Kingdom Yugoslavia It was formed in 1918 as an association of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes after the end of the First World War. After World War II in 1945. Yugoslavia began to be called a socialist federation of six union republics and occupied an area of 255.8 thousand square kilometers. and the capital Belgrade. Having existed for about 88 years, the state collapsed and after 2006. no longer existed as a single state space.
The flag of Yugoslavia contained blue, white and red stripes, not in the foreground a large five-pointed star.
2 step
So, Yugoslavia, a European state that existed on the Balkan Peninsula and had access to the Adriatic Sea, now consists of six independent states and two autonomous regions.
Today, the former Yugoslavia is the countries of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia, which includes 2 autonomous regions of Vojvodina and Kosovo, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro.
3 step
Bosnia and Herzegovina, state capital Sarajevo. The area of the country is 51.129 thousand square kilometers, there are several official languages in the country - Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian.
Sarajevo hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics, and then the city became the center of hostilities during the civil war in Yugoslavia in 1992-1995.
Today the country is popular for its medical balneological resorts, ski resorts and beach holidays. has a narrow outlet to the Adriatic Sea.
4 step
Macedonia, state capital Skopje. This is an ancient city that arose in the 3rd century BC. The area of the country is 25.7 thousand square kilometers, the state language is Macedonian. Macedonia is a mountainous country, almost the entire area is occupied by mountain ranges of various heights. Macedonia did not get access to the sea, but on its territory there are several ski resorts and historical monuments associated with the Roman Empire and Turkish domination in this part of the Balkan Peninsula.
Macedonia
5 step
Serbia, state capital Belgrade. The area of the country is 88.361 thousand square kilometers, the state language is Serbian.
Belgrade arose in the first century AD, since 1284 it fell under the rule of Serbia and today is its capital. Of all the countries of the former Yugoslavia, Serbia has the most flat fertile lands and deciduous forests. There is no access to the Adriatic Sea, but there is an artificial Belgrade Sea. Also, rivers of extraordinary beauty flow through Serbia, on the mountainous part of which you can raft on rafts, the largest river in Serbia is the Danube.
Serbia also includes two autonomous provinces Kosovo, capital Pristina and Vojvodina, capital Novi Sad.
Serbia
6 step
Slovenia, state capital Ljubljana. The area of the country is 20.251 thousand square kilometers, the state language is Slovenian.
Slovenia is a small but very beautiful country. It has everything, and the snow-capped Alpine peaks, and valleys with orchards and vineyards, and the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Even the capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, has an unusual history: according to legend, the city was founded by the Argonauts when they returned from Colchis after a journey for the Golden Fleece.
Slovenia today mainly lives on tourism, and also has a developed industry, including pharmaceuticals.
Slovenia.
7 step
Croatia, state capital Zagreb. The area of the country is 56.538 thousand square kilometers, the state language is Croatian. Zagreb is quite a large but cozy city with many architectural and historical sights.
Croatia is a country that has the longest Adriatic coast of all the countries of the former Yugoslavia. That is why it is famous for its resorts around the cities of Split, Shebenik, Trogir, Dubrovnik. On the territory of Croatia there are unique nature reserves Krka, Paklenica, Kornati and others. One of the cities of Croatia, Split is one of the oldest cities in Dolmatia (region of Croatia), its age exceeds 1700 years. In the center of the city of Split is the Diocletian's Palace, which still houses the residential apartments of the inhabitants of the city.
YUGOSLAVIA
(Federal Republic of Yugoslavia)
General information
Geographical position. Yugoslavia is located in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula. It borders with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the west, with Hungary in the north, in the northeast with Romania, in the east with Bulgaria, in the south with Albania and Macedonia. The new Yugoslavia includes the former socialist republics of Serbia and Montenegro.
Square. The territory of Yugoslavia occupies 102,173 sq. km.
Main cities, administrative divisions. The capital is Belgrade. The largest cities are Belgrade (1,500 thousand people), Novi Sad (250 thousand people), Nis (230 thousand people), Pristina (210 thousand people) and Subotica (160 thousand people). Yugoslavia consists of two union republics: Serbia and Montenegro. Serbia has two autonomous provinces: Vojvodina and Kosovo.
Political system
Yugoslavia is a federal republic. The head of state is the president. The legislative body is the Federal Assembly consisting of 2 chambers (Veche of Republics and Veche of Citizens).
Relief. Most of the country is occupied by mountains and plateaus. The Pannonian Plain is bordered by the Sava, Danube and Tisza rivers in the northeast. The interior of the country and the southern mountains belong to the Balkans, and the coast is called the "hand of the Alps".
Geological structure and minerals. On the territory of Yugoslavia there are deposits of oil, gas, coal, copper, lead, gold, antimony, zinc, nickel, chromium.
Climate. In the interior of the country, the climate is more continental than on the Adriatic coast in Montenegro. The average temperature in Belgrade is around +17°C from May to September, around +13°C in April and October and around +7°C in March and November.
Inland waters. Most of the rivers flow in a northerly direction and empty into the Danube, which flows through Yugoslavia for 588 km.
Soils and vegetation. The plains are mostly cultivated, large areas in the intermountains and basins are occupied by gardens; on the slopes of the mountains - coniferous, mixed and broad-leaved (mainly beech) forests; along the Adriatic coast - Mediterranean shrub vegetation.
Animal world. The fauna of Yugoslavia is characterized by deer, chamois, fox, wild boar, lynx, bear, hare, as well as woodpecker, dove, cuckoo, partridge, thrush, golden eagle, vulture.
