The reforms of Alexander II are an attempt by the Russian government to bring the order of the Russian Empire in line with the realities of the 19th century. Indeed, at a time when Russia remained a semi-feudal power, the industrial revolution was in full swing in Europe: railways were being built, electricity and steam power were introduced everywhere in everyday life and industry. Social relations developed in the direction of liberalism

• By the middle of the 19th century, Russia moved to eighth place in metal smelting. England outnumbered her 12 times.
• By the middle of the century, Russia had 1.5 thousand km. railway lines, while in England there were 15 thousand km.
• The average harvest in Russia is 4.63 quarters per tithe, in France - 7.36 quarters, in Austria - 6.6
• In 1861, the cotton industry in Russia had about 2 million mechanical spindles and about 15 thousand mechanical looms. In England, by 1834, over 8 million mechanical spindles, 110,000 mechanical looms, and 250,000 manual looms were working in the cotton industry.

Brief biography of Alexander II

• 1818, April 17 - birth
• 1825, December 12 - declared heir to the throne.
• 1826 - V. A. Zhukovsky was appointed mentor of the heir, who developed in the same year a 10-year plan for the education of Alexander Nikolayevich.
• 1834, April 17 - Alexander, on the day of his majority, took an oath of allegiance to the emperor
• 1837, May 2-December 10 - Alexander Nikolayevich traveled around Russia, during which he visited 29 provinces of the empire
• 1838-1839, May 2-June 23 - a trip abroad, summing up the training of Alexander
• 1841, April 16 - the wedding of Alexander Nikolaevich and Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt Maria Alexandrovna
• 1842, August 18 - the birth of daughter Alexandra (died in 1849)
• 1839-1842 - Alexander became a member of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers
• 1843, September 8 - the birth of a son, Nikolai (died in 1865)
• 1845, February 26 - the birth of the son of Alexander, the future emperor (died in 1894)
• 1847, April 10 - the birth of his son Vladimir (died in 1909)
• 1850, January 2 - son Alexei was born (died in 1908)
• 1852 - appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Guards and Grenadier Corps
• 1853, October 17 - daughter Maria was born, died in 1920
• 1855, February 18 - death
• 1855, February 19 - accession to the Russian throne of Emperor Alexander II
• 1856, August 26 - coronation of Alexander II in Moscow
• 1857, April 29 - son Sergei was born, died in 1905
• 1860, September 21 - son Pavel was born, died in 1919
• 1861, February 19 - Alexander II signed the Manifesto and the Regulations on the liberation of peasants from serfdom
• 1865, April 12 - the death of the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Nikolai Alexandrovich and the proclamation of Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich as the heir
• 1866, April 4 - D. Karakozov's attempt on the life of Alexander II
• 1867, May 25 - A. Berezovsky's attempt on the life of Alexander II
• 1879, April 2 - A. Solovyov's attempt on the life of Alexander II
• 1879, November 19 - the explosion of the royal train near Moscow
• 1880, February 12 - the explosion of the royal dining room in the Winter Palace
• 1880, February 19 - celebration of the 25th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Alexander II.
• 1880, May 22 - death of Empress Maria Alexandrovna.
• 1880, July 6 - the marriage of Alexander II to E. M. Dolgoruky-Yuryevskaya.
• 1881 March 1 - the death of Alexander II at the hands of terrorists from the organization

On February 18, 1855, Emperor Nicholas I died. The Russian throne was taken by his son Alexander (II). The Crimean War was still going on, but its unsuccessful course more and more confirmed the Russian society in the idea that the country was lagging behind the West in its development and cardinal reforms of the entire structure of Russian life were required. The initiator of the reforms was Emperor Alexander II

Reasons for the reforms of Alexander II

• The existence of serfdom, which hindered the economic development of Russia
• Defeat in
• The lack of opportunities for the estates of the Empire to influence the activities of the state

Reforms of Alexander II

• peasant reform. The abolition of serfdom (1861)
• Financial reforms (since 1863)
• Educational reform (1863)
• Zemstvo reform
• Urban reform (1864)
• Judicial Reform (1864)
• Military reform (1874)

Peasant reform

• Declaring serfs personally free without ransom
• The landowners retained a third of the estate in the Non-Chernozem region and half of the estate in the Chernozem region.
• The land was given to the peasant community
• The peasant received the allotment on the rights of use and could not refuse it
• According to certain preferential rules, the peasant paid the landowner a ransom for a full allotment.
  (a peasant could receive 2.5 acres of land without redemption.)
• Before the redemption of the land, the peasant was considered "temporarily liable" in relation to the landowner and was obliged to perform the former duties - corvée and dues (cancelled in 1882–1887)
• The location of the peasant allotments was determined by the landowner
• The peasant received
  - personal freedom,
  - independence from the landowner;
  - the right to move to other estates;
  - the right to self-marriage;
  - freedom of choice of occupation;
  - the right to defend their cases in court.
  - transact on your own
  - acquire and dispose of property;
  - engage in trade and crafts
  - participate in local government elections

Having abolished serfdom, Alexander remained in the history of Russia under the name of the Liberator

financial reform

It was aimed at streamlining the work of the financial apparatus of the state

• The state budget was drawn up in the Ministry of Finance, approved by the State Council, and then by the Emperor
• The budget began to be published for public review
• All ministries were required to draw up annual estimates showing all items of expenditure
• Bodies of state financial control were created - control chambers
• Wine farming was replaced by excise stamps and local excise departments were created that issued excise taxes.
• Taxation was divided into indirect taxes and direct taxes

Education reform

• A new university charter was adopted that gave universities broad autonomy
• Adopted a regulation on elementary schools
• The charter on secondary educational institutions with their division into 2 types: classical gymnasiums, their graduates had the right to enter the university without exams; and real schools
• A system of women's education was created: the law on women's schools
• A new law on the press was adopted, in which the activity of censorship was reduced

