Activity is a specifically human activity regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and oneself.
Activity is a process of a person's active attitude to reality, during which the subject achieves the goals set earlier, the satisfaction of various needs and the development of social experience.
Main features of activity
Distinctive features of human activity are its social character, purposefulness, plannedness, systematicity.
The main characteristics of human activity are objectivity and subjectivity.
When analyzing activities, there are three plans for its consideration:
genetic, structural-functional and dynamic. 
Activity structure
Activity is the internal (mental) and external (physical) activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal.
Activity has its own structure: motives, methods and techniques, purpose and result.
motives- these are those internal goals that are associated with the needs of the individual and encourage her to a certain activity. The motive of activity is that which induces it, for the sake of which it is carried out.
The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual.
The motive and goal form a kind of vector of activity that determines its direction, as well as the amount of effort developed by the subject in its implementation. This vector organizes the entire system of mental processes and states that are formed and unfold in the course of activity.
Goals are the most significant objects, phenomena, tasks and objects for a person, the achievement and possession of which constitute the essence of his activity. The purpose of an activity is an ideal representation of its future result. A distinction should be made between the final goal and intermediate goals. Achieving the ultimate goal is tantamount to satisfying a need. Intermediate goals include goals that a person sets as a condition for achieving the final goal.
Goals can be close and distant, personal and public, depending on how important a person attaches to them and what role his activity plays in public life.
Methods and techniques (actions) are relatively complete elements of activity aimed at achieving intermediate goals subordinate to a common motive.
A complex external action for its implementation may require a number of acts related to each other in a certain way. These acts, or the links into which action breaks down, are operations.
Any activity includes internal and external components.
By its origin, internal (mental, psychic) activity is derived from external (objective) activity. Initially, objective actions are performed, and only then, as experience accumulates, a person acquires the ability to perform the same actions in the mind. The translation of an external action into an internal plan is called internalization.
Mastering internal activity leads to the fact that before starting external activity aimed at achieving the desired goal, a person performs actions in the mind, operating with images and speech symbols. External activity in this case is prepared and proceeds on the basis of the performance of mental activity. The realization of a mental action outside, in the form of actions with objects, is called exteriorization.
The activity is carried out in the form of a system of actions. Action is the main structural unit of activity, which is defined as a process aimed at achieving the goal. Allocate practical (objective) and mental actions. 
Each action can be divided into indicative, executive and control parts.
Mastering the activity: skills and abilities.
When carrying out activities, a person interacts with the objective (real or mental) world: the objective situation is transformed, certain objective situations are created, and intermediate results are achieved. Each operation in the structure of the action is determined by the conditions of the changing situation, as well as the skills and abilities of the subject of the activity.
Skill is a stereotyped way of performing individual actions - operations, formed as a result of their repeated repetition and characterized by curtailment (reduction) of its conscious control.
Distinguish between simple and complex skills
Skills are formed as a result of exercises, i.e. purposeful and systematic repetition of actions. As the exercise progresses, both quantitative and qualitative indicators of work change.
Skill arises and functions as an automated technique for performing an action. Its role is to release consciousness from control over the implementation of action methods and switch it to the goals of the action.
The success of mastering a skill depends not only on the number of repetitions, but also on other reasons of an objective and subjective nature.
Since many skills are included in the structure of actions and various activities, they usually interact with each other, forming complex systems. The nature of their interaction can be different: from consistency to opposition. 
To save a skill, it should be used systematically, otherwise de-automation occurs, i.e. weakening or almost complete destruction of developed automatisms. With deautomatization, movements become slower and less accurate, coordination is disturbed, movements begin to be performed uncertainly, require special concentration of attention, increased conscious control.
Skill is a method of performing actions mastered by the subject, provided by a set of acquired knowledge and skills.
Skills are formed as a result of the coordination of skills, their combination into systems with the help of actions that are over conscious control. Through the regulation of such actions, the optimal management of skills is carried out, which should ensure the accuracy and flexibility of the performance of the action.
One of the main qualities of skills is that a person is able to change their structure (skills, operations and actions that are part of the skills, the sequence of their implementation), while maintaining the same final result.
Skills are based on active intellectual activity and necessarily include thinking processes. Conscious intellectual control is the main thing that distinguishes skills from skills. The activation of intellectual activity in skills occurs at those moments when the conditions of activity change, non-standard situations arise that require the prompt adoption of various decisions.
Exercises are of great importance in the formation of all types of skills and abilities, thanks to them, skills are automated, skills and activities are improved in general. Exercises are necessary both at the stage of developing skills and abilities, and in the process of their preservation. Without constant, systematic exercises, skills and abilities are usually lost, lose their qualities.
Answer:
Activity- a dynamic system of interactions of the subject with the world, during which the emergence and embodiment of a mental image in the object and the realization of the relations of the subject mediated by it in objective reality take place.
Activity - internal (mental) and external (physical) activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal.
Activity structure.
Consists of several levels:
Psychophysiological functions;
Operations;
Actions;
Activities are special, or special activities.
In activity, movements and actions are distinguished. Action - each relatively completed element of activity aimed at performing one simple current task. The execution of the movement is controlled and corrected by comparing its results with the ultimate goal of the action. The performance of an objective action is not limited to the implementation of a certain system of movements. It includes sensory control and adjustment of movements in accordance with their current results and properties of the objects of action.
In relation to a person with other people, his activity is carried out, i.e. it expresses the personality of a person and at the same time it forms his personality. The emergence of activities in humans is a long process.
