Postmodernism gained ground in the 1980s. From the beginning, it was not a purely sociological direction, but more of a philosophical direction.

In addition, even before the ideas of postmodernism began to be widely discussed in Western philosophy, there were already postmodern currents, for example. in literature, architecture, etc.

The formation of post-modernist judgments was influenced by the views of French theorists, incl. M. Foucault. In general, as a special theoretical trend, postomodernism arises in France. Among its representatives within sociology are J. Baudrillair, J.-F. Lyotard.

One can hardly speak of a unified postmodern theory. Within this area, there are various theories. approaches are often unrelated.

There are several sub-themes that unite representatives of this direction.

According to the supporters of postmodernism themselves, the social theory they present corresponds to some new state of society. From their point of view, humanity is entering a new era, which is different from the era of modernity, covering ~200 years of the history of the countries of the West. The term p-modern itself denotes a certain new state, presumably already achieved by developed Western societies.

In general, the greatest attention in postmodern concepts is paid to the changes taking place in the sphere of culture. First of all, these changes are associated with the decline of common national cultures and the spread of the so-called. multiculturalism, i.e. cultural diversity, plurality of lifestyles. The emergence of such cultural diversity was often associated with the formation of a post-industrial economy. At the same time, some authors of the Marxist orientation considered postmodern as a culture of the period of late capitalism, a society of mass consumption. If Marxists consider the sphere of culture secondary in relation to the economy, then in the postmodern concepts themselves, it is culture that acquires central importance, and the changes taking place in it are considered as determining the nature of the new society.

In the nth concepts, in a number of cases, elements of the theory of the information society are used, which assign the most important place in today's social changes to the development of means of communication, but at the same time, supporters of the nth draw far-reaching conclusions from the analysis of social processes associated with the emergence of the information society.

One of the most prominent representatives of p-m is Jean Baudrillard. In the 60s he was on the Marxist positions, in the future move away from Marxism. In the 70-80s. Baudrillard continues to consider, albeit from a different angle, the same problems as in an earlier period. At the center of his attention is modern Western society, which he characterizes primarily as consumer society. According to B., in the economically developed countries of the West, consumption has become the main content of social life, pushing production and accumulation into the background. At the same time, consumption serves to satisfy not so much genuine human needs as artificial ones, implanted by advertising. The process of their satisfaction, in principle, cannot be completed. He does not know any limit.

In a consumer society, production is increasingly becoming the production of signs rather than real things. The main object of analysis for Baudrillard is television and advertising.

As noted by B., our perception of the world around us is largely determined today by the virtual reality created by the media. Images appearing on TV screens may seem more real than the reality they reflect. In fact, it turns out to be impossible to separate the sign from the signified, the imaginary from the real. The virtual reality of the means of communication begins to take on a life of its own and no longer needs any objective reality.

According to B., any objective reality is completely dissolved in the virtual hyperreality. Moreover, the human being as the focus of philosophical and sociological research is disappearing. And there is no objective relationship between h and the environment.

In general, in the n-th theories, this largely determines their specificity, philosophical questions are raised about human knowledge, objectivity, and truth.

According to the authors of such theories, in the era of p-modernity, the answer to these questions should be completely different compared to the previous period. So, with t. sp. Jean-Francois Lyotard, postmodern means, first of all, the rejection of the so-called. "great narratives", i.e. philosophical and scientific theories that claim to know the ultimate truth, to understand the direction in which human history is moving.

Since the time of Hegel, Comte and Marx, history has been regarded as a progressive progressive development. All these theories were characterized by an unshakable faith in science, reason, and progress.

However, postmodern concepts are distinguished by skepticism about social progress, as well as the power of the human mind.

According to L., faith in universal liberation and the possibility of a rational society is a legacy of the Enlightenment, which today must be abandoned.

According to L., in place of large narratives with their claims to universalism, local narratives should come that serve the needs for knowledge of the surrounding world, only one specific human group and recognize the existence of differences between cultures.

In general, the ideas of p-m received an ambiguous assessment in sociological theory. Among the leading contemporary sociologists there are both supporters and irreconcilable critics of the ideas of postomodernism.

A peculiar interpretation of these ideas was offered by Sigmund Bauman. From his point of view, post-modern does not mean the beginning of some fundamentally new stage, but rather the end of the modern era.

In the n-m situation, one can finally evaluate the entire previous historical period, which was initiated by the industrial revolution and the ideology of the Enlightenment.

B. characterizes the state of p-m as modernity freed from false consciousness. As emphasized by B., today it has become obvious the illegitimacy of the claims of the ideologies that were formed in modernity. At the present time one can see the consequences of the dominance of such ideologies.