Land reform. Briefly

Its goal is to replace the bureaucratic management of the territory from the Center with a local self-government body, consisting of residents of the area, better than anyone familiar with the local realities of life.
Elected provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils were created. They were in charge of local economic affairs: the maintenance of communication lines; construction and maintenance of schools and hospitals; hiring doctors and paramedics; arrangement of courses for the education of the population; development of local trade and industry; arrangement of grain warehouses; concern for cattle breeding and poultry farming; levying taxes for local needs, etc.

urban reform

It pursued the same goals as the Zemstvo. In provincial and district cities, city public administrations were organized, which were in charge of economic issues: the external improvement of the city, food supply, fire safety, the construction of marinas, stock exchanges and credit institutions, etc. The institutions of city self-government meant the city electoral assembly, the Duma and the city council. council

Judicial reform. Briefly

The judicial system under Nicholas I was irrational and complex. Judges were dependent on the authorities. There was no competition. The right of the parties and the defendants to defense was limited. Often the judges did not see the defendants at all, but decided the case on the basis of documents drawn up by the court office. The following provisions became the basis of the reform of the legal proceedings of Alexander II

• Independence of the judiciary
• One court for all estates
• Publicity of legal proceedings
• Competitiveness of legal proceedings
• The right of parties and defendants to defense in court
• Openness of all evidence brought against the defendants
• The right of parties and convicts to file a cassation appeal;
• Cancellation without complaints of the parties and protest of the prosecutor of the review of cases by a higher authority
• Educational and professional qualification for all judicial ranks
• Irremovability of judges
• Separation of the prosecutor's office from the court
• Trial by jury for those accused of crimes of medium and serious gravity

Topic: Transformations of Alexander II: liberal measures and strong power

Type: Coursework | Size: 1.73M | Downloads: 33 | Added on 07.11.16 at 22:31 | Rating: 0 | More Coursework

University: Oryol Banking College

Year and city: Eagle 2016

Introduction 3

1 Preparation of the reforms of Alexander II 5

1.1 Prerequisites for reforms 5

1.2 Expectations of various sectors of society 7

2 Liberal reforms of Alexander II 10

2.1 Peasant reform 10

2.2 Judicial reform 12

2.3 Military reform 14

2.4 Education, press and censorship reforms 16

3 Results of the reign of Alexander II 19

3.1 Significance of the Great Reforms 19

3.2 Views of modern historians on the era of Alexander II 20

Conclusion 22

References 24

Annex A Table: Prerequisites for Reforms 25

Annex B Photocopy of the painting “Reading the Manifesto” 26

Appendix E Diagram: Judicial Reform of 1864 29

Appendix E Scheme: Military Reform 1861-1874 30

Appendix G Scheme: Reforms in the field of public education in 1863 - 1864 31

Appendix I A photocopy of the portrait "Alexander II" 32

Annex K Photocopy of the painting "Zemstvo Assembly in the province" 33

Appendix L Scheme: Great reforms of the 60s - 70s 34

Introduction

By the middle of the XIX century. the lag of Russia in the economic and socio-political spheres, from the advanced capitalist countries, was clearly expressed. A number of international events revealed a significant weakening of the Russian state in the foreign policy field. This was fully exposed by the Crimean War (1853-1856), which revealed the internal problems of Russian society. And as a result, the need to carry out a complete transformation of many spheres of public life appeared.

This need for reform has become more and more tangible and urgent every day. But serfdom stood in the way of any improvement as an insurmountable obstacle. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the XIX century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time. At the same time, an equally important task was to preserve the autocracy and the dominant position of the nobility.

The reforms of Alexander II, as well as their consequences, are of no small importance for the development of the state and historical science. After all, if you study in detail the reforms of our predecessors, correctly understand and analyze them from all positions, evaluate their results, you can avoid many mistakes in the present and future. In order to correctly navigate the events of today, it is necessary to comprehend the historical events of the past of our Fatherland.

This is what determines the relevance of the chosen topic.

The purpose of this work is to assess the historical role and significance of the Great Reforms of Alexander II for the further development of Russia.

To achieve this goal, it was necessary to solve the following tasks:

• characterize the prerequisites for liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century
• analyze the mood of various sections of society regarding reforms

• characterize and evaluate the effectiveness of liberal reforms
• sum up the reign of Alexander II
• highlight the significance of the Great Reforms
• compare the views of modern historians on the era of Alexander II

The object of the course work is the liberal transformation of Alexander II.

The subject of the course work is the Great reforms carried out by Alexander II in the period from 1861 to 1874.

The practical significance of the course work lies in the fact that the data obtained can be used to prepare for practical and seminar classes in the discipline "History".

Research methods: chronological presentation of events, analysis, comparison, classification, generalization.

The theoretical and informational base was the works:

P.A. Zayonchkovsky, S.M. Troitsky.

P.A. Zaionchkovsky in his book "The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia" briefly described the prerequisites for liberal reforms in the period from 1861 to 1874.

CM. Troitsky in the book "Russia in the 19th century" the author describes in detail the main provisions of all the reforms of Alexander II and affects the life of society after their implementation.

The structure of the course work includes: introduction, 3 sections, conclusion and list of references and applications.

The introduction defines the relevance of the research topic, goals, as well as the tasks that need to be solved to achieve the goal, the object and subject of research.

The first section examines the prerequisites for liberal reforms and their expectations by various sections of society.

The second section gives the main provisions of the peasant, judicial, military, zemstvo and urban reforms, as well as reforms in the field of education, caesura and the press.

The third section gives the meaning of the Great Reforms and the views of modern historians on them.

In conclusion, the results of the study are summed up, an assessment of the reforms of Alexander II is given.

The total amount of work is 24 pages of text and 10 appendices.