During the first year, based on the development of exploratory behavior, the child learns and gets to know the world. Then practical behavior begins. Further, communicative behavior develops - a means by which the child can satisfy his needs and desires.
Activities:
1) game. The connection of play activity with the body's energy metabolism explains the emergence of urges to play. A feature of gaming behavior is that its goal is the “activity” itself, and not the practical results that are achieved with its help. For a child, a game is a form of realization of activity, i.e. she gives him pleasure;
2) teaching. Learning, or mastering experience, is the main factor in the development of the child. Activity is aimed at mastering certain information, forms of behavior, but learning is possible only when a person himself is aimed at mastering certain knowledge, skills;
3) labor- activities aimed at the production of certain socially useful products - material or ideal. Labor activity of a person is a specific behavior that ensures his survival, the use of the forces and substances of nature.
The main characteristics of activity are objectivity and subjectivity.
In a developed form, objectivity is characteristic only of human activity. It manifests itself in the social conditionality of human activity, in its connection with meanings, in the concepts of language, in values, in roles and social norms.
The subjectivity of activity is expressed in the conditionality of the mental image by past experience, needs, attitudes, emotions, goals and motives that determine the direction and selectivity of activity.
Activity is a specific type of human activity aimed at creative transformation, improvement of reality and oneself. Activity is a form of realization of the relation of the subject to the world of objects; different types of such relations can be distinguished, implemented in different forms of activity: practical, cognitive, aesthetic, etc. Practical activity is aimed primarily at transforming the world in accordance with the goals set by man. Cognitive activity serves the purpose of understanding the objective laws of the existence of the world, without which it is impossible to perform practical tasks. Aesthetic activity associated with the perception and creation of works of art involves the transmission (transfer) of meanings, which are determined by the value orientations of a particular society and individual. All these are types of human activity.
Within each type of activity, separate types of activity can be distinguished according to the difference in their objects - motives: communication, play, learning and work.
Communication is the first type of activity that occurs in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these activities are of a developmental nature, i.e. when the child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development takes place.
Communication is considered as an activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relations, providing mutual assistance and teaching and educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal. In direct communication, people are in direct contact with each other.
A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games often have the character of entertainment, they are aimed at getting rest. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic relaxation of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is not able to weaken in any other way.
Games are: individual (one person is engaged in the game), group (with several people), subject (associated with the inclusion of any objects in a person’s gaming activity), plot (unfold according to the scenario, in basic details), role-playing (in the game a person leads himself according to the role he takes on) and games with rules (governed by a system of rules). Games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games have a developmental value, for adults - a discharge.
Teaching is a type of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized (in special educational institutions) and unorganized (in other activities as a side, additional result). Educational activity serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.
Labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. Thanks to labor, man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered the prospects for further, practically unlimited development. First of all, the creation and improvement of labor tools is connected with labor. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity. These are the main characteristics of activities.
At school A.N. Leontiev distinguishes two forms of the subject's activity (according to the nature of its openness to observation): external and internal. External activity usually refers to various forms of objective-practical activity (for example, driving a nail with a hammer, working on a machine tool, manipulating toys in young children, etc.), where the subject interacts with an object clearly presented for external observation. Internal activity is the activity of the subject hidden from direct observation with images of objects (for example, the theoretical activity of a scientist in solving a mathematical problem, the work of an actor on a role, proceeding in the form of internal reflections and experiences, etc.). The ratio of external and internal components is not constant. With the development and transformation of activities, a systematic transition from external components to internal ones is carried out. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If any difficulties arise in the activity, during its restoration, associated with violations of the internal components, a reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: the reduced, automated components of the activity unfold, appear outside, the internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.
Activity differs from behavior (behavior is not always purposeful, does not imply the creation of a specific product, is often passive) and has the following main characteristics: motive, goal, object, structure, means. We talked about motives and goals in paragraph 1.1., so let's move on to the third characteristic - the subject of activity. The object of activity is everything with which it directly deals. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is information, educational - knowledge, skills and abilities, labor - the created material product.
Activities have a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several "layers", or levels. These are special activities (or special activities); then the action level; the next is the level of operations; finally, the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. Special types of activity: game, educational, labor activity.
Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is one of the main "formative" activities. This concept, like a drop of water, reflects the main starting points or principles of the theory of activity, new in comparison with previous concepts.
1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness).
2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness must not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).
3. Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).
4. Human actions are objective; they realize social - industrial and cultural - goals (the principle of the objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).
The goal sets the action, the action ensures the realization of the goal. Through the characteristics of the goal, you can also characterize the action. There are large goals that are divided into smaller, private goals, which, in turn, can be divided into even more private goals, etc. Accordingly, any sufficiently large action is a sequence of actions of a lower order with transitions to different "floors" hierarchical system of actions. This can be demonstrated with any example.
Suppose a person wants to call another city. To carry out this action (I order), he needs to perform a number of private actions (II order): go to the call center, find a suitable machine, take a queue, purchase telephone tokens, etc. Getting into the booth, he must perform the following action in this row: connect with the subscriber. But for this, he will have to perform a number of even smaller actions (III order): lower the coin, press a button, wait for a beep, dial a certain number, etc.
Now we turn to operations, which form the next, lower level in relation to actions.