Population and language
About 11 million people live in Yugoslavia. Of these, 62% are Serbs, 16% are Albanians, 5% are Montenegrins, 3% are Hungarians, and 3% are Slavic Muslims. Small groups of Croats, Gypsies, Slovaks, Macedonians, Romanians, Bulgarians, Turks and Ukrainians also live in Yugoslavia. The language is Serbian. Both Cyrillic and Latin are used.
Religion
Serbs have Orthodoxy, Hungarians have Catholicism, Albanians have Islam.
Brief historical outline
The first inhabitants of this territory were the Illyrians. Behind them here in the IV century. BC e. came the Celts.
The Roman conquest of present-day Serbia began in the 3rd century. BC e., and under Emperor Augustus, the empire expanded to Singidunum (now Belgrade), located on the Danube.
In 395 AD e. Theodosius I divided the empire and the current Serbia was ceded to the Byzantine Empire.
In the middle of the 6th century, during the great migration of peoples, Slavic tribes (Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) crossed the Danube and occupied most Balkan Peninsula.
In 879, the Serbs converted to Orthodoxy.
In 969, Serbia separated from Byzantium and created an independent state.
The independent Serbian Kingdom re-emerged in 1217 and during the reign of Stefan Dušan (1346-1355) became a great and powerful power, including most of modern Albania and northern Greece with its borders. During this golden age of the Serbian state, numerous Orthodox monasteries and churches were built.
After the death of Stefan Dusan, Serbia began to decline.
The Battle of Kosovo on June 28, 1389 was the greatest tragedy in the history of the Serbian people. The Serbian army was defeated by the Turks under the leadership of Sultan Murad, and the country fell under Turkish oppression for as much as 500 years. This defeat for many centuries became the main theme of folklore, and the Serbian prince Lazar, who lost the battle, is still considered a national hero and great martyr to this day.
The Serbs were pushed to the north of the country, the Turks came to the territory of Bosnia in the 15th century, and the Republic of Venice completely occupied the Serbian coast. In 1526, the Turks defeated Hungary, annexing the territory in the north and west of the Danube.
After the defeat in Vienna in 1683, the Turks began to gradually retreat. In 1699 they were expelled from Hungary and a large number of Serbs moved north to the region of Vojvodina.
Through diplomatic negotiations, the Sultan managed to return northern Serbia for another century, but the uprising of 1815. led to the declaration of independence of the Serbian state in 1816.
Serbian autonomy was recognized in 1829, the last Turkish troops were withdrawn from the country in 1867, and in 1878, after the defeat of Turkey by Russia, full independence was proclaimed.
Tensions and national contradictions in the country began to grow after Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. At that time, Serbia was supported by Russia.
In the First Balkan War (1912), Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria united in the struggle against Turkey for the liberation of Macedonia. The Second Balkan War (1913) forced Serbia and Greece to unite their armies against Bulgaria, which had usurped control of the province of Kosovo.
The First World War exacerbated these contradictions, as Austria-Hungary used the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, as a justification for the capture of Serbia. Russia and France sided with Serbia.
In the winter of 1915-1916. the defeated Serbian army retreated through the mountains to Montenegro on the Adriatic, from where it was evacuated to Greece. In 1918 the army returned to the country.
After the First World War, Croatia, Slovenia and Vojvodina united with Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia into a single Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, headed by the king of Serbia. In 1929, the state began to call itself Yugoslavia. G
After the invasion of the Nazi troops in 1941, Yugoslavia was divided between Germany, Italy, Hungary and Bulgaria. The Communist Party, led by Josip Broz Tito, launched a liberation struggle. After 1943, Great Britain began to support the communists. Partisans played an important role in the war and the liberation of the country.
In 1945 Yugoslavia was completely liberated. It was proclaimed a federal republic and began to develop successfully as a socialist state, in which "brotherhood and unity" reigned (the slogan of the Yugoslav communists).
In 1991, the republics of Slovenia and Croatia decided to secede from the federal Yugoslavia. This was the reason for the outbreak of hostilities, in which the UN then intervened.
In 1992, Yugoslavia broke up into several independent states: Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and New Yugoslavia, which included the former union republics of Serbia and Montenegro. Belgrade was again proclaimed the capital of the new state formation.
Brief economic essay
Yugoslavia is an industrial-agrarian country. Extraction of lignite and brown coal, oil, ores of copper, lead and zinc, uranium, bauxite. In the manufacturing industry, the leading place is occupied by mechanical engineering and metalworking (machine tool building, transport, including automobile, and agricultural engineering, electrical and radio-electronic industries). Non-ferrous (copper, lead, zinc, aluminum smelting, etc.) and ferrous metallurgy, chemical, pharmaceutical, woodworking industries. The textile, leather and footwear, food industries are developed. The main branch of agriculture is crop production. Cereals (mainly corn and wheat), sugar beets, sunflowers, hemp, tobacco, potatoes and vegetables are grown. Fruit growing (Yugoslavia is the world's largest supplier of prunes), viticulture. Cultivation of cattle, pigs, sheep; poultry farming. Export - raw materials and semi-finished products, consumer and food products, machinery and industrial equipment.
The monetary unit is the Yugoslav dinar.
A Brief Outline of Culture
Art and architecture. At the beginning of the XIX century. secular art began to take shape in Serbia (portraits of the painters K. Ivanovich and J. Tominets). With the development of the educational and national liberation movement in Serbia in the middle of the XIX century. national historical and landscape painting appeared. It combined romantic features with realistic tendencies (works by D. Avramovich, J. Krstić and J. Jaksic). Since the second half of the 19th century, ceremonial buildings in the spirit of European eclecticism have spread in architecture (University in Belgrade).