1 Preparation of the reforms of Alexander II

1.1 Prerequisites for reforms

At the beginning of the 19th century, the socio-political prerequisites for the start of liberal reforms in Russia took shape. Serfdom hindered the development of the market and peasant entrepreneurship. The landowners fell into the market circulation, that is, those who could not adapt to the new economic conditions lost their lands, which fell into a mortgage. The defeat in the Crimean War stimulated the rapid development of industry and showed the inefficiency of Russia's social and economic systems.

At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the feudal system of organizing agriculture was going through a period of disintegration and crisis. The transition to various improvements was observed mainly among state and landlord peasants who were on dues. This was expressed in some improvements in agricultural implements, the cultivation of thoroughbred livestock, the sowing of industrial crops, etc.

At the beginning of the 19th century there is a huge growth in commodity-money relations, which, in the conditions of the introduction of new, capitalist technology and the small use of civilian labor, characterized the crisis of the feudal-serf system. The forms of use of serfs were determined by economic conditions, which gave the landowner the opportunity to receive the greatest income in the form of corvée or dues. The dues system provided great opportunities for the stratification of the peasantry. Most of the landowners ran their households in the old fashioned way, increasing their incomes not by improving farming, but by increasing the exploitation of the serfs. The desire of a small part of the landowners to switch to rational methods of managing the economy under the conditions of serf labor was not very effective, because. the presence of gratuitous serf labor did not stimulate the introduction of machines, factories, where peasants could work of their own free will.

The new productive forces in agriculture could not get any great development in the first half of the 19th century due to the dominance of feudal-serf relations. The final approval of the new production relations was impossible in the conditions of the preservation of feudal forms of economy, which were an insurmountable obstacle to any progress. Peasants in Russia were divided into three main groups: landowners, state and appanage. The landlord peasants were divided into two groups: the peasants, who were engaged in agriculture on the landowner's land, and the peasants, who did not have the means of production and fulfilled the personal needs of the landowner. According to the forms of exploitation, the landlord peasants were divided into corvee and quitrent. In a more difficult situation were corvee peasants. Work on the corvée is the daily communication of the peasantry with representatives of the landowners' power, which entailed violence and arbitrariness over the individual. Life was especially hard for the peasants who performed corvée in patrimonial manufactories. Often the landowners transferred such peasants for a month, forcing them to work continuously at the manufactory. The landlords had the right to sell and buy peasants, both with land and without land, and very often families were separated forever. The sale of serfs was equal to the real slave trade.

The second group of the peasantry consisted of state peasants. State peasants as a legally formalized new estate arose at the beginning of the 18th century. as a result of the military and financial reforms of Peter I. The state peasants included the rural population, who were dependent on the state. Along with quitrent, the peasants performed a number of other duties: underwater, construction, road, and paid other monetary taxes: the poll tax. More difficult was the situation of the state peasants who were on corvée. However, the legal status of the state peasants was slightly better than that of the landlords. They had the right to choose for themselves the type of activity, move to another estate, acquire property in their name. The villages of state peasants, which accounted for about 3 thousand souls, were united into a volost. At the head of the volost was the volost self-government. In the XVIII century. the state peasants served as a kind of repository, from which "grants" were given to various royal favorites. In the 19th century, when the "grants" were canceled, state peasants were either transferred to the military settlers, or they were enrolled in the number of appanages.

The third group of the peasantry consisted of specific peasants. They were the property of the imperial family and were previously called palace. All specific peasants were on quitrent. The amount of dues during the first half of the XIX century. increased steadily. Along with monetary duties, there were also in-kind (road, living, underwater). In addition, the peasants had to process the so-called public plowing, the harvest from which went to food reserve stores, from which bread was distributed to the peasants in lean years.

So, having traced the position of all three main groups of the peasantry, we can draw the following conclusions during the first half of the 19th century. there is an increase in the exploitation of serfs, carried out in the form of an increase in dues or corvee; the legal status of the peasants is also deteriorating, which is inextricably linked with increased exploitation.

In the field of industrial development at the beginning of the 19th century. characterized by the process of decomposition of the feudal-serf economy and the development of new productive forces.

1.2 Expectations of various sectors of society

By 1856, Alexander II did not have a complete understanding of his task in its entirety. The decision of the emperor, which did not receive final formalization, was ambiguously received in society. During the reign of Alexander II, several opposition groups were formed, which later united in an anti-reform movement. Firstly, the Russian nobility, which sharply rejected all innovations, seeing them as a threat to their existence. Secondly, these were people who did not want to lose their monopoly on the public service and give privileges to the peasants, since they considered only the nobility the best thing in Russian life. Thirdly, those who spoke about the loss of national values ​​in the course of the reforms, because reforms should be built by analogy with European ones, which in the 1840-1850s showed their instability. There were, of course, voices supporting the emperor, but against the general background of discontent and distrust, they subsided.

The tsar preferred that the abolition of serfdom should be initiated by the nobility itself. Already in the summer of 1858, Alexander II began to persuade the landowners to take this step: “Hostile feelings between peasants and landlords, unfortunately, exist, and this has already led to several cases of disobedience to the landowners. I am convinced. That sooner or later we must come to this. I think that you are of the same opinion with me: therefore, it is much better for this to happen from above than from below. The supporters of the reform were in a large minority and were in constant tension. In December 1858, deep within the Ministry of the Interior, the government's program for peasant reform was prepared. Alexander II finally breathed a sigh of relief.

Firstly, the issue was moved forward, and secondly, the emperor was able to take the advantageous position of an arbitrator, whose main task was to find a compromise between the positions of the leading social camps in Russia. These positions themselves were clearly identified in the works of the noble committees and, in short, spoke of the following: a) without serfdom, we will perish; b) the current situation is intolerable, it is necessary that we be freed from the peasants. The deputies among the nobles could be divided into three groups. The first stated that the liberation of the peasants means the complete ruin of the soul owners. The second declared that they agreed to grant freedom to the peasants, but at the same time they proposed the creation of an economic and administrative department. Still others demanded to convene representatives from the nobles, who, under the leadership of the emperor, would create a new reform project. Some deputies saw in the draft Editorial Commissions an open desire of the authorities to remove the nobility from any influence on the peasantry.