An operation is a way to perform an action. You can multiply two two-digit numbers in your mind and in writing, solving the example "in a column". These will be two different ways to perform the same arithmetic operation, or two different operations. As you can see, operations characterize the technical side of performing actions, and what is called "technique", dexterity, dexterity, refers almost exclusively to the level of operations. The nature of the operations depends on the conditions of the action being performed. If the action corresponds to the goal itself, then the operation corresponds to the conditions in which this goal is given. At the same time, "conditions" means both external circumstances and the possibilities, or internal means, of the acting subject himself.
The most accurate psychological sign that distinguishes between actions and operations - awareness / unconsciousness, in principle, can be used, however, not always. It stops working just in the border zone, near the border, which separates the layer of actions and operations. The farther from this boundary, the more reliable the data of self-observation: the subject usually has no doubts about the representation (or non-representation) in the mind of very large or very small acts. But in the border zone, the situational dynamics of the activity process becomes significant. And here, the very attempt to determine the awareness of an act can lead to its awareness, i.e., disrupt the natural structure of activity.
The only way that is now seen is the use of objective indicators, i.e., behavioral and physiological signs, of the active level of the current process.
Let's move on to the last, lowest level in the structure of activity - psychophysiological functions. Psychophysiological functions in the theory of activity are understood as the physiological provision of mental processes. These include a number of abilities of our body, such as the ability to sense, to form and fix traces of past influences, motor ability, etc. Accordingly, they speak of sensory, mnemonic, and motor functions. This level also includes innate mechanisms fixed in the morphology of the nervous system, and those that mature during the first months of life. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of the processes of activity. Without reliance on them, it would be impossible not only to carry out actions and operations, but also to set the tasks themselves.
Let's return to the characteristics of the activity, and the last characteristic is the means of carrying out the activity. These are the tools that a person uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of the means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which it becomes more productive and of high quality.
And in conclusion of the paragraph, we emphasize the main differences between human activity and animal activity:
1. Human activity is productive, creative, constructive. The activity of animals has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new in comparison with what is given by nature.
2. Human activity is connected with the objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him either as tools, or as objects for satisfying needs, or as means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs do not exist as such.
3. Human activity transforms himself, his abilities, needs, living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in the external conditions of life.
4. Human activity in its various forms and means of realization is a product of history. The activity of animals acts as a result of their biological evolution.
5. The objective activity of people from birth is not given to them. It is "given" in the cultural purpose and way of using the surrounding objects. Such activity must be formed and developed in training and education. The same applies to the internal, neurophysiological and psychological structures that govern the external side of practical activity. The activity of animals is initially set, genotypically determined and unfolds as the natural anatomical and physiological maturation of the organism.
Essence of motivation. Motive and incentive. Basic theories of motivation.
Motivation is a certain process of encouraging oneself or others to work and achieve certain goals. Incentive, stimulation also includes a material side, it is a kind of promise of reward, reward, which also serves as an incentive to work, to achieve goals. Motivation is an internal process. Stimulation is external. The motive implies the internal motivation or aspiration of the individual to behave in a certain way to satisfy the needs. And the incentive also captures the material aspect. Motivation theories: Informative: A. Maslow's model of motivation based on the hierarchy of needs: primary, social, respect and self-expression, self-realization through their consistent implementation; D. McClelland's model of motivation using the needs of power, success and recognition in the group, involvement in it; F. Herzberg's model of motivation using hygienic factors (working conditions, interpersonal relationships, etc.) in combination with the "enrichment" of the labor process itself: a sense of success, promotion, recognition from others, responsibility, growth of opportunities; Procedural: a model of motivation based on the theory of expectations by V. Vram: a person directs his efforts to achieve a goal when he is sure that his needs are met. Motivation is a function of the expectation factor according to the scheme: "labor costs -> results -" reward "; a model of motivation based on the theory of justice: people compare personal efforts expended with remuneration, comparing it with the remuneration of others for similar work. If labor is underestimated, efforts are reduced.
The concepts of "leadership" and "leadership", the features of these forms of influence.
Leadership is a purposeful impact on the people being led and their communities, which leads to their conscious and active behavior and activities, in accordance with the intentions of the leader. Leadership is the process of psychological influence of one person on others during their joint life, which is carried out on the basis of perception, imitation, suggestion, understanding of each other. Leadership is based on the principles of free communication, mutual understanding and voluntary subordination. The leader is characterized by: the ability to perceive the common needs and problems of the team and take on a certain share in solving these problems; the ability to be an organizer of joint activities: he formulates a task that worries most members of the team, plans joint work taking into account the interests and capabilities of each member of the team; sensitivity and insight, trust in people, he is the spokesman for the collective positions of its members. The main differences between leadership and leadership: leadership provides for the organization of all group activities, and leadership characterizes the psychological relations that arise in the group “vertically”, that is, from the point of view of dominance and subordination relations; leadership is a natural and necessary element in the process of emergence of an official organization, while leadership arises spontaneously as a result of the interaction of people; leadership acts as a process of legal organization and management of the joint activities of members of organizations, and leadership is a process of internal socio-psychological organization and management of communication and activities; the head is a mediator of social control and power, and the leader is the subject of group norms and expectations that are spontaneously formed in personal relationships. The leader-leader does not command, does not call and "does not put pressure" on employees, but leads people along to solve common problems for this team.
General and special functions of management activities.