With t.sp. B., in today's world, intellectuals must realize that their role cannot be to impose on society some norms that correspond to some abstract principles. Intellectuals must abandon the role of legislators and take on the more modest role of interpreters or mediators between different cultures.

J. Habermas is the most consistent critic of the ideas of postmodernism; he accuses the supporters of this trend of political conservatism and argues that their theories are not so much POSTmodernist as ANTImodernist. With t.sp. H. himself, modern society has not yet realized all its potential, he believes that modern society does not suffer from an excess of rationality, as postmodernists say, but rather from its lack. H. points to the negative consequences of the domination in society of only one type of rationality - instrumental rationality, implanted by the capitalist economy and the bureaucratic state.

The way out of this situation is further rationalization of interaction, at the level of the life world, where a different type of rationality prevails.

A new impetus to X.'s disputes with postmodernists was given by the political events of the 1980s in the countries of Eastern Europe. On the one hand, the Eastern European revolutions of 1989 seemed to confirm some of the premises of postmodernist concepts. This applies primarily to the idea of ​​the decline of the total ideologies of the reorganization of society. The collapse of the Marxist ideology in the former socialist countries was consistent with this theoretical scheme. In addition, Western societies, presumably already entered the period of post-modernity, had a clear attraction in the eyes of the inhabitants of Eastern Europe and in many ways served as a model for them. However, according to X. the meaning of the social processes that unfolded in the former socialist countries, was in many respects the opposite of the statements of p-modernists.

With t.sp. H., Eastern European societies first of all tried to return to the era of modernity. The model for these societies was the social institutions of modernity - the market economy and parliamentary democracy.

In the controversy around the n-th concepts that unfolded in Western sociology, he actively joined Geoffrey Alexander. In general, A. rejects the idea that Western societies have entered the era of postmodernity. From his point of view, the social changes of the last few years have led rather to the spread and strengthening of the social institutions of modernity. Modern society does not give way to some new type of social order. In this regard, A. uses such a concept as neomodernism. Ultimately, he does not identify modernity with Western society, believing that various paths of modernization are possible.

In general, post-modern concepts were most popular in the 80s and 90s. And in the last few years, one can say that the peculiar fashion for n in Western sociology has largely passed.

Similar information.

Postmodernism first appeared in architecture, reflecting the protest against the concrete "boxes" that were built after the Second World War. Modernism - the use of cheap materials: steel, glass, concrete. The end of modernism dates back to 1972, when an entire block of concrete boxes was blown up in one of the US states because people refused to move in. Postmodernism then appeared in other art forms.

In the 80s of the twentieth century, postmodernism was formed as a theoretical movement associated with a certain unity of philosophical premises and methodological approaches. The leading theorists of postmodernism are poststructuralists (M. Foucault, J. Derrida, Lyotard) and postmodernists (J. Baudriard, Z. Baumann). Our scientists are Panarin, M. Ilyin.

Common to all postmodernisms is the assertion that serious fundamental changes have begun in modern society, which are fundamentally different from the changes characteristic of the previous phases of human development. What are these changes: people no longer believe in the inevitability of progress, in the possibility of a rational organization of society, in the ability of science to solve all problems; people have become more pessimistic about their future and much less inclined to believe that truth can be found through great theories and ideologies; there is now a much greater variety of theories, and most people are not inclined to admit that one set of ideas is absolutely true and others are false. The world has entered a new era - the era of postmodernity, where everything is suitable, all fashions, all styles are allowed, as long as none is taken too seriously. There are no absolute rules and evaluation criteria. The qualitative uncertainties of many social realities are characteristic. Relationships in the modern world are fleeting social interactions, inherently fragmentary. The multivariance and alternativeness of social development becomes obvious.

Postmodern is a characteristic of Western society, a feature is uncertainty in the structure of society. To analyze the realities of the postmodern era, a new type of theorizing is required - the postmodern type. Synergy is at its core. Unlike classical theories, postmodern theories are not aimed at finding exhaustive answers, but at identifying the characteristic trends of modern social development. The world is fragmentary, so all sociology can do is describe the characteristic theories of sociological development. Semiotics acquires special significance in these theories.

Question 29. Non-traditional approaches in modern sociology.

Conspirology.

Alexander Dugin. Conspiracy theories combine a wide range of sociological theories in which the development of society is seen as a struggle between hidden and overt forces. Reagan: "country of Mordor" - about the Soviet Union. Our ideologues translated it as "Evil Empire". Members of secret societies are trying to create a new order. The secret society consists not just of bad people, but of the geniuses of evil. Postulates:

The initial axiom of conspiracy theory is the idea of ​​the existence of a certain secret society. One of the features of the members of this society is their abnormality. Evil geniuses.