Thus, before the reform of 1861, in all the main social circles of Russian society, there were constant disputes about the future position of Russian serfs. No one has come to full agreement. Disagreements were with the peasant, and with the nobility, and with the merchant side and the clergy.

The reform was half-hearted. It was a difficult compromise between landowners and peasants. Naturally, no one was going to give full freedom to the peasants right away, otherwise the monarchy would have lost support from the nobility. Therefore, the reform preserved landownership and doomed the peasants to land shortages, poverty and economic dependence on the landowners. The reform could not solve the agrarian issue in Russia, which at that time was central, but the main thing was already unchanged - serfdom in Russia was coming to an end.

2 Liberal reforms of Alexander II

2.1 Peasant reform

The content of the peasant reform was set out in a document entitled: "Regulations on February 19, 1861 on peasants who emerged from serfdom." Its essence was this. The landlord peasants received personal freedom, as well as an estate and a field allotment for permanent use, from which they could give up no earlier than after 9 years. During this 9-year period, the peasants had to continue to serve for the corvee or pay dues. The size of the allotment, and the volume of duties of the peasants were recorded in the charter letters, which took two years to draw up. The landlords were supposed to draw up the charters, and they were supposed to check them - peace mediators, who were appointed from local landowners. It turned out that the same landowners turned out to be intermediaries between the peasants and the landowners. Statutory charters were concluded not with individual peasants, but with all the peasants of one or another landowner.

In order to establish and fix in the charter the size of the allotment, both landlords and peasants must take into account the norms of allotment plots - higher and lower. The peasants could not demand a plot above the established maximum, and the landlords could not cut the allotment below the established minimum. On the one hand, if a peasant before the reform had less land to use than the minimum established after the reform, the landlord did not always cut his land to the minimum, but on the condition that the landowner would have at least a third of convenient land. On the other hand, if the allotment that the peasant used before the reform exceeded the pre-reform maximum, the landowner cut off the "surplus" from it. Most importantly, the very norms of peasant allotments were calculated in such a way that there were as many cuts from them as possible, and correspondingly fewer cuts to them.

As a result, landlord peasants received an average of 3.3 acres per capita, i.e. for a man (women were not given land). This turned out to be less than the land that they used before the reform, and did not provide them with a living wage. All the land that the peasants received for "permanent use" legally remained the property of the landlords until the conclusion of the redemption deal. Until this deal was concluded, the peasants were considered "temporarily liable", i.e. still for the use of the land, they bear duties.

On December 28, 1881, a law on compulsory redemption followed - a law according to which all temporarily liable peasants were transferred for redemption, but not immediately, but from January 1, 1883. Thus, the legal liquidation of serfdom dragged on for 22 years and this in the central provinces. On the outskirts, however, temporarily obligated relations continued for up to half a century.

For the use of land, the peasants had to perform two types of duties - quitrent and corvée. The amount of dues varied in different regions from 8 to 12 rubles. in year. As before the reform, quitrent was the income of the landowner not only from the land, but also from the actions of the peasant, because in the provinces with developed industry, the peasants paid the landowners money that they received from various kinds of crafts, rather than from their allotment. As for the corvee, as before the reform, all peasants had to serve it - men from 18 to 55 years old and women from 17 to 50 years old. Only after the reform was carried out, the corvee regime was somewhat streamlined, and the arbitrariness of the landowners was partially curbed. The duties of temporarily liable peasants differed from those of serfs only in that they were more precisely regulated by law. Therefore, the peasants did not want to sign the charter letters. They thought that their signature would enslave them again and hoped for "genuine, real freedom", themselves spreading the rumor among themselves that freedom itself would come in two years.

The reform gave the peasants the right to redeem the estate and field allotment. The ransom amount was determined by capitalization from the 6% dues set for the allotment, i.e., wanting to receive the required ransom amount, they calculated how much money should be put in the bank so that at 6% annual growth the landowner would have an income equal to the dues. The role of an intermediary between the peasants and the landowners for the redemption was assumed by the state, which profited from the redemption operation.

In a somewhat special way, yard servants were released, of which there were then 1.5 million, i.e. 6.5% of landlord peasants. They were released without ransom, but not immediately, but after two years, and, most importantly, they did not receive either an estate, or a field allotment, or any kind of remuneration for their work for the landowner. The sick and the elderly, the disabled were literally thrown into the street, as they had nothing but freedom ... to go around the world. Such were the conditions for the liberation of the landlord peasants.

Even later, on June 24, 1866, the “Regulations of February 19” were extended to state peasants, who were considered personally free, but paid feudal rent to the treasury. All of them retained the lands that were in their use, and could, as they wished, either, as before, pay the quitrent tax to the state, or conclude a redemption deal with the treasury, subject to a lump-sum contribution of such capital, the interest on which would be equal to the amount of the quitrent tax.

The most important result of the peasant reform was the receipt by the peasants of personal freedom, the right to independently, without the intervention of the master, control their own destiny, the acquisition of property rights, the opportunity to change the class status, to receive an education. However, in truth, the manifesto did not make a particularly strong impression on the people, partly due to its heavy book-official style, partly due to its very large volume and abundance of small details. The peasants received no material benefits from the reform. The landlords and the state won here. But still, the main task set before the reform - to destroy serfdom - was completed. Slavery fell, the countryside entered the path of capitalism without civil war.

2.2 Judicial reform

The preparation of the judicial reform was carried out by a commission of the best lawyers, headed by the State Secretary of the State Council S.I. Zarudny. The reform was developed from the autumn of 1861, at the highest point of the democratic upsurge in the country, and was completed by the autumn of 1862. But only on November 20, 1864, Alexander II approved the new Judicial Charters. Instead of feudal courts of estates, they introduced civilized judicial institutions, common to persons of all estates with the same procedure of legal proceedings.