Control functions- this is a direction or types of management activities based on division and cooperation in management, and characterized by a separate set of tasks and performed by special techniques and methods. Any management function includes the collection of information, its transformation, decision-making, shaping and bringing to the performers. General control functions:- carried out in every organization and at every level of management; - inherent in the management of any organization; - divide the content of management activities into types of work on the basis of the sequence of their implementation in time; - are relatively independent and at the same time closely interact. To such functions, in particular, in management include: planning, organization, motivation and control. Concrete (specific) functions- are the result of the division of managerial labour. Such functions include various activities that differ in purpose and method of implementation. Specific functions do not affect the entire organization, but certain parts or parts of it. Each specific management function in an organization is complex in content and includes common functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. Special Features - are sub-functions of a specific function (for example, a special function of main production management is operational scheduling of main production).
The main categories of PU are activity and labor. Activity - activity that realizes human needs, its characteristic is the external side (the tools used, technologies, social roles, languages, norms and values), the internal side (expressed in the conditioning of the psyche by past experience, needs, motives and goals). Human activity has a complex genetic, functional and structural character. It has its origins, "causes" and more or less definite structural and functional organization. Its composition is multicomponent. Its implementation involves mental processes, states and personality traits of different levels of complexity. Depending on the goals, this activity can last for years or even a lifetime. However, no matter how complex it may be, no matter how long it lasts, it can be described using universal units, which reflect not a meaningful, but precisely a structural-level approach to its description. The units of activity, which are its smaller fragments, but at the same time retain the specifics of its psychological content, are those of its elements that are fixed in the concepts of action and operation. Purposeful activity associated with the achievement of private goals in the implementation of a broader activity, it is customary in psychology to call actions. An operation is that specific set and sequence of movements that is determined by the specific conditions of interaction with objects in the process of performing actions (for example, the physical properties of the object, location, orientation in space, accessibility, etc.). Simply put, an operation is a way of performing an action. Operations are formed through imitation (copying) and by automating actions. Unlike actions, operations are less conscious.
The principle of the unity of the psyche and activity; two-stage study of the psychology of activity.
The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is the fundamental principle of the activity approach in psychology. Activity is not a set of reflex and impulsive reactions to external stimuli, since it is regulated by consciousness and reveals it. At the same time, consciousness is considered as a reality that is not given to the subject directly, in his self-observation: it can be known only through a system of subjective relations, incl. through the activity of the subject, in the process of which consciousness is formed and develops. The psyche, consciousness "live" in the activity that constitutes their "substance", the image is an "accumulated movement", i.e. curtailed actions, which were at first fully developed and "external", i.e. consciousness is not just "manifested and formed" in activity as a separate reality - it is "embedded" in activity and is inseparable from it. The principle of two-stage psychological study of activity. According to him, the analysis of activity should include two successive stages - the analysis of its content and the analysis of its psychological mechanisms. The first stage is connected with the characterization of the objective content of the activity, the second - with the analysis of the subjective, proper psychological content.
The main functions of management: planning, motivation, etc.
Currently, the process approach to management is widespread, which considers management as a process consisting of a number of specific sequential steps. Most people plan their activities for the day (month, year, etc.), then organize the resources that will be required to carry out their plan. Those. management must be seen as a cyclical process ^ Main types of managementPlanning - the process of preparing for the future decisions about what should be done, how, when, what and how much resources should be used. The planning function answers three questions: Where is the organization currently located? Where does she want to go? How the organization is going to do it. ^ Organization. Stages: 1. structural organization (includes the structure of authority and the structure of communications; 2. organization of the production process (includes the organization of personnel work, work in time, work in space). Motivation - maximum satisfaction of the needs of the employees of the organization in exchange for their effective work. Stages: 1. determination of the needs of employees; 2. enabling the employee to meet these needs through good work. The control - the process of ensuring that the organization actually achieves its purpose. Stages: 1. setting standards; 2. measuring what has actually been achieved and comparing what has been achieved against the intended standards; 3. identification of sources of discrepancy and actions necessary to correct plans.
Basic psychological requirements for an effective manager.
Many existing approaches to defining the normative model of an effective leader can be grouped into 3 main groups:
1. Situational;
2. Personal;
3. Situational.
1. Functional approach. The main point for developing requirements for
An effective manager is to define his functions. At the same time, the structure of the manager's activity is the main one for the allocation of functions.
In most cases, the functional characteristics of the activities of managers are associated with understanding and formulating the mission of the organization, setting goals, managing resources, controlling processes in the external and internal environment of the organization.
There are 12 functions that reflect the structure and specifics of the professional activity of a manager of functions:
1. Knowledge - knowledge of a person, group, organization, its environment, the current situation of management;
2. Forecast - determination of the main directions and dynamics of the development of controlled variables;
3. Designing - defining the mission, goals and objectives of the organization, programming and planning activities;
4. Communication and information - formation, structuring, preservation of communication networks, collection, transformation and direction to communication networks necessary for information management;
5. Motivation - a rational impact on the totality of external and internal conditions that cause activity and determine the direction of the activity of the subject and object of management;
6. Guidelines - taking responsibility for proposed solutions and their consequences based on regulations or agreements within organizations;
7. Organizations - implementation of the goals and objectives of management;
8. Training - the transfer of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to personnel;
9. Development - an expedient change in the psychological variables of the individual and the group;
10. Assessments - formation and application of norms and standards of activity;
11. Control - a reflection of the compliance of the current state of organizations with the goals of management;
12. Corrections - making the necessary changes to the goals and management programs.
When carrying out procedures for the professional selection of managers from the standpoint of a functional approach, the readiness of applicants to effectively perform precisely those functions that are characteristic of the proposed position is assessed.
