legko.livejournal.com/ 23795.html. But the most common word in which a huge number of people incorrectly stress is the word “call” (does not call, but calls), and in different contexts the stress is placed differently (that is, many say call, but in a different context, for example “ Will you call me?" put the wrong stress. Such errors are most often due to the fact that the stress in the Russian language is "movable". The stress in the word can also change over time, with the development of the language, for example, during the development of air transport (then the flight time was not measured hours, but kilometers), the majority spoke not a kilometer, but a kilometer, then somehow smoothly turned into a kilometer, but some still say kilometer.

There are a huge number of mistakes that people make, but there are “Top 13 mistakes”, they are so common that people, trying to rid humanity of them, create such memos:

"one. "PAY FOR THE TRAVEL"! You can either "pay the fare" or "pay the fare"!

2. In Russian, the word "LIE" DOES NOT EXIST! With prefixes - please: Put, Lay, Shift.

3. Are you still "calling"?! Educated people say: “Vasya is calling you”, “you will call your mother”.

4. As you know, in Russia there are two troubles: “-TSYA” and “-TSYA”. Everyone made this mistake!

5. There are no words "in general" and "in general"! There are words "IN GENERAL" and "IN GENERAL".

6. Spelling "sorry" instead of "sorry."

7. How can you shove the letter “U” into the word “future” to get “future”? “I will” - “future”, “follow” - “next”.

8. How much can you doubt: "come" or "come"? Remember once and for all, correctly - "come". BUT in the future: I WILL COME, COME, COME.

9. Ordered an espresso? To cook faster? The coffee is called ESPRESSO! And there is also "latte" (emphasis on "A", two "T") and "capu Chino" (one "H").

10. Congratulations on (what?) Birthday (what?)! I'm going (where?) On the day (of what?) of my birthday! Was on a birthday party.

No “going to my birthday”, “congratulations, happy birthday”, etc.!

11. Girls, if a guy writes “pretty girl” and “looks good”, put a fat cross on him! Why are you so literate?!

12. Keep in mind that "TO HAVE IN_VIEW" is written separately!

13. Everyone who still says "THIS" will burn in hell!

But of course, the most common mistake (by the way, this is the MOST common mistake in the exam) is the spelling: “-TSYA” and “-TSYA”. This really looks like a “trouble”, you can stumble upon such a mistake anywhere, I can’t even say for sure if I made this mistake in this text? After all, many write on the machine, forgetting about spelling, although there are people who just have great intuition, and they almost never make mistakes. But how can one develop such an intuition? - reading, if you read a lot, then you will develop a kind of memory and the words will simply be remembered, and, as a rule, there will be much fewer mistakes, even if you did not learn Russian well at school.

Summarize. Violation of the norms of the language is quite normal for any language, but we must try not to make such mistakes. We are native speakers and must respect it, first of all, without distorting it with our mistakes, if everyone does this, the language will become cleaner, and foreigners will begin to understand us and they will awaken interest in the language.

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Coursework on the topic:

“Language norm. The concept of speech error.

Scientific adviser:

Doctor of Philology,

Professor ____________

Work is done

_________________

Krasnodar, 2010

I Introduction

II. Chapter I. The concept of "language norm"

and "speech error"

1.1Types of norms

1.2 Speech errors

1.3 Main causes of speech errors

III. Chapter II. Speech errors

in everyday life

2.2 Speech errors in the media

2.3 Speech errors

at different levels (word, text, etc.)

IV. Conclusion

V. References

VI. Application

Introduction.

The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotional and expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, compatibility with other words. Since the violation of at least one of these criteria, a violation of the language norm can lead to a speech error.

And, it is speech errors and language norms that my course work is devoted to.

First, a few words about the norm in general, regardless of the language.

The concepts of normal, norms are important for many types of human activity. There are norms for the production of products (for example, at a factory) and normals, i.e., technical requirements that this product must satisfy. No one doubts the fact that in any civilized society there are norms of relationships between people, norms of etiquette; each of us has an idea of what is normal for human communication, and what is abnormal, goes beyond some unwritten norm. Yes, and our everyday speech is full of these words: How are you doing? - Fine!; Well how are you? - Nothing, it's fine. .