From now on, for the first time in Russia, four principles of modern law were affirmed: the independence of the court from the administration, the irremovability of judges, the openness and competitiveness of legal proceedings. The judiciary has been significantly democratized. In criminal courts, the institution of jurors from the population, elected on the basis of a moderate property qualification (at least 100 acres of land or any other property worth 2,000 rubles in the capitals and 1,000 rubles in provincial cities), was introduced. For each case, 12 jurors were appointed to decide whether the defendant was guilty or not, after which the court released the innocent and determined the punishment for the guilty. For legal assistance and for the defense of the accused, the institution of lawyers was created, and the preliminary investigation in criminal cases, previously in the hands of the police, now passed to the investigating judges. Judicial investigators had to have a higher legal education, and the first ones, in addition, had to have five more years of experience in judicial practice.

Three types of courts were created: the magistrate's court, the district court and the judicial chamber. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies or city dumas on the basis of a high property qualification (at least 400 acres of land or other real estate in the amount of at least 15,000 rubles), and members of district courts and judicial chambers were appointed by the tsar.

The one-man Magistrate's Court dealt with summary judgments for petty misdemeanors and civil actions. The decision of the magistrate could be appealed at the county congress of magistrates.

The district court, consisting of a chairman and two members, acted in each judicial district, equal to one province. The apparatus of the district court included the prosecutor and his comrades, judicial investigators, lawyers were involved. The district court had jurisdiction over all civil and almost all criminal cases. Decisions made by the district court with the participation of jurors were considered final and were not subject to appeal on the merits, they could only be appealed in the cassation procedure (i.e. in case of violation of the law in the proceedings). The decisions of the district court, taken without the participation of jurors, were appealed to the judicial chamber. Without a jury, such cases were considered in which the accused was not threatened with deprivation or restriction of civil rights.

The Judicial Chamber was established one for several provinces. Its apparatus was similar to that of the district court, only larger. The Judicial Chamber considered especially important criminal and almost political cases. Its decisions were considered final and could only be appealed on cassation.

The most important political cases were to be considered by the Supreme Criminal Court, which did not function permanently, but was appointed in exceptional cases by the highest command. The single cassation instance for all the courts of the empire was the Senate - with two departments: criminal and civil. He could reverse the decision of any court other than the Supreme Criminal Court, after which the case would be returned for a second trial by the same or another court.

The judicial reform of 1864 was the largest step in the history of Russia towards the rule of law. All its principles and institutions, despite the restrictions and even oppression on the part of tsarism, contributed to the development of civilized norms of law and justice in the country. The jurors, contrary to the hopes and direct pressure of the authorities, sometimes delivered defiantly independent verdicts.

2.3 Military reform

The transformations in the army dragged on for 12 years, from 1862 to 1874. A threefold reason forced tsarism to reform the army. First of all, the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War had an effect, the revolutionary upsurge in the country prompted the autocracy to strengthen the army as its main support, and finally, it was necessary to streamline the costs of the army, which by 1861 had been reduced to 1.5 million people.

The initiator and leader of the military reform was Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin, a general by service and a liberal by conviction. For 20 years (1861-1881) he served as Minister of War and was the most prominent of the military ministers in the entire history of Russia.

Overcoming the resistance of the feudal opposition led by the winner of Shamil, Field Marshal A.I. Baryatinsky, D. A. Milyutin carried out a 12-year cycle of military transformations.

The conditions of military service were facilitated, corporal punishment from the whip and gauntlets to the rods was abolished. Milyutin tried to change the very image of the Russian soldier from almost hard labor to honorary: "defender of the Fatherland."

Improved combat training of troops. In contrast to the Nikolaev time, the soldiers began to prepare more for war than for parades. Since 1862, the rearmament of the army began with rifled instead of smooth-bore weapons. Mining engineer colonel P.M. Obukhov invented in Zlatoust a method for producing cast steel by decarburizing cast iron with iron oxide, which made it possible to establish the production of steel artillery pieces.

The training of officers has become more modern. Part of the old noble cadet corps was reorganized into military gymnasiums, the amount of knowledge in which, in comparison with the cadet programs, more than doubled. Some of the military gymnasiums were allowed to accept people of all classes. From now on, junior officers were trained by cadet schools. In them, the percentage of people of non-noble origin rose higher than in military gymnasiums, but the general educational level of those who entered was significantly lower.

The last major reform of the government of Alexander II was the introduction of compulsory military service on January 1, 1874, which made it possible to form an army on principles that were more progressive at that time.

If earlier, from 1705, only tax-paying estates (peasants, workers, artisans) were serving military service in the order of recruitment, now it had to be served by the entire male population of the empire from the age of 20, without distinction of estates. Since there were much more men who had reached the age of 20 than were required for conscription, only 25-30% of their number were enrolled in active service. The rest of the conscripts were exempted from service - for health reasons, marital status and by lot. Up to half of them remained at home on family benefits (the only son with their parents, the only breadwinner in the family with young brothers and sisters, etc.).

The law of 1874 significantly reduced the terms of military service: instead of a 25-year recruitment period, for soldiers - 6 years of active service, after which they were transferred to the reserve for 9 years, and then to the militia; for sailors - 7 years of active service and 3 years of reserve. Persons with education served even less: those who graduated from universities - 6 months, gymnasiums - 1.5 years, elementary schools - 4 years. In fact, only the illiterate served for 6-7 years, but they then made up 80% of the recruits.

The new law allowed the state to keep in peacetime a reduced regular army with a stock of trained reserves, and in case of war, by calling in the stock and the militia, to get a mass army. In general, the military transformations of D.A. Milyutin rebuilt the Russian army in a modern way. Milyutin's reform was advantageous for Russia even purely economically, because it contributed to the accelerated growth of railways as a necessary condition for mobilization and demobilization actions in such a vast country as the Russian Empire. But under autocracy, even military reform could not be completely consistent. She, too, was accompanied by remnants of the old serf system.