2. Personal approach. It is based on the assumption that effective managerial activity is associated with the manager's possession of some set of personality traits.
The profile of an effective manager, according to which a successful leader is characterized by the following features:
Search for opportunities and initiative; perseverance and perseverance;
Focus on efficiency and quality; involvement in working contacts;
Purposefulness;
Awareness;
Ability to persuade and establish connections; independence and self-confidence.
3. Situational (behavioral) approach. Successful leadership depends on:
1. expectations and needs of led persons;
2. structure of the group and the specifics of the situation;
3. The cultural environment in which the group is included;
4. the history of the organization in which the management activities are carried out;
5. age and experience of the leader, his length of service;
6. Psychological climate in the group;
7. personal characteristics of subordinates.
The situational approach allows us to identify a number of managerial personality traits that indicate the manager's readiness for productive activity in a wide range of situations. These include, in particular, the ability to change leadership style flexibly, resistance to uncertainty, and the absence of rigid stereotypes.
Thus, we can conclude that beyond the task of the professional selection of managers is to establish the correspondence of the personal characteristics of the applicant to the characteristics of the organization, the structure and functions of the activity, the current and predicted state of the professional environment.
The essence of management activity, two main plans for its characteristics.
Activity is defined as a form of the subject's active attitude to reality, aimed at achieving consciously set goals and associated with the creation of socially significant values and the development of social experience. The subject of the psychological study of activity is the psychological components that induce, direct and regulate the labor activity of the subject and implement it in performing actions, as well as the personality traits through which this activity is realized. The main psychological properties of activity are activity, awareness, purposefulness, objectivity and systemic nature of its structure. An activity is always based on some motive (or several motives). Activity involves two main characterization plans - external (subject-effective) and internal (psychological). The external characteristic of activity is carried out through the concepts of the subject and object of labor, the subject, means and conditions of activity. The subject of labor is a set of things, processes, phenomena with which the subject in the process of work must mentally or practically operate. Means of labor - a set of tools that can enhance a person's ability to recognize the features of the object of labor and influence it. Working conditions - a system of social, psychological and sanitary-hygienic characteristics of activity. The internal characteristic of activity involves a description of the processes and mechanisms of its mental regulation, its structure and content, operational means of its implementation.
The mechanism of execution of decisions and its role in management activities. Decision-making model as a circular process, its stages.
Stages of the decision-making process: 1) Identification of the problem - the primary distinction in a given conflicting situation of a problem that needs to be resolved. The discovered discrepancy between the actual and desired state of the organization. 2) Analysis, diagnosis of the problem based on the collection of factual material related to the problem that has arisen. Having discovered the problem, it is necessary to properly qualify it, which is the second task of the process of developing a management decision. Diagnostics is designed to establish the nature of the problem, its connection with other problems, the degree of its danger, the collection and analysis of facts. 3) Determining the essence of the problem, its main content. At this stage, the results of the analysis are used to develop solutions. There should be many such options, so that by comparing them it would be possible to choose the best, most reasonable. 4) Choosing the optimal solution and bringing its content to the performers. Such a choice involves consideration of all options for the proposed solution and the exclusion of subjective moments in its content. The optimal option will be the one that best takes into account the essence of the problems that have arisen, is acceptable in terms of the amount of expenses necessary for its implementation, and is the most reliable in terms of the possibility of its implementation. 5) Practical implementation under the control of the head through the use of a feedback mechanism. The implementation of the adopted decision includes all the main phases of the management cycle - planning, organization, motivation and control.
Sole and agreed decisions, conditions for their adoption. The need to make a decision arises when the usual, stereotyped reaction to the information received is impossible. The manager can make decisions both individually and in coordination with the work team. Sole decisions are made by the manager mainly with a minimum communicative space - for example, decisions made in emergency conditions, or decisions whose significance is not great. But there are also decisions that are better to make agreed, taking into account the opinion of the team, or taking into account the opinion of firms with which the enterprise cooperates, for example, on changing the delivery time for products.
The role of feedback in the management communication system.
Feedback - prompt reaction to what is heard, read or seen; this is information (in verbal and non-verbal form) that is sent back to the sender, indicating a measure of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and agreement with it. Feedback allows the sender not only to know the result of the act of communication, but also to correct the next message to achieve a greater effect. If the result of the transmission of the message is achieved, it is said that positive feedback is in effect; otherwise, negative feedback operates. Establishing feedback in an organization is a rather difficult task. This is especially true of vertical, power communications under control through coercion, when the recipient of information is afraid of possible sanctions and deliberately distorts the message coming through feedback channels.
Methods of psychological research: general scientific and special; non-experimental and experimental.
Non-experimental methods: observation; questioning; conversation; archival method "or the study of products of activity (The object of research when using the method of studying products of activity can be a wide variety of creative products of the subjects (poems, drawings, various crafts, diary entries, school essays, objects, as a result of a certain type of labor experimental methods: natural (conditions are organized not by the experimenter, but by life itself, the natural behavior of a person is evaluated); modeling (the subject acts according to the experimenter's instructions and knows that he is participating in the experiment as a subject); laboratory (conducting research in the psychological laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices.This type of experiment, which is also distinguished by the greatest artificiality of experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, reaction choice).General scientific methods reflect the scientific apparatus of research, determining ii efficiency of any type. Specific - these are methods that are born by the specifics of management systems and reflect the peculiarity of management activities.
Theme Human activity, its main forms
Activity- a way of a person's relationship to the outside world, consisting in the transformation and subordination of his goals to a person.