Moreover, the norm is also invisibly present in our statements that do not contain the words norm or normal. When we evaluate, for example, the height of a person or animal, we can say: - What a tall guy! - or: - This giraffe is too small for a giraffe, - and thus we compare the growth of a guy and a giraffe with some implied growth rate (naturally, different for a person and for a giraffe). When we speak: comfortable chair, too dark room, inexpressive singing, we mean (although we are not aware of this) some generally accepted "norms" for the comfort of a chair, the illumination of a room, the expressiveness of singing.

The norm is also in the language. And this is quite natural: language is an integral part of not only civilized, but in general any human society. The norm is one of the central linguistic concepts, although it cannot be said that all linguists interpret it in the same way.

Most often, this term is used in combination with "literary norm" and is applied to those varieties of language that are used in the media, in science and education, in diplomacy, lawmaking and legislation, in business and legal proceedings, and other areas of "socially important", predominantly public communication. But you can also talk about the norm in relation to the territorial dialect - that is, for example, to the speech of the indigenous inhabitants of the Krasnodar Territory or the Moscow Region, to professional or social jargon - that is, to the way carpenters or "thieves in law" speak .

The last statement may seem very doubtful, and therefore it requires clarification.

Linguists use the term norm in two senses - broad and narrow.

In a broad sense, the norm means such means and methods of speech that spontaneously formed over many centuries and which usually distinguish one type of language from others. That is why we can talk about the norm in relation to the territorial dialect: for example, okanye is normal for northern Russian dialects, and akanye is normal for southern Russian dialects. In its own way, any of the social or professional jargons is "normal": for example, what is used in commercial slang will be rejected as alien by those who own the jargon of carpenters; well-established ways of using linguistic means exist in the army jargon and in the jargon of "labukh" musicians, and the carriers of each of these jargons can easily distinguish someone else's from their own, familiar and therefore normal for them, etc.

In a narrow sense, a norm is the result of the codification of a language. Of course, codification is based on the tradition of the existence of a language in a given society, on some unwritten, but generally accepted ways of using linguistic means. But it is important at the same time that codification is a purposeful ordering of everything related to the language and its application. The results of codifying activity - and this is mainly done by linguists - are reflected in normative dictionaries and grammars. The norm as a result of codification is inextricably linked with the concept of a literary language, which is otherwise called normalized or codified.

The literary norm, as a result of not only tradition, but also codification, is a set of rather rigid prescriptions and prohibitions that contribute to the unity and stability of the literary language. The norm is conservative and is aimed at preserving the language means and the rules for their use, accumulated in a given society by previous generations. The unity and universal validity of the norm is manifested in the fact that representatives of different social strata and groups that make up a given society are obliged to adhere to traditional ways of linguistic expression, as well as those rules and regulations that are contained in grammars and dictionaries and are the result of codification. Deviation from the linguistic tradition, from vocabulary and grammatical rules and recommendations is considered a violation of the norm and is usually assessed negatively by native speakers of this literary language.

However, it is no secret that at all stages of the development of the literary language, when using it in different communicative conditions, variants of language means are allowed: one can say cottage cheese- and cottage cheese , searchlights- and searchlights , you are right- and you're right" etc. What is the rigidity and conservatism of the norm?

The fact that variants exist within the limits of the norm only at first glance seems to contradict the rigor and unambiguity of normative guidelines. In fact, the norm, by its very essence, is associated with the concept of selection, selection. In its development, the literary language draws funds from other varieties of the national language - from dialects, vernacular, jargons, but does this with extreme caution. This selective and, at the same time, protective function of the norm, its conservatism is an undoubted benefit for the literary language, since it serves as a link between the cultures of different generations and different social strata of society.

The norm is based on traditional ways of using the language and is wary of linguistic innovations. "The norm is what was, and in part what is, but by no means what will be," wrote the famous linguist A. M. Peshkovsky.

However, the conservatism of the norm does not mean its complete immobility in time. In Pushkin's time they said: houses, buildings, now - houses, buildings. A. I. Herzen considered quite normal turnover make an impact, G. I. Uspensky in "Letters from the Road" mentions pack of keys, Leo Tolstoy admitted to one of his correspondents that he remembers very well(we would now say: make an impact, a bunch of keys, breadth of understanding, remembers well). Chekhov said on the phone(he reports this in one of his letters), and we - by phone .