Belgrade. Fortress Kalemegdan - the largest museum in the city (Roman baths and wells, exhibitions of weapons, two art galleries and a zoo, as well as the symbol of Belgrade - the statue "Winner"); Cathedral; the Palace of Princess Ljubica, built in the Balkan style in 1831; church of st. Sava - one of the largest Orthodox churches in the world, the construction of which has not yet been completed; the Russian church of Alexander Nevsky (Baron Wrangel is buried in the cemetery at the church); orthodox church of st. Brand (built from 1907 to 1932). Novi sad. Petrovaradinskaya fortress (1699-1780, the work of the French architect Vauban); Fruska Gora - a former island of the Pannonian Sea, and now the National Park - one of the largest linden forests in Europe with 15 monasteries built from the 15th to the 18th centuries; Vojvodina Museum; Museum of the city of Novi Sad; Gallery of Serbian Matica; Gallery them. Pavel Belyansky; building of the Serbian National Theater (1981).
The science. P. Savich (b. 1909) - physicist and chemist, author of works on nuclear physics, low temperatures, high pressures.
Literature. J. Jaksic (1832-1878) - the author of patriotic poems, lyrical poems, as well as romantic dramas in verse ("Resettlement of the Serbs", "Standing Glavash"); R. Zogovich (1907-1986), Montenegrin poet, author of civil lyrics (collections "Fist", "Stubborn stanzas", "Articulated word", "Personally, very personally"). World famous works of the Nobel laureate
The former Yugoslavia is the largest state of the southern Slavs. The political and military conflict in Yugoslavia in the early 90s of the 20th century led to the disintegration of the country into the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (which included Serbia and Montenegro), Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia and Macedonia. The final disintegration of the state of Yugoslavia ended in 2003-2006, when the FR Yugoslavia was first renamed the state union of Serbia and Montenegro, and in 2006 Montenegro, after a referendum, withdrew from it.
General information
Capital - Belgrade
The official language, the language of interethnic communication is Serbo-Croatian.
Total area: 255.800 sq. km.
Population: 23.600.000 (1989)
National composition: Serbs, Croats, Bosnians (Slavs who converted to Islam during the Ottoman yoke), Slovenes, Macedonians, Albanians, Hungarians, Rusyns, Gypsies, etc.
Monetary unit: dinar-krona (until 1920), dinar KSHS (until 1929), Yugoslav dinar (1929-1991)
History reference
The modern history of the former Yugoslavia begins in 1918, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (the Kingdom of the CXC) was formed. The date of the creation of the state is December 1, 1918, when, Dalmatia and Vojvodina - the Yugoslav lands that belonged to Austria-Hungary, which collapsed in the fall of 1918, united with the kingdoms and.
In 1929, the state was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. This name was adopted after the coup d'état organized by the king of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes Alexander on January 6, 1929. With this name, the state existed until 1945.
After the end of World War II, on November 29, 1945, Yugoslavia became a socialist federation, which included six union republics: Serbia (with autonomous regions - Vojvodina and Kosovo and Metohija), Macedonia (until that moment was an integral part of Serbia - Vardar Macedonia), Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The new state was named Democratic Federal Yugoslavia. In 1946, it was renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRYU). Since 1963, the state has become known as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY).
Introduction
Declaration of Independence: June 25, 1991 Slovenia June 25, 1991 Croatia September 8, 1991 Macedonia November 18, 1991 Croatian Commonwealth of Herceg-Bosna (annexed to Bosnia in February 1994) December 19, 1991 Republic of Serbian Krajina February 28, 1992 Republika Srpska April 6, 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina September 27, 1993 Autonomous Region of Western Bosnia (Destroyed in Operation Storm) June 10, 1999 Kosovo under the "protectorate" of the UN (Formed as a result of the NATO War against Yugoslavia) June 3, 2006 Montenegro February 17, 2008 Republic of Kosovo
During the civil war and disintegration, four of the six union republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia) separated from the SFRY at the end of the 20th century. At the same time, UN peacekeeping forces were introduced into the territory, first of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and then of the autonomous province of Kosovo.
In Kosovo and Metohija, in order to resolve the inter-ethnic conflict between the Serbian and Albanian populations according to the UN mandate, the United States and its allies conducted a military operation to occupy the autonomous province of Kosovo, which was under UN protectorate.
Meanwhile, Yugoslavia, in which at the beginning of the 21st century there were two republics, turned into Lesser Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): from 1992 to 2003 - the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, (FRY), from 2003 to 2006 - the confederal State Union of Serbia and Montenegro (GSSN). Yugoslavia finally ceased to exist with the withdrawal from the union of Montenegro on June 3, 2006.
One of the components of the collapse can also be considered the declaration of independence on February 17, 2008 of the Republic of Kosovo from Serbia. The Republic of Kosovo was part of the Socialist Republic of Serbia on the rights of autonomy, called the Socialist Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija.
1. Opposing sides
The main sides of the Yugoslav conflicts:
Serbs led by Slobodan Milosevic;
Bosnian Serbs, led by Radovan Karadzic;
Croats, led by Franjo Tudjman;
Bosnian Croats, led by Mate Boban;
Krajina Serbs, led by Goran Hadzic and Milan Babic;
Bosniaks, led by Aliya Izetbegovic;
Autonomist Muslims, led by Fikret Abdic;
Kosovo Albanians, led by Ibrahim Rugova (actually Adem Yashari, Ramush Hardinay and Hashim Thaci).
In addition to them, the UN, the United States and their allies also participated in the conflicts, Russia played a prominent, but secondary role. The Slovenes participated in an extremely fleeting and unimportant two-week war with the federal center, while the Macedonians did not take part in the war and gained independence peacefully.