Activity- this is a way of interacting with the outside world inherent only to a person, in the process of which he consciously changes the world and himself, creating something that was not in nature.
Human activity has a certain similarity with the activity of an animal, but differs in a creative and transformative attitude to the world around.
| human activity | Animal activity |
| Adaptation to the natural environment through its large-scale transformation, leading to the creation of an artificial environment for human existence. Man keeps his natural organization unchanged, while at the same time changing his way of life. | Adaptation to environmental conditions primarily through the restructuring of one's own organism, the mechanism of which is mutational changes fixed by the environment |
| Goal setting in activity | Expediency in behavior |
| Conscious setting of goals related to the ability to analyze the situation (discover cause-and-effect relationships, anticipate results, think through the most appropriate ways to achieve them) | Obedience to instinct, actions are initially programmed |
Main components of activity (structure of activity)
Subject of activity - is the one who carries out the activity (individual, collective, society)
Activity object - this is what the activity is aimed at (object, process, phenomenon, internal state of a person). Lightning object. Installing a lightning rod. Lightning rod - a device installed on buildings and structures and serving to protect against lightning strikes. The object is the atmosphere, the earth.
motive - a set of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine the direction of activity. This is what motivates us to work. What is the need for the activity? The following can act as motives: needs; social attitudes; beliefs; interests; drives and emotions; ideals.
Purpose of activity - this is a conscious image of the result, to achieve which the action of a person is directed. What is the desired outcome of the activity?
Methods, means. How, with the help of what is the activity carried out?
Process.
Result (product). What happened after all the actions?
An activity consists of a chain of actions. Action is a process aimed at achieving the goal.
Social action includes two points: the subjective motivation of the individual; orientation toward others, which Weber calls "expectancy" and without which action cannot be considered as social.
Its main subject is the individual. Action types(Classification of the German sociologist, philosopher, historian M. Weber (1864-1920) depending on motives):
| View | His essence |
| Value-rational action | It is characterized by a conscious determination of its direction and a consistently planned orientation towards it. But its meaning is not in achieving any goal, but in the fact that the individual follows his convictions about duty, dignity, beauty, piety, etc. (Saving a person from a sense of duty, understanding the value of human life, the need to help people) . A captain who drowned after refusing to leave his ship in a wreck. |
| Affective (lat. affectus - emotional excitement) action | It is due to the emotional state of the individual. He acts under the influence of passion if he seeks to immediately satisfy his need for revenge, pleasure, devotion, etc. (A fighter entered the battle against an enemy superior in strength under the influence of a desire to avenge the death of his comrades in war). The mother may hit the child because the child behaves unbearably. |
| traditional action | Based on a long habit. The action is performed under repetitive conditions and according to a firmly established model (ceremonies, rituals). Often this is an automatic reaction to a habitual irritation in the direction of a once learned setting. |
Affective and traditional actions are not in the strict sense social, since we are not dealing here with the awareness of the meaning of affective and traditional behavior.
The activity of people unfolds in various spheres of society, its direction, content, means are infinitely diverse.
Activities, which inevitably includes each person in the process of his individual development: play, communication, teaching (knowledge), work.
A game is a special type of activity, the purpose of which is not the production of any material product, but the process itself is entertainment, recreation.
Characteristic features of the game: takes place in a conditional situation, which, as a rule, changes rapidly; in its process, so-called substitute objects are used; is aimed at satisfying the interest of its participants; contributes to the development of the personality, enriches it, equips it with the necessary skills (through the game, social roles are mastered, norms - compliance with the rules of the game, the formation of personal qualities - the development of patience (follow the goal for a long time) when playing hide and seek, concentration, honesty).
Communication is an activity in which ideas and emotions are exchanged. It is often expanded to include the exchange of material items. This broader exchange is communication [material or spiritual (informational)].
| comparison lines | Communication | Information communication | ||||
| 1. General | Information exchange | |||||
| 2. Differences | The recipient of the information is a person | Recipient of information - human, animal, machine | ||||
| Mutual exchange with the active participation of each subject | Unidirectional flow of information in the absence or formal nature of feedback | |||||
| Strengthening the community of participants | Members remain isolated | |||||
| Subject - the one who initiates communication (individuals, groups, communities, humanity as a whole) | ||||||
| A goal is something for which a person needs to communicate. | ||||||
| Structure of communication | Content is the information that is transmitted in interpersonal contacts from one to another. | |||||
| Means are ways of transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication (using the senses, texts, drawings, diagrams, radio-video equipment, the Internet, etc.) | ||||||
| Recipient of information | ||||||
Exist several classifications of communication.
By means of communication used:
Immediate- with the help of natural organs - hands, head, vocal cords, etc.
mediated- with the help of specially adapted or invented means - a newspaper, a compact disc, a footprint on the ground, etc.
direct- personal contacts and direct perception of each other
indirect- through intermediaries, which may be other people
By subjects of communication:
Between real subjects
Between a real subject and an illusory partner, to whom qualities of the subject of communication that are unusual for him are attributed (these can be pets, toys, etc.)
Between a real subject and an imaginary partner, it manifests itself in an internal dialogue (“inner voice”), in a dialogue with the image of another person
Between imaginary partners - artistic images of works
Communication functions
In modern science, there are several approaches to the relationship between activity and communication.
Communication is an element of any activity, and activity is a necessary condition for communication; one can put an equal sign between them;
Communication is one of the types of human activity along with play, work, etc.;
Communication and activity are different categories, two sides of a person's social existence: labor activity can proceed without communication, and communication can exist without activity.