2.4 Education, press and censorship reforms

The reform of censorship was of particular importance in the chain of reforms of the 19th century. Even on the eve of the reforms, A.I. Herzen said that, in his opinion, Russia especially needed: the liberation of the peasants from the landowners, the liberation of the taxable estates from beatings and the liberation of the press from censorship. The significance of the printed word was well understood by the government. That is why, realizing the need to free the press from censorship restrictions, for a long time it did not dare to implement this, perhaps the only reform that did not require any material costs.

Count D.A. decided to carry out the reform of the secondary school (1864). Tolstoy. Even at the very beginning of the reign of the emperor, access to the gymnasium was open to children of all classes. Gymnasiums were divided into 2 types: classical, with the study of subjects of the humanitarian cycle, which prepared for admission to the institute and real, teaching subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle and preparing for admission to higher educational institutions. In 1871, Count Tolstoy drew up a new charter for the gymnasium, approved by the sovereign. Classical gymnasiums became the only type of general education and all-class schools. Graduates of these schools were eligible to enter the university. The real gymnasiums were replaced by "real schools", their purpose was to give education to people of all classes, but adapted to the acquisition of practical knowledge.

As for the universities, on June 18, 1863, a new university charter was adopted. He returned autonomy to the universities, first granted under Alexander I in 1804 and abolished in 1835 under Nicholas I.

Since 1863, all issues in the life of any university, including the awarding of academic degrees and titles, foreign business trips of scientists, the opening of some and the closing of other departments, were decided by its Council, and the positions of rector, vice-rectors, deans, professors became elective. On November 19, 1864, Alexander II approved the new charter of gymnasiums. Merchants, philistines, peasants again received the right to study in gymnasiums, which was granted to them in 1803 by Alexander I and taken away in 1828 by Nicholas I. Thus, there was progress, but even in this sense progress is relative, since the charter of 1864 introduced such high tuition fees that it closed access to the gymnasium for the majority of the common people.

In the early 1970s, higher education for women finally became possible in Russia.

All sections of society, from revolutionaries to conservatives, demanded, if not abolished, then curb censorship. Back in 1855, the reform began

censorship and began to develop new rules on the press. From the end of 1857, the press was allowed to discuss materials on the peasant reform. By 1861 freedom of the press had reached its maximum, and revolutionary programs and ideas began to appear in the press.

A reform of the censorship charter was being prepared. After the events of 1862 (fires blamed on radicals and nihilists), new rules were developed that restricted the freedom of the press, especially of radical periodicals. A commission was created within the structure of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which developed by 1865 a draft of the Provisional Rules, which existed for 40 years. According to the rules, preliminary censorship for book publications was eliminated, for its periodic abolition or introduction depended on the Minister of the Interior. He also decided the issue of opening new press organs.

Thus, education became available to all classes, it was allowed to open educational institutions for zemstvos, public organizations and individuals. Women were allowed to receive higher education, later they were allowed to attend universities, but only as volunteers. In 1861, when the easing of censorship led to the printing of revolutionary programs, a reform of the censorship charter was carried out, which began to monitor print publications more strictly.

Summing up the results of the liberal reforms of Alexander II, it should be noted that they opened the way for the development of capitalism in Russia, an important step was taken towards the equality of all classes, the formation of a law-based state and civil society.

3 Results of the reign of Alexander II

3.1 Significance of the Great Reforms

155 years ago, a great event took place in Russia, without exaggeration. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom, according to which more than 23 million serfs (almost 40% of the empire's population) became free people.

The peasant reform of 1861 was liberal in content, since it created the conditions necessary for the victory of the capitalist mode of production. Chief among these conditions was the personal emancipation of 23 million landowning peasants, who formed the wage labor market. Since the feudal lords and feudal lords carried out the bourgeois reform, it also acquired feudal traits. The peasants were deceived and robbed, they left the slavery of the landowners into bondage to the same landowners. The half-heartedness of the reform was expressed in the fact that the economic basis became new, capitalist, and inside it the remnants of the old feudal-serf system were preserved - primarily landownership and the labor system, i.e. processing of landed estates by peasants for land rent, money loans, etc. The remnants of serfdom hindered the development of the country, which had already firmly taken the path of capitalism. Therefore, the class struggle did not subside after 1861, but, on the contrary, as we shall see, it flared up even more strongly.

The judicial reform of 1864 was the largest step in the history of Russia towards the rule of law. All its principles and institutions, despite the restrictions and even oppression on the part of tsarism, contributed to the development of civilized norms of law and justice in the country. The jurors, contrary to the hopes and direct pressure of the authorities, sometimes delivered defiantly independent verdicts. As for the Russian legal profession, it has managed to place itself, both legally and even politically, at a height unusual for an autocratic country. Most importantly, pre-revolutionary Russian lawyers won national and international recognition for their self-governing corporation, putting forward a constellation of first-class legal talents and political fighters. All reforms 1861-1874 they transformed the economic, social and political structure of the Russian state in such a way that its transformation from a feudal to a bourgeois monarchy began. The peasant reform of 1861 changed the economic basis of the country. Russia firmly embarked on the path of capitalist development. Reforms 1862-1874 brought the old political superstructure into line with the new basis. From now on, Russia, faster than ever before, has gone forward to the heights of world civilization. Despite the sometimes blatant abuses involving high-ranking officials, the development of sea and rail transport continued. Thanks to a significant increase in Russian exports, the budget deficit was eliminated by the mid-1970s, and the position of the Russian ruble became stable.

However, none of the reforms of 1861-1874. did not become fully consistent. Each of them retained the remnants of feudal antiquity, which limited its progressiveness, complicated the course of Russia's national development after 1861 and, in comparison with the opportunities that had opened up, slowed it down.