The normative status can change not only of individual words, forms and constructions, but also of interrelated speech samples in a certain way. This happened, for example, with the so-called Old Moscow pronunciation norm, which by the second half of the 20th century was almost completely replaced by a new pronunciation, closer to the written form of the word: instead of boyus, laughing, shygi, zhyra, top, Thursday, quiet, strict, assent, brown,) the vast majority of native speakers of the Russian literary language began to speak afraid, laughing, steps, heat, top, thursday, quiet, strict, agreeing, brown,) etc.

Speech practice often runs counter to normative prescriptions, and the contradiction between how one should speak and how one actually speaks turns out to be the driving stimulus for the evolution of the language norm.

Thus, the literary norm combines tradition and purposeful codification. Although the speech practice of literary-speaking people is generally oriented towards the norm, there is always a kind of "gap" between normative guidelines and prescriptions, on the one hand, and how the language is actually used, on the other hand: practice does not always follow normative recommendations. The linguistic activity of a native speaker of a literary language proceeds in a constant - but usually unconscious - coordination of one's own speech actions with the traditional ways of using language means, with what the dictionaries and grammars of a given language prescribe, and with how the language is actually used in everyday communication. contemporaries.

Undoubtedly, this topic is relevant. Every day, being with friends, relatives, or just walking down the street, I hear a lot of speech errors, although I didn’t notice them before, because I didn’t think about them. And therefore, the purpose of my term paper is to identify and eliminate those errors that have already tightly merged into our speech.

Chapter I. The concepts of "language norm" and "speech error"

Language norms (norms of the literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is an example of a uniform, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

There are a huge number of mistakes that people make, but there are “Top 13 mistakes”, they are so common that people, trying to rid humanity of them, create such memos:

"one. "PAY FOR THE TRAVEL"! You can either "pay the fare" or "pay the fare"!

2. In Russian, the word "LIE" DOES NOT EXIST! With prefixes - please: Put, Lay, Shift.

3. Are you still "calling"?! Educated people say: “Vasya is calling you”, “you will call your mother”.

4. As you know, in Russia there are two troubles: “-TSYA” and “-TSYA”. Everyone made this mistake!

5. There are no words "in general" and "in general"! There are words "IN GENERAL" and "IN GENERAL".

6. Spelling "sorry" instead of "sorry."

7. How can you shove the letter “U” into the word “future” to get “future”? “I will” - “future”, “follow” - “next”.

8. How much can you doubt: "come" or "come"? Remember once and for all, correctly - "come". BUT in the future: I WILL COME, COME, COME.

9. Ordered an espresso? To cook faster? The coffee is called ESPRESSO! And there is also "latte" (emphasis on "A", two "T") and "capu Chino" (one "H").

10. Congratulations on (what?) Birthday (what?)! I'm going (where?) On the day (of what?) of my birthday! Was on a birthday party.

No “going to my birthday”, “congratulations, happy birthday”, etc.!

11. Girls, if a guy writes “pretty girl” and “looks good”, put a fat cross on him! Why are you so literate?!

12. Keep in mind that "TO HAVE IN_VIEW" is written separately!

13. Everyone who still says "THIS" will burn in hell!

These are the rules for the use of existing language means in a specific historical period in the evolution of the literary language (a set of rules for spelling, grammar, pronunciation, word usage).

The concept of a language norm is usually interpreted as an example of the generally accepted uniform use of such elements of the language as phrases, words, sentences.

The considered norms are not the result of fiction of philologists. They reflect a certain stage in the evolution of the literary language of an entire nation. Language norms cannot simply be introduced or abolished, they cannot be reformed even administratively. The activities of linguists who study these norms are their identification, description and codification, as well as clarification and promotion.

Literary language and language norm

According to the interpretation of B. N. Golovin, the norm is the choice of the only one among the various functional variations of a linguistic sign, historically accepted within a certain linguistic community. In his opinion, she is the regulator of the speech behavior of many people.

The literary and linguistic norm is a contradictory and complex phenomenon. There are various interpretations of this concept in the linguistic literature of the modern era. The main difficulty in determining is the presence of mutually exclusive features.