Doctrine- this is a type of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person.
Teaching can be organized (carried out in educational institutions) and disorganized (carried out in other activities as their secondary additional result).
Teaching can take on a character self-education
On the question of what is work, there are several points of view:
- work is any conscious human activity. Where there is human interaction with the outside world, we can talk about labor;
- work- one of the activities, but not the only one.
Work is a type of activity that is aimed at achieving a practically useful result.
Characteristic features of work: expediency; focus on achieving programmed expected results; availability of skills, abilities, knowledge; practical usefulness; getting a result; personality development transformation of the human environment.
Labor provides a livelihood, allows you to feel needed by society (significant), allows you to develop abilities, maintains intellectual health, brings the joy of communicating with other people.
In each type of activity, specific goals, tasks are set, a special arsenal of means, operations and methods is used to achieve the set goals. At the same time, none of the types of activity exists outside of interaction with each other, which determines the systemic nature of all spheres of public life.
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Any human meaningful activity is expedient and motivated by internal or external reasons. It transforms the surrounding reality, and therefore it is important to understand the goals and driving motives of the individual through these criteria. Why is this important? To predict cause-and-effect relationships and the results of an individual's activity. Both the subject of activity and the surrounding society will use these criteria for their own purposes.
Activity
This is a conscious activity of a person, aimed at satisfying personal and social needs, having a specific goal and motive. All activities of people form the process of development of society.
Activity is a form of realization of the goals of people in society. In its process, both the external world as an object of conscious influence and the person himself are transformed. This happens as a result of improving knowledge about the world and its capabilities. Therefore, it is so important to know and take into account the motivating motives of activity and the direction of people's actions in society, since in the end they form the system of social life of society, and their effectiveness depends on motivation.
Human activities are given attention by different disciplines. Sociology considers it from the point of view of social significance. Philosophy - for the analysis of meanings and values in the actions of people, for psychology, the structure and the person are important from the point of view of the mental orientation of the individual, for management it serves as a tool for motivating employees.
In the process of studying different areas of humanitarian knowledge, a single basis was singled out that characterizes the process of activity. This structure and its elements constitute the principle of expedient activity, which is preserved in all its types.
Phenomenon structure
Any activity has a common nature and direction. A person looks succinctly enough, the scheme of which can be represented as follows: goal → motive → result. But this chain does not contain all the links. Moreover, it is characterized by the cyclic nature of the repetition of the process. And the beginning of such a chain is based on the result of previous activities. Rather, it is a spiral that rushes towards the perfection of man and society.
Before setting a goal, a person must feel the need and the motive for activity that arises on its basis. Moreover, the result is not the end of the chain, but serves as the basis for a new stage in the active development of the personality from setting a goal (task) based on a certain motive and to the process of achieving the result using the selected methods and means to achieve it. This is the logical structure and its stages. These are the links of one chain, and they act as a structure of human activity:
- Need.
- Motive.
- Target.
- Process.
- Method (method) of implementation.
- Result.
Each of the elements performs a specific function, it is important for the whole process. Without an identified need, it is impossible to determine the authorship of the goal. This form of activity has no result, or it is alienated from the subject of activity, does not belong to him and does not serve his purpose, since it makes the whole process meaningless.
If the process replaces the result, people lose interest in this area of activity. If the result does not meet expectations, the individual loses its meaning and may degrade due to the lack of the most important quality of human activity - the awareness of its purpose.
Analysis and synthesis
Forms of activity are studied by a complex of sciences of a social and humanitarian orientation. One of their tasks is to reveal the nature of goal-setting in human activity in order to motivate each member of society for socially significant activity and prevent anti-social motives and asocial orientation in people's actions.
The analysis of all elements of the chain makes it possible to discover the cause-and-effect patterns of the interaction of motives and results of activity, the goals and forms of the process, thereby helping to understand the driving forces of society.
The structure itself is not linear. It repeats, intersects with other forms and methods of action of a person and a group, is absorbed, sometimes interrupted, without culminating in the achievement of the goal.
An analysis of the activity structure of a completed cycle gives an idea of the strength of motivation, the ways of applying energy to solve problems, and other socio-psychological factors of activity. It can serve as a quality tool for creating motivational programs and methods for organizing the labor process.
Knowledge about the causes and conditions for the formation of motives can serve as an effective tool for creating incentive programs in the process and professional self-realization of people.
The purpose of the activity is the leading motivator
The level of a goal declared by a person depends on his culture, capabilities, environment, social conditions. Not always he can accurately formulate the goal. More often, personal goals are replaced by external attributes of success and values characteristic of a certain moral environment of society. The ability to formulate a personal goal of activity is an indicator of a person's personal development.
The purpose of an activity is to understand its result. This idea is material, having spatio-temporal localization.
Goals can be internal, immanent (intrinsic) to human nature and external, determining the activity of the individual. External and internal goals may coincide. This is the best option for the benefit of society and the individual, since it does not provoke a conflict of interest.
If the external goal does not correspond to the interests of the individual, then the activity can achieve a result, but it is permissible to talk about efficiency if there is a strong motive for achieving the result. If the goal solves important tasks for the individual, it in itself can act as a powerful motivating factor. So, what is the motive of activity? What role does he play?