1.1. Fundamentals of the Serbian Position
According to the Serbian side, the war for Yugoslavia began as a defense of a common power, and ended with a struggle for the survival of the Serbian people and for their unification within the borders of one country. If from the republics of Yugoslavia each had the right to secede on a national basis, then the Serbs as a nation had the right to prevent this division where it seized territories inhabited by the Serb majority, namely in Serbian Krajina in Croatia and in the Republika Srpska in Bosnia and Herzegovina
1.2. Basics of the Croatian position
The Croats argued that one of the conditions for joining the federation was the recognition of the right to secede from it. Tuđman often said that he was fighting for the realization of this right in the form of a new independent Croatian state (which some associated with the Ustashe Independent State of Croatia).
1.3. Fundamentals of the Bosnian Position
The Bosnian Muslims were the smallest of the fighting groups.
Their position was rather unenviable. The President of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Alija Izetbegovic, avoided taking a clear position until the spring of 1992, when it became clear that the former Yugoslavia was no more. Then Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence following a referendum.
Bibliography:
RBC daily from 18.02.2008:: In focus:: Kosovo headed by "Serpent"
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Abstract >> History
… 6. FRY in the years of crisis transformation. thirteen DecayYugoslavia and the formation of independent states in the Balkans ... by force. The most important reasons and factors that led to decayYugoslavia are historical, cultural and national differences ...
Decay Austro-Hungarian Empire
Abstract >> History
... other powers nevertheless recognized Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia lasted until World War II, ... GSHS (later Yugoslavia), a potential rival in the region. But in decay empires for ... were changed after the partition of Czechoslovakia and decayYugoslavia, but in general Hungary and …
Russia's attitude towards the conflict in Yugoslavia (2)
Abstract >> Historical figures
… with a very strong center. Decay federation meant for Serbia a weakening ... of the republic, namely in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decay SFRY on independent states can ... tension that determines the social climate Yugoslavia, more and more complemented by the threatening ...
Yugoslavia- story, decay, war
Abstract >> History
Yugoslavia- story, decay, war. Events in Yugoslavia early 1990s ... Constitution of the Federal People's Republic Yugoslavia(FPRY), which secured ... and Eastern Europe the Communist Party Yugoslavia decided to introduce in the country ...
Abstract of lectures on the history of the southern and western Slavs in the Middle Ages and modern times
Lecture >> History
... in the northwestern republics and a real threat decayYugoslavia forced the Serbian leader S. Milosevic to ... quickly overcome the main negative consequences decayYugoslavia and take the path of a normal economic ...
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Yugoslavia - history, disintegration, war.
The events in Yugoslavia in the early 1990s shocked the whole world. The horrors of civil war, the atrocities of "national cleansing", the genocide, the exodus from the country - since 1945 Europe has not seen anything like it.
Until 1991, Yugoslavia was the largest state in the Balkans. Historically, the country was inhabited by people of many nationalities, and over time, the differences between ethnic groups increased. Thus, the Slovenes and Croats in the northwestern part of the country became Catholics and USE the Latin alphabet, while the Serbs and Montenegrins, who lived closer to the south. adopted the Orthodox faith and used the Cyrillic alphabet for writing.
These lands attracted many conquerors. Croatia was occupied by Hungary. 2 subsequently became part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; Serbia, like most of the Balkans, was annexed to the Ottoman Empire, and only Montenegro was able to defend its independence. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, due to political and religious factors, many residents converted to Islam.
When the Ottoman Empire began to lose its former power, Austria captured Bosnia and Herzegovina, thereby expanding its influence in the Balkans. In 1882, Serbia was reborn as an independent state: the desire to liberate the Slavic brothers from the yoke of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy then united many Serbs.
Federal Republic
On January 31, 1946, the Constitution of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) was adopted, which fixed its federal structure in the composition of six republics - Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro, as well as two autonomous (self-governing) regions - Vojvodina and Kosovo.
Serbs were the largest ethnic group in Yugoslavia - 36% of the inhabitants. They inhabited not only Serbia, nearby Montenegro and Vojvodina: many Serbs also lived in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Kosovo. In addition to the Serbs, the country was inhabited by Slovenes, Croats, Macedonians, Albanians (in Kosovo), the national minority of the Hungarians in the region of Vojvodina, as well as many other small ethnic groups. Fairly or not, but representatives of other national groups believed that the Serbs were trying to get power over the whole country.
Beginning of the End
National questions in socialist Yugoslavia were considered a relic of the past. However, one of the most serious internal problems has become tension between different ethnic groups. The northwestern republics of Slovenia and Croatia prospered, while the standard of living of the southeastern republics left much to be desired. Mass indignation was growing in the country - a sign that the Yugoslavs did not at all consider themselves a single people, despite 60 years of existence within the framework of one power.
In 1990, in response to events in Central and Eastern Europe, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia decided to introduce a multi-party system in the country.
In the 1990 elections, Milosevic's socialist (former communist) party won a large number of votes in many regions, but achieved a decisive victory only in Serbia and Montenegro.
There were heated debates in other regions. Harsh measures aimed at crushing Albanian nationalism met with a decisive rebuff in Kosovo. In Croatia, the Serb minority (12% of the population) held a referendum in which it was decided to achieve autonomy; frequent clashes with the Croats led to a revolt of the local Serbs. The biggest blow to the Yugoslav state was the referendum in December 1990, which declared the independence of Slovenia.
Of all the republics, only Serbia and Montenegro now sought to maintain a strong, relatively centralized state; in addition, they had an impressive advantage - the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), capable of becoming a trump card during future debates.
Yugoslav war
In 1991, the SFRY broke up. In May, the Croats voted to secede from Yugoslavia, and on June 25, Slovenia and Croatia officially declared their independence. There were battles in Slovenia, but the positions of the federals were not strong enough, and soon the JNA troops were withdrawn from the territory of the former republic.