Distinctive features of the concept under consideration

It is customary to distinguish the following features of language norms in literature:

1.Stability (stability), thanks to which the literary language unites generations due to the fact that the norms of the language ensure the continuity of linguistic and cultural traditions. However, this feature is considered relative, because the literary language is constantly evolving, while allowing changes in existing norms.

2. The degree of occurrence of the phenomenon under consideration. Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that a significant level of use of the corresponding language variant (as a fundamental feature in determining the literary and linguistic norm), as a rule, also characterizes certain speech errors. For example, in colloquial speech, the definition of a language norm boils down to the fact that it is “frequently occurring”.

3.Compliance with an authoritative source(works of well-known writers). But do not forget that literary works reflect both literary language and dialects, vernacular, therefore, when delineating norms, based on observation of texts of predominantly fiction, it is necessary to distinguish between the author's speech and the language of the characters in the work.

The concept of a linguistic norm (literary) is associated with the internal laws of the evolution of a language, and on the other hand, it is determined by the purely cultural traditions of society (what is approved by it and protected, and what it fights and condemns).

Variety of language norms

The literary and linguistic norm is codified (acquires official recognition and is subsequently described in reference books, dictionaries that have authority in society).

There are the following types of language norms:

The types of language norms presented above are considered to be the main ones.

Typology of language norms

It is customary to distinguish the following norms:

oral and written forms of speech;
only oral;
only written.

The types of language norms related to both oral and written speech are as follows:

lexical;
stylistic;
grammatical.

Special norms of exclusively written speech are:

spelling standards;
punctuation.

The following types of language norms are also distinguished:

pronunciation;
intonation;
accents.

They apply only to the oral form of speech.

The language norms that are common to both forms of speech relate mainly to the construction of texts and linguistic content. Lexical ones (a set of norms of word usage), on the contrary, are decisive in the issue of the correct choice of a suitable word among linguistic units that are close enough to it in form or meaning and its use in a literary meaning.

Lexical language norms are displayed in dictionaries (explanatory, foreign words, terminological), reference books. It is the observance of this kind of norms that is the key to the accuracy and correctness of speech.

Violation of language norms leads to numerous lexical errors. Their number is constantly growing. The following examples of language norms that have been violated can be cited:

Variants of language norms

They involve four steps:

1. The dominant form is the only form, and the alternative is considered to be incorrect, since it is beyond the boundaries of the literary language (for example, in the 18th-19th centuries the word "turner" is the only correct option).

2. An alternative variant sneaks into the literary language as an admissible one (marked “additional”) and acts either colloquially (marked “colloquial”) or equal in rights with respect to the original norm (marked “and”). Hesitation regarding the word "turner" began to appear at the end of the 19th century and continued until the beginning of the 20th century.

3. The original norm is rapidly fading away and gives way to an alternative (competing) one, it acquires the status of obsolete (marked “obsolete.”). Thus, the aforementioned word “turner”, according to Ushakov’s dictionary, is considered obsolete.

4. Competing norm as the only one within the literary language. In accordance with the dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language, the previously presented word "turner" is considered the only option (literary norm).

It is worth noting the fact that the only possible strict language norms are present in the announcer's, teaching, stage, oratorical speech. In everyday speech, the literary norm is freer.

The relationship between the culture of speech and language norms

Firstly, the culture of speech is the possession of the literary norms of the language in written and oral form, as well as the ability to correctly choose, organize certain language means in such a way that in a particular situation of communication or in the process of observing its ethics, the greatest effect is ensured in achieving the intended objectives of communication. .

And secondly, this is the area of linguistics, which deals with the problems of speech normalization and develops recommendations regarding the skillful use of the language.

The culture of speech is divided into three components:

Language norms are a hallmark of the literary language.

Language norms in business style

They are the same as in the literary language, namely:

the word must be used according to the lexical meaning;
taking into account the stylistic coloring;
according to lexical compatibility.

These are the lexical language norms of the Russian language within the business style.

For this style, it is extremely important to match the qualities that determine the parameter of the effectiveness of business communication (literacy). This quality also implies knowledge of the existing rules of word usage, sentence patterns, grammatical compatibility, and the ability to delimit the scope of the language.