3.2 Views of modern historians on the era of Alexander II

Alexander II is a significant figure in the recent history of Russia and an important subject of the historical policy of the modern Russian authorities, which is carrying out the modernization of Russia, a kind of "revolution from above", similar to the one that this emperor started at the turn of the 1850s-1860s. In 2011, President of Russia D.A. Medvedev emphasized: “Alexander II and, of course, his associates abandoned the traditional way of life, although it was terribly difficult, and showed Russia the way to the future, in the end, it was Nicholas who was right on a historical scale I or Stalin".

Here is what some modern historians think about the policy of Alexander II:

Mironenko Sergey Vladimirovich: “I want to focus my main attention on the question of why it turned out to be unsuccessful after all. It turned out to be unsuccessful, in my opinion, quite obviously, because if 70 years after it began, Stalinist collective farms appeared, and serfdom was revived, then one can hardly talk about the success of this reform ... I am deeply convinced that the liberal bureaucracy, with all the charm it is not capable of fundamental reforms. She is the flesh of the flesh after all of the old society. Yes, she realized, yes, she absorbed ideas, but she was not able to destroy the system that, in fact, gave birth to her. And precisely in this, from my point of view, lies the duality of this peasant reform ... "

Zubov Andrei Borisovich: “Let's imagine for a moment that these reforms would not have passed. Russia under Nikolai Pavlovich degraded not only in a moral sense, not only in the eyes of Europe, it degraded in a purely economic sense. The most important economic indicators - iron smelting and coal mining - have declined. Russia is clearly going down. On the other hand, the number of peasant uprisings increased every year, the number of revealed excesses of serfdom increased ... "

Oreshkin Dmitry Borisovich: “The task of the reform of 1961 was, in modern terms, to significantly increase the number of economically, socially and legally active entities that compete with each other. And it seems to me that this problem has been solved. In any case, after that we observe a surge in the growth of urban settlements, the rapid development of the road network, the decentralization of management and the emergence, although very lazy, slow, passive zemstvos, but still zemstvo hospitals, zemstvo schools and zemstvos of the same roads ... "

As a result, the opinions of historians are different, but in most cases they have a common meaning - the reforms were carried out in the interests of the ruling class, because. he was the main support of the autocracy. The landed estates and the lack of land of the peasants were preserved, which hampered the economic development of the country and, in the end, caused the revolution of 1905-1907.

Conclusion

Thus, in the second half of the 19th century, thanks to the reforms of Alexander II, Russia was reborn from feudal to bourgeois Russia.

A new socio-economic system was born, which still had to go a long way of becoming in society, but the most difficult step had already been taken by Alexander II. A step that many rulers conceived, but were afraid to take on it - the liberation of the peasants from slavery and the oppression of the landowners.

Many historians quite appropriately assess the revolution as a "revolution from above", but for a number of reasons, unfinished:

The peasant reform gave the peasants freedom, however, socio-economic contradictions were not resolved, since landownership and other feudal-serf remnants were preserved.

The judicial reform was not completed, since the estate volost court with frequent use of corporal punishment remained in the peasant environment for a long time.

The military reform could not immediately reduce the size of the army in peacetime, because later Alexander II supplemented it with a law on universal male military duty with a reduction in the service life.

The reform of education and the press introduced an accessible all-class education, abolished censorship for books and magazines, but kept it for newspapers and literature for the people.

The reforms were not complete, they still managed to create the foundation for the creation of a right-wing state and civil society.

With the abolition of serfdom, new opportunities arose for private enterprise, due to the rapid development of industry, hundreds of thousands of workers poured into the cities, Russia was able to resolve numerous conflicts with neighboring countries, and concluded new contracts with European powers.

The historical significance of the "great reforms" was that thanks to them, Russia received a powerful impetus to the capitalist development of the country without any serious upheavals and social cataclysms, and was able to get out of the deepest economic and political crisis.

We have reviewed the main transformations and reforms carried out by Alexander II, and now we can summarize his reforms.

The reforms have significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization. However, Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy.

The reforms caused harsh criticism, and sometimes even complete rejection, both from the radicals and from the conservatives.

Since the mid 60s. the activity of the government begins to be directed towards conservative tendencies, and the reform potential is almost exhausted.

As a result, the reforms were not brought to their logical conclusion. They did not end with constitutional reform. The emergence of parliamentarism did not materialize. Therefore, the "revolution from above" did not take place. Failed attempts to create a constitutional reform and a policy of counter-reforms pushed the liberal strata of society away from the government, and in combination with unresolved agrarian, social, national problems, led Russia, in the end, to the revolutions of 1905-1907 and 1917.

Bibliographic list:

1. Janshiev, G.A. The era of great reforms. / G. A. Janshiev [Text]. - M.: Territory of the Future, 2008. - 478s.
2. Zaionchkovsky, P.A. The abolition of serfdom in Russia. / P.A. Zayonchkovsky [Text]. -M.: Gospolitizdat, 1954. - 292p.
3. Isaev, I.A. History of the state and law of Russia: a textbook for law schools. / I. A. Isaev [Text]. - M.: Jurist, 1996. - 544 p.
4. Klyuchevsky, V.O. Russian history. / V.O. Klyuchevsky [Text]. - M.: AST, 2003. - 479 p.
5. Lyashenko, L.M. Alexander II or the history of three solitudes. / L.M. Lyashenko [Text]. - M.: Young Guard Publishing House, 2002. - 357p.
6. Troitsky, S.M. Russia in the 19th century. / CM. Trinity [Text]. - M.: Nauka, 1982. - 254 p.
7. Chistyakov, O.I. Reforms of Alexander II / O. I. Chistyakov [Text]. - M.: Legal literature, 1998. - 464 p.
8. Yakovlev, A. I. Alexander II and his era / A. I Yakovlev [Text]. - M.: Terra - Book club, 2003. - 784 p.
9. Rostovsky, E. and Sosnitsky, D. What was Alexander II in art and textbooks. E. Rostovsky and D. Sosnitsky [Text] // Motherland. -2014.- №4.
10. Vitukhnovskaya, M. Alexander II in the historical memory of Russia and Finland. M. Vitukhnovskaya [Text] // Flight. - 2011. - No. 3.
11. Materials of the official website of Radio Liberty Electronic resource: - Access mode - http://www.svoboda.org/content/transcript/2332258.html