The Yugoslav army also came out against the rebels in Croatia; in the ensuing war, thousands of people were killed, hundreds of thousands were forced to leave their homes. All attempts by the European community and the UN to force the parties to cease fire in Croatia were in vain. The West was at first reluctant to watch the collapse of Yugoslavia, but soon began to condemn "Great Serbian ambitions."
Serbs and Montenegrins resigned themselves to the inevitable split and proclaimed the creation of a new state - the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Hostilities in Croatia were over, although the conflict was not over. A new nightmare began when ethnic tensions in Bosnia escalated.
A UN peacekeeping force was sent to Bosnia, with varying success, managing to stop the slaughter, alleviate the fate of the besieged and starving population, and create "safe zones" for Muslims. In August 1992, the world was shocked by the revelation of the brutal treatment of people in POW camps. The United States and other countries openly accused the Serbs of genocide and war crimes, but at the same time they still did not allow their troops to intervene in the conflict, later, however, it turned out that not only the Serbs were involved in the atrocities of that time.
Threats of air attacks by UN forces forced the JNA to give up their positions and end the siege of Sarajevo, but it was clear that the peacekeeping efforts to preserve the multi-ethnic Bosnia had failed.
In 1996, a number of opposition parties formed a coalition called "Unity", which soon organized mass demonstrations against the ruling regime in Belgrade and other large cities of Yugoslavia. However, in the elections held in the summer of 1997, Milosevic was again elected president of the FRY.
After fruitless negotiations between the government of the FRY and the Albanian leaders of the Kosovo Liberation Army (blood was still shed in this conflict), NATO announced an ultimatum to Milosevic. Starting from the end of March 1999, rocket and bomb strikes began to be carried out almost every night on the territory of Yugoslavia; they ended only on June 10, after the signing by representatives of the FRY and NATO of an agreement on the deployment of international security forces (KFOR) to Kosovo.
Among the refugees who left Kosovo during the hostilities, there were approximately 350 thousand people of non-Albanian nationality. Many of them settled in Serbia, where the total number of displaced persons reached 800,000, and the number of those who lost their jobs was about 500,000.
In 2000, parliamentary and presidential elections were held in the FRY and local elections were held in Serbia and Kosovo. The opposition parties nominated a single candidate - the leader of the Democratic Party of Serbia Vojislav Kostunica - for the presidency. On September 24, he won the election, gaining more than 50% of the vote (Milosevic - only 37%). In the summer of 2001, the former president of the FRY was extradited to the International Tribunal in The Hague as a war criminal.
On March 14, 2002, with the mediation of the European Union, an agreement was signed on the creation of a new state - Serbia and Montenegro (Vojvodina became autonomous shortly before that). However, interethnic relations are still too fragile, and the domestic political and economic situation in the country is unstable. In the summer of 2001, shots were fired again: Kosovo militants became more active, and this gradually developed into an open conflict between Kosovo Albanian and Macedonia, which lasted about a year. Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Djindjic, who authorized the transfer of Milosevic to the tribunal, was killed on March 12, 2003 by a sniper rifle. Apparently, the "Balkan knot" will not be untied soon.
In 2006, Montenegro finally separated from Serbia and became an independent state. The European Union and the United States made an unprecedented decision and recognized the independence of Kosovo as a sovereign state.
Breakup of Yugoslavia
Like all countries of the socialist camp, Yugoslavia in the late 80s was shaken by internal contradictions caused by the rethinking of socialism. In 1990, for the first time in the post-war period, free parliamentary elections were held in the republics of the SFRY on a multi-party basis. In Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, the communists were defeated. They won only in Serbia and Montenegro. But the victory of the anti-communist forces not only did not mitigate the inter-republican contradictions, but also painted them in national-separatist tones. As in the situation with the collapse of the USSR, the Yugoslavs were taken by surprise by the suddenness of the uncontrolled collapse of the federal state. If the role of the "national" catalyst in the USSR was played by the Baltic countries, then in Yugoslavia this role was taken by Slovenia and Croatia. The failure of the GKChP speech and the victory of democracy led to the bloodless formation of their state structures by the former republics during the collapse of the USSR.
The disintegration of Yugoslavia, unlike the USSR, took place according to the most sinister scenario. The democratic forces that were emerging here (primarily Serbia) failed to avert the tragedy, which led to grave consequences. As in the USSR, national minorities, feeling a decrease in pressure from the Yugoslav authorities (increasingly making various kinds of concessions), immediately asked for independence and, having been refused by Belgrade, took up arms, further events and led to the complete collapse of Yugoslavia.
A. Markovich
I. Tito, a Croat by nationality, creating a federation of Yugoslav peoples, sought to protect it from Serbian nationalism. Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had long been the subject of disputes between Serbs and Croats, received a compromise state status, first of two, and then of three peoples - Serbs, Croats and ethnic Muslims. As part of the federal structure of Yugoslavia, the Macedonians and Montenegrins received their own nation-states. The 1974 Constitution provided for the creation of two autonomous provinces on the territory of Serbia - Kosovo and Vojvodina. Thanks to this, the issue of the status of national minorities (Albanians in Kosovo, Hungarians and over 20 ethnic groups in Vojvodina) on the territory of Serbia was settled. Although the Serbs living on the territory of Croatia did not receive autonomy, but according to the Constitution they had the status of a state-forming nation in Croatia. Tito was afraid that the state system he had created would collapse after his death, and he was not mistaken. Serb S. Milosevic, thanks to his destructive policy, the trump card of which was the game on the national feelings of the Serbs, destroyed the state created by "old Tito".