Masonic conspiracy.

The Masonic conspiracy theory began to take shape since the era of the French Revolution. Proceedings (authors): Barber, Robinson. The essence of criticism: Freemasonry is not a philanthropic organization, but a secret society of anti-Christian orientation, the purpose of which is the destruction of the church, the monarchical European powers, the establishment of a bloody dictatorship and satanic cults. Satanism grew out of the cabalistic sects of Judaism (Platonov). Satanism then spun off from Judaism and joined Freemasonry. According to Barbel and Robinson, all the catastrophes of European Christian society are the consequences of Masonic conspiracies.

Initially it was a trade union, then a union of masons. Later Masonic lodges ceased to be professional. 33 levels. Construction symbols predominate in the paraphernalia.

In Russia, the most famous anti-Mason - Nilus (published the Protocols of the Elders of Zion - is considered a forgery of Rachkovsky, compiled using documents from secret societies).

Jewish conspiracy.

Dugin believes that the decline of the Christian church led to the emergence of the concept.

Bankers conspiracy.

Most often, international bankers are considered conspirators.

Conspiracy of Poverty

Books - Suvorov (Re (i) vzun).

There is a special social type of people who do not have the necessary qualities either to organize production or to participate in production. They do not have the strength to effectively fit into the social system. But this marginal type seeks to take revenge and organize its own dictatorship.

Some works analyze the mystical nature of this conspiracy (including the communist conspiracy). The works of Igor Sha(e)farevich stand out. Also Shishkin.

Conspiracy of mondialists (globalists). There is a movement of mondialists who seek to impose the same model of social order on all countries of the world. A new world order based on the power of the technical elite and on total control over social processes. The unification of Europe from the point of view of the antimondialists is a typical example of the result of this conspiracy. The spread of the ideology of Walt Disney around the world is the introduction into the mass consciousness of artificial carelessness, passionate attention to the smallest details of everyday behavior, the proclamation of an easy entertaining lifestyle. For conspiracy theorists, even Mickey Mouse is a sinister figure. Disney is considered one of the most famous American Freemasons, who developed a special technique for deforming the mind of a child, when the emphasis is shifted from traditional Christian values ​​to unimportant details of life. The main elements of life are money and the struggle for power. Thanks to this special ideology, the innate feelings of kindness, compassion, beauty, conscientiousness, etc. are being destroyed.

occult model.

A special subspecies is a ufological conspiracy.

Another subspecies is the Aum Senrique (Sekua Sahara) sect. Members of this sect wanted to seize power first in Japan, then in other countries (gas attack on the Tokyo subway). In Russia, at one time, the sect numbered several thousand supporters. There are three ways to expose a conspiracy: a person breaks with him, a person ends up there by mistake and repents, the conspiracy is revealed in retrospect.

Postmodernism in sociology

The emergence of both turns in the development of theoretical sociology (according to Yadov) was significantly influenced by the concept, perhaps more precisely, the doctrine or even the paradigm of postmodernism. Postmodernism acts both as an alternative to modernism, and as an ideological position, and as a theoretical concept. At the same time, in all its "hypostases", postmodernism not only opposes modernism, but, in essence, turns into a kind of independent theoretical and ideological formation that has a significant impact on the development of existing sociological theories and the emergence of new ones.

Postmodernism is considered as a theoretical innovation that "covers", characterizes the future society, either that has come (coming) to replace the modern one, or is preparing for this change. In accordance with the statements of supporters of the concept of postmodernism, there is a process of folding a new world community of a new consciousness. This community is based on a market economy, liberal-democratic institutions, a culture with a touch of commercialization, etc. The new civilization based on them is rapidly expanding its borders. This is a global process, it acquired such a character and became especially successful after the collapse of the social system in the USSR and the countries of the socialist system.

Thanks to this and other processes (for example, the creation of the European Union, the introduction of a single currency for the countries included in it), all sorts of borders (not only territorial ones) are collapsing, statehood and the classical sense of the word loses its meaning, everything national-specific becomes illusory. Social changes of this kind have only recently begun, but they have a very great future, and they are an immediate prerequisite for the formation of a postmodern society.

In connection with the unifying trends in the world (for example, the creation of a united Europe), individual states give way to new structures. Their feature is a high level of stability. The standard of living in the new society being created is very high, but the requirements for countries wishing to join it are very strict. For such countries, a "new consciousness" is needed, which is the result of a complete rejection of the past, because in the new global system - postmodern society, the old categories do not work.