At present, the Russian language has many variant forms, some of which are used in the framework of book and written styles of speech, and some - in colloquial and everyday. In a business style, forms of special codified written speech are used due to the fact that only their observance ensures the accuracy and correctness of information transmission.

This may include:

wrong choice of word form;
a number of violations regarding the structure of the phrase, sentence;
The most common mistake is the use of incompatible colloquial forms of plural nouns in written speech that end in -а / -я, instead of normative ones in -и / -ы. Examples are presented in the table below.

literary norm	Speaking
Treaties	Agreements
Correctors	Corrector
Inspectors	Inspector

It is worth remembering that the following nouns have the form with a zero ending:

paired items (boots, stockings, boots, but socks);
names of nationalities and territorial affiliation (Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Kyivans, Armenians, British, southerners);
military groups (cadets, partisans, soldiers);
units of measurement (volt, arshin, roentgen, ampere, watt, micron, but grams, kilograms).

These are the grammatical language norms of Russian speech.

Sources of the language norm

There are at least five of them:

The role of the norms under consideration

They help to preserve the literary language its integrity, general intelligibility. Norms protect him from dialect speech, professional and social slang, and vernacular. This is what makes it possible for the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The norm depends on the conditions under which speech is realized. Language means that are appropriate in everyday communication may be unacceptable in official business. The norm does not distinguish between linguistic means according to the criteria "good - bad", but clarifies their expediency (communicative).

The norms under consideration are the so-called historical phenomenon. Their change is due to the continuous development of the language. The norms of the last century may now be deviations. For example, in the 30s and 40s. such words as diploma student and graduate student (a student who performs a thesis) were considered identical. At that time, the word "graduate student" was a colloquial version of the word "diploma student". Within the framework of the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a division of the meaning of the presented words: a diploma student is a student during the defense of a diploma, and a diploma student is a winner of competitions, competitions, reviews marked with a diploma (for example, a student of the International Vocalists Review).

Also in the 30's and 40's. the word "applicant" was used to refer to persons who graduated from high school or entered a university. At present, those graduating from high school have begun to be called graduates, and the entrant in this sense is no longer used. They are called persons who take entrance exams to technical schools and universities.

Norms such as pronunciation are peculiar exclusively to oral speech. But not everything that is characteristic of oral speech can be attributed to pronunciation. Intonation is a rather important means of expressiveness, giving an emotional coloring to speech, and diction is not pronunciation.

As for stress, it refers to oral speech, however, despite the fact that this is a sign of a word or grammatical form, it still belongs to grammar and vocabulary, and does not act as a characteristic of pronunciation in its essence.

So, orthoepy indicates the proper pronunciation of certain sounds in the corresponding phonetic positions and in combination with other sounds, and even in some grammatical groups of words and forms or in individual words, provided that they have their own pronunciation features.

In view of the fact that language is a means of human communication, it needs to unify oral and written design. Just like spelling errors, mispronunciation draws attention to speech from its outside, which acts as a hindrance in the course of language communication. Since orthoepy is one of the aspects of the culture of speech, it has the task of contributing to the raising of the pronunciation culture of our language.

The conscious cultivation of precisely literary pronunciation on the radio, in the cinema, the theater, and in school is of very significant importance in relation to the mastering of the literary language by the masses of many millions.

Vocabulary norms are such norms that determine the correct choice of a suitable word, the appropriateness of its use within the framework of a well-known meaning and in combinations that are considered generally accepted. The exceptional importance of their observance is determined by both cultural factors and the need for mutual understanding of people.

An essential factor determining the significance of the concept of norms for linguistics is the assessment of the possibilities of its application in various types of linguistic research work.

To date, there are such aspects and areas of research in which the concept under consideration can become productive:

Study of the nature of the functioning and implementation of various kinds of language structures (including the establishment of their productivity, distribution over various functional areas of the language).
The study of the historical aspect of language changes in relatively short time periods (“microhistory”), when both minor shifts in the structure of the language and significant changes in its functioning and implementation are revealed.

Degrees of normativity

A rigid, strict degree that does not allow for alternatives.
Neutral, allowing equivalent options.
A more mobile degree that allows the use of colloquial or obsolete forms.

Portal for the student. Self-training