Let's not forget that the first challenge to Yugoslavia's political balance came from the Albanians in the autonomous province of Kosovo in southern Serbia. The population of the region by that time was almost 90% Albanians and 10% Serbs, Montenegrins and others. In April 1981, the majority of Albanians took part in demonstrations, rallies, demanding the status of a republic for the province. In response, Belgrade sent troops to Kosovo, declaring a state of emergency there. The situation was aggravated by the Belgrade “recolonization plan”, which guaranteed the Serbs moving to the region, work and housing. Belgrade sought to artificially increase the number of Serbs in the region in order to annul the autonomous formation. In response, the Albanians began to leave the Communist Party and perpetrate repressions against the Serbs and Montenegrins. By the autumn of 1989, demonstrations and riots in Kosovo were ruthlessly suppressed by the Serbian military authorities. By the spring of 1990, the Serbian National Assembly announced the dissolution of the government and the people's assembly of Kosovo and introduced censorship. The Kosovo issue had a distinct geopolitical dimension to Serbia, which was concerned about Tirana's plans to create a "Greater Albania", which meant the inclusion of ethnic Albanian areas such as Kosovo and parts of Macedonia and Montenegro. Serbia's actions in Kosovo gave it a very bad reputation in the eyes of the world community, but it is ironic that the same community said nothing when a similar incident took place in Croatia in August 1990. The Serbian minority in the town of Knin in the Serbian Krajina decided to hold a referendum on the question of cultural autonomy. As in Kosovo, this turned into riots, quelled by the Croatian leadership, which rejected the referendum as unconstitutional.
Thus, in Yugoslavia, by the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, all the prerequisites were created for the entry of national minorities into the struggle for their independence. Neither the Yugoslav leadership nor the world community could prevent this except by force of arms. Therefore, it is not surprising that events in Yugoslavia unfolded with such swiftness.
Slovenia was the first to take the official step of breaking off relations with Belgrade and defining its independence. The tension between the "Serbian" and "Slavic-Croatian" blocs in the ranks of the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia reached its climax in February 1990 at the XIV Congress, when the Slovenian delegation left the meeting.
At that time, there were three plans for the state reorganization of the country: confederal reorganization, put forward by the Presidiums of Slovenia and Croatia; federal reorganization - of the Union Presidium; "Platform on the future of the Yugoslav state" - Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. But the meetings of the republican leaders showed that the main goal of the multi-party elections and the referendum was not the democratic transformation of the Yugoslav community, but the legitimization of the programs for the future reorganization of the country put forward by the leaders of the republics.
Slovenian public opinion since 1990 began to look for a solution in the withdrawal of Slovenia from Yugoslavia. On July 2, 1990, the Parliament, elected on a multi-party basis, adopted the Declaration on the Sovereignty of the Republic, and on June 25, 1991, Slovenia declared its independence. Serbia already in 1991 agreed with the withdrawal of Slovenia from Yugoslavia. However, Slovenia sought to become the legal successor of a single state as a result of "disengagement", and not secession from Yugoslavia.
In the second half of 1991, this republic took decisive steps towards achieving independence, thus determining to a large extent the pace of development of the Yugoslav crisis and the behavior of other republics. First of all, Croatia, which feared that with the withdrawal of Slovenia from Yugoslavia, the balance of power in the country would be upset to its detriment. The unsuccessful end of the inter-republican negotiations, the growing mutual distrust between national leaders, as well as between the Yugoslav peoples, the arming of the population on a national basis, the creation of the first paramilitary formations - all this contributed to the creation of an explosive situation that led to armed conflicts.
The climax of the political crisis came in May-June as a result of the declaration of independence of Slovenia and Croatia on June 25, 1991. Slovenia accompanied this act with the capture of border checkpoints, where the insignia of the state distinction of the republic were installed. The government of the SFRY, headed by A. Markovic, recognized this as illegal and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) guarded the external borders of Slovenia. As a result, from June 27 to July 2, battles took place here with well-organized detachments of the republican territorial defense of Slovenia. The six-day war in Slovenia was short and inglorious for the JNA. The army did not achieve any of its goals, losing forty soldiers and officers. Not much compared to the future thousands of victims, but proof that no one will give up their independence just like that, even if it has not yet been recognized.
In Croatia, the war took on the character of a clash between the Serb population, who wanted to remain part of Yugoslavia, on the side of which the JNA soldiers were, and the Croatian armed units, who sought to prevent the separation of part of the territory of the republic.
In the elections to the Croatian Parliament in 1990, the Croatian Democratic Community won. In August - September 1990, armed clashes between local Serbs and the Croatian police and guards began here in Klinskaya Krajina. In December of the same year, the Council of Croatia adopted a new Constitution, declaring the republic "unitary and indivisible".
The allied leadership could not accept this, since Belgrade had its own plans for the future of the Serbian enclaves in Croatia, in which a large community of Serbian expatriates lived. The local Serbs responded to the new Constitution by creating the Serbian Autonomous Region in February 1991.
On June 25, 1991 Croatia declared its independence. As in the case of Slovenia, the government of the SFRY declared this decision illegal, declaring claims to part of Croatia, namely the Serbian Krajina. On this basis, fierce armed clashes took place between Serbs and Croats with the participation of JNA units. In the Croatian war, there were no longer minor skirmishes, as in Slovenia, but real battles using various types of weapons. And the losses in these battles on both sides were enormous: about 10 thousand killed, including several thousand civilians, more than 700 thousand refugees moved to neighboring countries.
At the end of 1991, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution on sending peacekeeping forces to Yugoslavia, and the EU Council of Ministers imposed sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro. In February-March 1992, on the basis of a resolution, a contingent of UN peacekeeping forces arrived in Croatia. It also included a Russian battalion. With the help of international forces, hostilities were somehow contained, but the excessive cruelty of the warring parties, especially in relation to the civilian population, pushed them to mutual revenge, which led to new clashes.