In a global civilization, i.e. In a postmodern society, unlike the current modernist one, there will be no hypertrophy of material consumption, since in the most developed Western countries the saturation point in this regard has already been reached. Moreover, as the French sociologist A. Touraine noted in his report at the XIII World Sociological Congress in Bielefeld in 1994, modern European society is much more materialistic than humanistic. So far, it continues to be very contrasting in this sense. However, the peculiarity of postmodernism lies in the fact that it raises the question of removing these contrasts, as well as the contrasts of the past and the future, traditions and modernity.

These were, so to speak, the general outlines of a postmodern society. As for the essence of his concept, it is in recognizing the diversity of vectors of development of different societies and cultures, in rejecting the Eurocentric scheme that "prescribes" some common trajectory of the socio-economic and cultural-historical process for all countries and peoples. Having arisen as an antithesis, a kind of theoretical and ideological opposition to modernism, based on the idea of ​​a directed society progressing from stage to stage, postmodernism is based on a different belief. It is based on the statement about the uncertainty of the direction of social development, which, however, does not mean a complete rejection of the idea of ​​social progress. The recognition of the latter is combined with the thesis about the presence of polyvariance of its paths. In fact, questions are being called into question about what social progress is and whether the vectors chosen by various countries for their own development are the ways to achieve it.

In sociology, there are discussions about the content of postmodernism and - especially - about the real possibilities of implementing postmodernist projects, which is a reflection of a certain theoretical and practical situation. First, the concepts of postmodernism are quite new and amorphous. Secondly, since they analyze the future of human society and cover a complex of issues related to the relationship of various countries, some blurring of the boundaries and outlines of the theories themselves becomes inevitable. Third, at the end of the 20th century the situation in the world changed so quickly and dynamically that it could not but affect the content and direction of postmodernism itself.

Speaking about discussions, but about postmodernism, we will give several points of view belonging to major contemporary sociologists. Within the framework of one of them, it is proved that talking about postmodernism is premature, since today a radical rethinking of modernism is required on the path to its significant renewal. This position can be conditionally called neo-modernist. It is followed by J. Habermas, E. Giddens, A. Touraine and others.

Habermas, for example, believes that although the realities of human existence are really not the same as before, the tasks they generate have not changed and there is no reason to refuse to solve them. The project that made our world modern and gave it the right to this name has not been completed. Therefore, the task of a "strong" society is to carry out a radical transformation of the world of modernity, without departing from itself, its principles and ideals.

Giddens, expressing a similar point of view, is in methodological opposition to postmodernism, believing that a modernist type of society is far from realizing its potential. In his opinion, the main characteristic feature of this potential is an extraordinary dynamism, which allows us to consider the modernist world as a world of "failed brakes." Modern society (the turn of the 20th-21st centuries) is defined by an English sociologist as a society of late modernity.

It is characterized by him with the help of four main features: industrialism (based on the widespread use of the most modern technology and technology); capitalism (its base is the production of goods based on the action of competitive markets for products and labor); institutions of control and supervision (they demonstrate the presence and influence of power and organization); monopoly domination of the state over the means of violence (within the borders of their countries). To these features, Giddens then adds a characterization of postmodern society as a "risk society" (in people's minds, the concept of risk replaces the concept of fate). Finally, and it is especially important to note, in recent works one more, extremely significant characteristic of postmodern society appears - globalization (more about it will be discussed a little later).

Unlike Habermas and Giddens, the English sociologist Z. Bauman, adhering to the postmodernist strategy for the development of society, based on the idea of ​​its decomposition and the "disappearance of the social", accepts the thesis of the completion of modernity, which, however, does not cause him great optimism. According to Bauman, "we live in times of not so much progress as risk...". This raises the question: are such innovations possible in principle that could ensure the creation of a perfect society, "will the science that invented Zyklon-B and the atomic bomb bring inevitable final liberation"? The same applies to culture, but in a different way. Bauman accurately notes the following important circumstance: “Modern culture was a culture of doubt, criticism and resistance. It fed its optimism about the future with pessimism about the present. If it expressed enthusiasm for an intention, it would necessarily condemn and condemn its next practical implementation. all the successive accomplishments of modern civilization - not a single one has stood the test of culture" [Bauman. 1994. S. 75]. This led to the fact that criticism of the results began to turn into criticism of intentions. Such reasoning convinces Bauman that the project of a postmodern society is highly controversial.