Motivational Needs
This concept is so important in terms of mental processes that there are numerous theories of human motivation. One of the most famous is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. According to this system, it is the needs that are the internal engine of the individual, they encourage him to create and be creative, and the structure of human activity is based on them. Maslow's scheme consists of several levels:
- The desire to satisfy the physiological need for food, home, warmth.
- Existential needs: security of life, inviolability of housing, the presence of a predictable future.
- Social security: the need for love, the need for people, belonging to a social group.
- Spiritual needs in creativity.
- cognitive needs.
- Aesthetic. This is a desire for harmonization of the inner and outer world, for beauty.
- The need for self-actualization (a person wants to have status, recognition, strives for full self-expression).
All needs that are aimed at the personal well-being of the individual are basic, primary. The level of recognition by society, the desire to lead a social life - all this is secondary. Such needs are formed when the basic ones are satisfied.
motive
The motive forms the goal, as the activity structure shows. The diagram clearly demonstrates the importance of this element. It should be added that all needs are inherent in human nature. But the leading motivator will be the one that solves the most urgent tasks to achieve personal goals.
The motive, if you characterize it briefly, is the meaning of a person's activity, his activity.
In order to understand what the motive of activity is, let's look at an example.
If a person strives to become a leader, his goal is to acquire the status of a leader, the motive is to satisfy the need for recognition, the result is a high position. In real life, everything is not so schematic and primitive, of course. Motives are often multilevel, as are goals.
Methods and methods of activity
An analysis of the structure of activity leads logically to a number of questions.
How are the goal and the result interrelated, how do these moments affect each other? What is In what way does it manifest itself in the process of achieving the goal?
Indeed, if the motive is an internal engine, then the way or method of achieving the goal is an external form of the implementation of the activity. And it should be adequate to the purpose. Compliance of methods and methods with the result obtained is a qualitative characteristic of the process. The discrepancy between the forms and content of activity and the set goal can have negative consequences both for the individual and for the immediate environment.
If a person strives to become educated, and his internal motive is the need for knowledge, then buying a diploma will never become an adequate form of achieving the goal. The characteristic of the structure of activity always gives an idea of the adequacy of the goal, methods and results of the process.
Process is always action. The characteristic of the structure of activity of different options gives an idea of the possible ways of development of events. Actions can lead to a result, then they form an expedient process. Actions at the level of affects, habits, false beliefs, delusions in relation to the goal are inappropriate and lead to unpredictable results.
Activities
The activities are varied. The chosen path depends on various parameters - age, profession, status, field of activity. Let us consider some types in order to trace how the psychological structure of human activity changes.
This process does not begin with adulthood, when a person becomes able to make a free and independent choice with the full degree of responsibility. Activities are carried out from the very first days of life. Only the degree of her awareness and motivation changes.
An infant, like a fully formed personality, has a goal, but it cannot yet be called conscious. But he is driven by a strong motive - satisfaction. He is already active at the subconscious level of reflexes.
Next comes the play activity. In childhood, she is the leader. At this stage, the general structure of activity is already manifesting itself. It reflects the entire hierarchy of Maslow's needs in a collapsed form.
The next natural stage is the educational activity of a person. Its purpose is to acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities. This is a very important activity.
It is present at all stages of human life. It can be said differently: any kind of activity performs a learning function.
As a rule, in the process of labor, the expedient activity of the individual is realized to the full extent. Ultimately, a product is produced that satisfies the current needs of society.
The result of the creative process is a work of art. The desire for self-expression contains the structure of activity. The scheme demonstrates the close relationship between this motive and the goal: the motive of self-expression ↔ way ↔ goal. But it takes place not necessarily only in a creative environment. The element of creating something new is present in all forms of human activity, but to varying degrees, of course.
Result
The final stage for the sake of which any activity is carried out is the planned result. If it does not meet expectations, a person may experience frustration - a mental state that characterizes internal devastation, disappointment. Naturally, this kind of phenomenon does not contribute to the success and further setting of goals. Therefore, it is so important that the result brings joy. The latter must be distinguished from pleasure. A person experiences joy in the event that he puts effort into the process to obtain a result. In this case, the result itself is a logical motivator for further activity, because people tend to strive for positive emotions.
The result is the end product of human activity. At the same time, it must meet the set goal. The structure of human activity coincides in this phase. Having achieved the goal and received the result, the individual enters a new level of need that needs to be satisfied.
The result often appears in the form of a product, but it does not always have a material shell.
The result can be a goal that brings joy from the process of work. If the result of the activity corresponds to the goal, then the person has achieved a positive result. If not, then a negative experience is formed, which should also be taken into account when planning for the future.
Rational activity and personality
Human activity, the purpose of which is self-improvement, deserves special attention. During the implementation of this process, the structure of human activity has personal potential as its subject and basis. Every person has this opportunity. But not everyone is ready to work on themselves. Only a highly developed individual understands that he himself is the best subject of his own development. What are the features of this process?
- The ability to be fully responsible for the results of their development.
- The ability to achieve success in the activity in which a person realizes himself fully.
- The goal has a deep life meaning, as a rule, significant for society, beyond the personal needs of an individual.
- A high level of organization of personal space, the subordination of the way of life to the goal.
It should be noted that any human activity, the purpose of which satisfies him, is an element of self-improvement. The fact is that joy is always the discovery of one's own boundaries and possibilities. In addition, it also provides a positive attitude that encourages others to work together and helps increase the energy of this process.
Even Aristotle - the father of "Logic" - called expedient activity a great good for society and man. All the true values of life acquire even greater significance over time. Aristotle's words are undoubtedly relevant to the present day.