On the initiative of Russia, on May 4, 1995, at an urgently convened meeting of the UN Security Council, the invasion of Croatian troops into the zone of separation was condemned. At the same time, the Security Council condemned the Serbian shelling of Zagreb and other civilian concentration centers. In August 1995, after the punitive operations of the Croatian troops, about 500 thousand Krajina Serbs were forced to flee their lands, and the exact number of victims of this operation is still unknown. So Zagreb solved the problem of a national minority on its territory, while the West turned a blind eye to the actions of Croatia, limiting itself to calls for an end to the bloodshed.
The center of the Serbian-Croatian conflict was moved to the territory that was disputed from the very beginning - to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Here, the Serbs and Croats began to demand the division of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina or its reorganization on a confederate basis by creating ethnic cantons. The Party of Democratic Action of Muslims headed by A. Izetbegovic, which advocated a unitary civil republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, did not agree with this demand. In turn, this aroused the suspicion of the Serbian side, who believed that it was about creating an "Islamic fundamentalist republic", 40% of whose population were Muslims.
All attempts at a peaceful settlement for various reasons did not lead to the proper result. In October 1991, the Muslim and Croatian deputies of the Assembly adopted a memorandum on the sovereignty of the republic. The Serbs, on the other hand, found it unacceptable for them to remain with minority status outside of Yugoslavia, in a state dominated by the Muslim-Croatian coalition.
In January 1992, the republic appealed to the European Community to recognize its independence, the Serb deputies left the parliament, boycotted its further work and refused to participate in the referendum, in which the majority of the population voted for the creation of a sovereign state. In response, the local Serbs created their Assembly, and when the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was recognized by the EU countries, the USA, Russia, the Serbian community announced the creation of the Serbian Republic in Bosnia. The confrontation escalated into an armed conflict, with the participation of various armed formations, ranging from small armed groups to the JNA. Bosnia and Herzegovina on its territory had a huge amount of equipment, weapons and ammunition that were stored there or were left by the JNA that left the republic. All this became an excellent fuel for the outbreak of armed conflict.
In her article, former British Prime Minister M. Thatcher wrote: “Terrible things are happening in Bosnia, and it looks like it will be even worse. Sarajevo is under constant shelling. Gorazde is besieged and is about to be occupied by the Serbs. Massacres are likely to begin there... Such is the Serbian policy of "ethnic cleansing", that is, the expulsion of the non-Serb population from Bosnia...
From the very beginning, the supposedly independent Serb military formations in Bosnia operate in close contact with the Serbian army high command in Belgrade, which actually supports them and supplies them with everything necessary for waging war. The West should present an ultimatum to the Serbian government, demanding, in particular, to stop economic support for Bosnia, sign an agreement on the demilitarization of Bosnia, facilitate the unimpeded return of refugees to Bosnia, etc.”
An international conference held in London in August 1992 led to the fact that the leader of the Bosnian Serbs, R. Karadzic, promised to withdraw troops from the occupied territory, transfer heavy weapons to UN control, and close camps that held Muslims and Croats. S. Milosevic agreed to allow international observers into the JNA units stationed in Bosnia, pledged to recognize the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina and respect its borders. The parties fulfilled their promises, although the peacekeepers have more than once had to call on the warring parties to end the clashes and ceasefire.
Obviously, the international community should have demanded from Slovenia, Croatia and then Bosnia and Herzegovina to give certain guarantees to the national minorities living on their territory. In December 1991, when the war was going on in Croatia, the EU adopted criteria for the recognition of new states in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, in particular, “guaranteeing the rights of ethnic and national groups and minorities in accordance with the commitments made within the framework of the CSCE; respect for the inviolability of all frontiers, which cannot be altered except by peaceful means by common consent.” This criterion was not very strictly enforced when it came to Serb minorities.
Interestingly, the West and Russia at this stage could have prevented violence in Yugoslavia by formulating clear principles for self-determination and putting forward preconditions for the recognition of new states. A legal framework would be of great importance, since it has a decisive influence on such serious issues as territorial integrity, self-determination, the right to self-determination, the rights of national minorities. Russia, of course, should have been interested in developing such principles, since it faced and still faces similar problems in the former USSR.
But it is especially striking that after the bloodshed in Croatia, the EU, followed by the US and Russia, repeated the same mistake in Bosnia, recognizing its independence without any preconditions and without regard for the position of the Bosnian Serbs. The rash recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina made war there inevitable. Although the West forced the Bosnian Croats and Muslims to coexist in one state and, together with Russia, tried to put pressure on the Bosnian Serbs, the structure of this federation is still artificial, and many do not believe that it will last long.
The prejudiced attitude of the EU towards the Serbs as the main culprits of the conflict also makes one think. At the end of 1992 - beginning of 1993. Russia has raised several times in the UN Security Council the issue of the need to influence Croatia. The Croats initiated several armed clashes in the Serbian Krajina, disrupting a meeting on the Krajina problem organized by representatives of the UN, they tried to blow up a hydroelectric power station on the territory of Serbia - the UN and other organizations did nothing to stop them.
The same tolerance characterized the attitude of the international community towards the Bosnian Muslims. In April 1994, the Bosnian Serbs were subjected to air strikes by NATO for their attacks on Gorazde, which were interpreted as a threat to the safety of UN personnel, although some of these attacks were instigated by Muslims. Encouraged by international condescension, Bosnian Muslims have resorted to the same tactics in Brcko, Tuzla and other Muslim enclaves under the protection of UN forces. They tried to provoke the Serbs by attacking their positions, because they knew that the Serbs would again be subjected to NATO air raids if they tried to retaliate.