Attention is drawn to the attempt of some (primarily American) sociologists, who are considering the problem of transition to a postmodern society, to consider it the most expedient model of modern and future American society. It makes no sense to disclose here its very contradictory characteristics (if only in order not to idealize this model). The main thing is elsewhere. The very pathos of the concept of postmodernism does not allow the apology of any particular society, any one country. Global postmodern civilization is a kind of symbiosis of all the best that humanity has accumulated, it is like a resultant parallelogram of forces, which are the experience of the most developed countries.

Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia containing an amino group NH 2 and an organic radical. In general, the formula of an amine is the formula of ammonia in which the hydrogen atoms are replaced by a hydrocarbon radical.

Classification

• According to how many hydrogen atoms in ammonia are replaced by a radical, primary amines (one atom), secondary, tertiary are distinguished. Radicals can be the same or different types.
• An amine may contain more than one amino group, but several. According to this characteristic, they are divided into mono, di-, tri-, ... polyamines.
• According to the type of radicals associated with the nitrogen atom, there are aliphatic (not containing cyclic chains), aromatic (containing a cycle, the most famous is aniline with a benzene ring), mixed (fat-aromatic, containing cyclic and non-cyclic radicals).

Properties

Depending on the length of the chain of atoms in the organic radical, amines can be gaseous (tri-, di-, methylamine, ethylamine), liquid or solid substances. The longer the chain, the harder the substance. The simplest amines are water soluble, but as you move to more complex compounds, the water solubility decreases.

Gaseous and liquid amines are substances with a pronounced smell of ammonia. Solids are practically odorless.

Amines exhibit strong basic properties in chemical reactions; as a result of interaction with inorganic acids, alkylammonium salts are obtained. The reaction with nitrous acid is qualitative for this class of compounds. In the case of the primary amine, alcohol and gaseous nitrogen are obtained, with the secondary, an insoluble yellow precipitate with a pronounced smell of nitrosodimethylamine; with the tertiary reaction does not go.

They react with oxygen (burn in air), halogens, carboxylic acids and their derivatives, aldehydes, ketones.

Almost all amines, with rare exceptions, are poisonous. So, the most famous representative of the class, aniline, easily penetrates the skin, oxidizes hemoglobin, depresses the central nervous system, disrupts metabolism, which can even lead to death. Toxic to humans and couples.

Signs of poisoning:

Dyspnea,
- cyanosis of the nose, lips, fingertips,
- rapid breathing and increased heartbeat, loss of consciousness.

First aid:

Wash off the chemical reagent with cotton wool and alcohol,
- provide access to clean air,
- call an ambulance.

Application

As a hardener for epoxy resins.

As a catalyst in the chemical industry and metallurgy.

Raw material for the production of polyamide artificial fibers, such as nylon.

For the manufacture of polyurethanes, polyurethane foams, polyurethane adhesives.

The initial product for the production of aniline is the basis for aniline dyes.

For the production of medicines.

For the manufacture of phenol-formaldehyde resins.

For the synthesis of repellents, fungicides, insecticides, pesticides, mineral fertilizers, rubber vulcanization accelerators, anti-corrosion reagents, buffer solutions.

As an additive to motor oils and fuels, dry fuel.

For obtaining photosensitive materials.

Urotropin is used as a food additive, as well as an ingredient in cosmetics.

In our online store you can buy reagents belonging to the class of amines.

methylamine

Primary aliphatic amine. It is in demand as a raw material for the production of medicines, dyes, pesticides.

diethylamine

secondary amine. It is used as an initial product in the production of pesticides, drugs (for example, novocaine), dyes, repellents, additives to fuel and motor oils. It is used to make reagents for corrosion protection, for beneficiation of ores, for curing epoxy resins, and for accelerating vulcanization processes.

Triethylamine

Tertiary amine. It is used in the chemical industry as a catalyst in the production of rubber, epoxy resins, polyurethane foams. In metallurgy - a hardening catalyst in non-firing processes. Raw material in the organic synthesis of medicines, mineral fertilizers, weed control agents, paints.

1-butylamine

Tert-butylamine, a compound in which a tert-butyl organic group is bonded to nitrogen. The substance is used in the synthesis of rubber vulcanization enhancers, drugs, dyes, tannins, weed and insect control preparations.

Urotropin (Hexamine)

polycyclic amine. A substance in demand in the economy. Used as a food additive, drug and drug component, ingredient in cosmetics, buffer solutions for analytical chemistry; as a dry fuel, polymer resin hardener, in the synthesis of phenol-formaldehyde resins, fungicides, explosives, corrosion protection agents.