By the end of 1995, the Russian Foreign Ministry was in an extremely difficult position. The government's policy of rapprochement with the West led to the fact that Russia supported practically all the initiatives of Western countries to resolve conflicts. The dependence of Russian policy on regular foreign exchange loans led to the rapid advancement of NATO in the role of the leading organization. And yet, Russia's attempts to resolve the conflicts were not in vain, forcing the opposing sides to the negotiating table from time to time. Carrying out political activity within the boundaries permitted by its Western partners, Russia has ceased to be a factor determining the course of events in the Balkans. Russia once voted for the establishment of peace by military means in Bosnia and Herzegovina with the use of NATO forces. Having a military training ground in the Balkans, NATO no longer represented any other way to solve any new problem, except for the armed one. This played a decisive role in resolving the Kosovo problem, the most dramatic of the Balkan conflicts.
When was Yugoslavia formed and when did it break up? What countries did it split into?
- Yugoslavia, the empire of violence against Croats, Bosnians, Albanians, ceased to exist,
These peoples have their own free and independent states without Serbian diktat!
comment - I wouldn't say - split # 180;; oh, it's still splitting!!!
- It broke up into Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Slovenia and Croatia, broke up, more precisely, it began from the moment of the collapse of the USSR
- Yugoslavia was formed (as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) as a result of the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century, disintegrated at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century.
Greater Yugoslavia First Yugoslavia. (1918-1946):seaside banovina
Zeta banovina
Savskaya banovina
Moravian banovina
Vrbava banovina
Drina banovina
Vardar banovina
Danube banovina
Belgrade
Croatian banovina (since 1939) arose as a result of the unification of the Savskaya and Primorskaya banovinasDuring the Second World War, Yugoslavia fought on the side of the Anti-Hitler coalition, was occupied by Nazi Germany as a result of the so-called. April war.
The head of the communist movement Josip Broz Tito found a common language both with the West and at first with the USSR. Tito's advantage was the multinational composition of his movement, while other movements were national.
In the late 1940s disagreements arose between the leader of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito and Stalin, which led to a break in relations with the USSR. Although after the death of Stalin they were partially eliminated.
The regime of Josip Broz Tito played on the contradictions between the states of the capitalist and socialist systems, which allowed Yugoslavia to develop quite rapidly in the post-war decades.Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) (since 1946)
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) (since 1963).
Federalism was chosen as the model for nation-building in socialist Yugoslavia, with six socialist republics and two autonomous socialist regions as federal subjects. All the peoples of Yugoslavia were recognized as equal in rights.
Socialist Second Yugoslavia (19461990):Serbia (union republic)
Kosovo (autonomous province)
Vojvodina (autonomous region)
Croatia (republic)
Slovenia (republic)
Bosnia and Herzegovina (republic)
Macedonia (republic)
Montenegro (republic)The factors in the collapse of the Yugoslav federation were the death of Tito and the fiasco of the national policy pursued by his successors, a surge of nationalism in 1990.
During the civil war, Yugoslavia turned into Lesser Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): from 1992 to 2003
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, (FRY), from 2003 to 2006
Confederate State Union of Serbia and Montenegro (GSCX). Yugoslavia finally ceased to exist with the withdrawal from the union of Montenegro on June 3, 2006.
In fact, the disintegration of Yugoslavia (separation of the autonomy of Kosovo and Metohija) continues to this day.
Yugoslavia broke up into states:Serbia
Croatia. After the collapse of Yugoslavia in 1991 and the declaration of independence of the country, recognized by the international community in 1991-1992, a war for independence began, which lasted until the end of 1995. The integrity of the country was finally restored in 1998.
Bosnia and Herzegovina In the spring of 1992 announced its withdrawal from the SFRY. It received its modern name in April 1992, and in May 1992 it was accepted into the UN.
Slovenia - independence from the SFRY June 25, 1991. Slovenia is the only country that left the SFRY with virtually no bloodshed.
Montenegro. The independence of Montenegro was officially recognized by Russia on June 12, 2006.
Macedonia. 1991 - declaration of sovereignty and a referendum on the independence of Macedonia, which led to a bloodless secession from Yugoslavia. - The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was created after the First World War on the ruins of Austria-Hungary, after the Second World War it became known as the SFRY - a socialist federal republic
It broke up in 1991, into the republics that were previously part of this federation:
Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia and Macedonia - Between the First and Second World Wars in 1918-1941. Yugoslavia existed under the names of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (KSHS) (since 1918) and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (KJ) (since 1929).
After World War II, Yugoslavia became a socialist federation of six union republics under the names of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) (since 1946), the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) (since 1963).
In 1991 Slovenia and Croatia became independent states; in Croatia, a war broke out between the government and the Serbs, who did not want to secede from Yugoslavia and announced the creation of an independent state of the Serbian Krajina. In September of the same year, Macedonia proclaimed its independence. 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina. On April 28, 1992, Serbia and Montenegro enacted a new constitution that established the creation of a new state, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY). In 2002, Serbia and Montenegro came to a new agreement regarding the continuation of cooperation within the framework of a confederal union, which, among other changes, promised the end of the use of the name Yugoslavia. On February 4, 2003, the federal parliament proclaimed the creation of a confederal State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, briefly Serbia and Montenegro. Yugoslavia finally ceased to exist with the withdrawal from the union of Montenegro on June 3, 2006. In fact, the disintegration of Yugoslavia (the separation of the autonomy of Kosovo and Metohija) continues to this day. - Obrasovalas posle vojni vov, a raspalas ny kogda 90, 91, chxoslosvakija v 199, a eti popossche, a voobsche Visantijskij stil, ogromnoe vlijanie Visantii na formirovanie kyltyri, da, i bolgari, a eti voobsche tyrki! Cohn dasche vneschne poxoschi myschini - Greki, tyrki!