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Story. Seminar. Topic 10.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II and their significance

A lively, European-educated pragmatist, Alexander II (1855–1881) decided not to shelve reforms. Having shown the courage and independence necessary in such cases, he preferred to act ahead of events, disregarded the opinion of the retrograde nobles (and they were in a clear majority) and formed a team of reformers, which included his sailor brother. book. Konstantin, Ya. I. Rostovtsev, brothers N. A. and D. A. Milyutins and others. the publishers of the London "Bell" A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogaryov.

The growth of the peasant movement also played a certain, although not decisive role in the process of reforms. So, only in 1858-1860. about 1,700 peasant uprisings took place in Russia, that is, 1.5 times more than in the entire first quarter of the 19th century, and only a little less than during the entire reign of Nicholas I. Centuries-old peasant patience and the absence of a strong revolutionary organization, capable of captivating the multi-million masses of the rural population, practically ruled out the possibility of a revolutionary explosion in Russia at that time. Thus, the role of government reformism objectively increased, which at the turn of the 1850s–1860s. after half a century of marking time, it has entered a new, on the whole very fruitful, stage.

The transformations initiated by Alexander II were of a complex nature and included the abolition of serfdom, the creation of local governments, judicial, military and a number of other reforms, the true significance of which can only be understood in such a "bundle". Now, following the Russian liberal historiography of the 19th - early 20th centuries. often the reforms of Alexander II are called the Great, and the emperor himself is called the liberator tsar. However, this term also has its opponents, who draw attention to the shady sides of these reforms. In fact, they did not affect the political sphere (Russia received neither a parliament, nor a constitution, nor freedom of speech and assembly), they retained an obsolete system of noble preferences, they did not solve the agrarian question and did not create a class of small landowners as a pillar of stability and order in country. They could not overcome the separation of power from society, which has already become traditional for Russia, and ultimately did not save Russia from the revolutionary upheavals of the early twentieth century.

Be that as it may, it is difficult to overestimate the significance of the very act of abolishing serfdom in Russia (February 19, 1861). However, the conditions for the liberation of the peasants were by no means optimal (large "cuts" from peasant allotments in favor of the landowners, huge redemption payments, a significant prolongation in time of the transition to a new system of relations between peasants and landowners, which was clearly unprofitable for the peasants). The peasant question received a half-hearted, compromise solution that did not fully satisfy either the peasants or the landowners. As a result, the agrarian question in Russia turned out to be even more complicated than before, and this was one of the reasons for the stormy peasant uprisings in 1905-1907 and 1917. And although the reform of 1861 was a painful blow to the majority of the landlords, who were unsuitable for a market economy, the position of the peasants in post-reform Russia was immeasurably more difficult.

Much greater democracy and courage were distinguished zemstvo, judicial and military reforms which, for all their inconsistency and subsequent conservative-protective adjustments, brought Russia the greatest fruits. With the implementation of these reforms, the country took an important step towards the creation of a civil society, overcoming class and caste differences in the position of certain segments of the population, glasnost. The zemstvo reform of 1864 undoubtedly contributed to the familiarization of the countryside with culture and a more civilized way of life, the revival of the liberal movement, and strengthened the ties between the intelligentsia and the people. Perhaps the most consistent and democratic in spirit was judicial reform of 1864 The court in Russia, as in the countries of Western Europe, became all-class, public, adversarial (the institute of advocacy and jurors was introduced), independent of the administration. Military reform of 1874 consisted in a significant reduction in the terms of service (in the ground forces from 15 to 6 years), the abolition of recruitment sets and the extension of military service to the entire male population of the country who had reached the age of 20 years, and a change in the officer training system. The system of benefits for conscripts based on marital status and education was also very reasonable (graduates of higher educational institutions, for example, served in the army for only six months). All this taken together had a positive effect on the state of the Russian army and navy, although it could not eliminate the gap between the position of the mass of soldiers and the officer corps, as well as Russia's military-technical lag behind the West in a number of vital parameters.

Reforms in the field of public education and the press were also of great importance. In 1864, the regulation on primary public schools (state, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday) was approved and a new charter for gymnasiums was adopted, introducing the principle of equality of rights to education for children of all classes in secondary schools. The new university charter of 1863 restored the autonomy of the universities in scientific and administrative matters, although the students did not receive any corporate rights, and women's access to universities was still not allowed. Nevertheless, women's education in Russia at that time began to rapidly gain momentum (women's gymnasiums, higher courses for women, etc.). Finally, in 1865. a new one that existed until 1906 appeared censorship charter, which was of a fairly liberal nature and freed all St. Petersburg periodicals and the bulk of books from preliminary censorship.

Thus, the government of Alexander II proposed to the Russian society and implemented a whole package of social, administrative and cultural reforms, which, if it cannot be called a "revolution from above", should be recognized as a huge step forward in the modernization and Europeanization of the country. Still, the reforms went with great difficulty. The government met with resistance both "from below", from the masses, who wanted to get much more than the power gave them, and "from above", from the conservative-minded noble-bureaucratic circles, who believed that the people were given too much. In 1861, 1900 peasant unrest took place in Russia, the student movement intensified sharply, and in 1863 an uprising began in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. The radical part of the intelligentsia also became more active, advocating the complete democratization of the socio-political system of Russia, a genuine coup in land relations in favor of the peasants, and sometimes reaching calls for physical reprisal against the "imperial party" (N. G. Chernyshevsky and his entourage, a revolutionary organization "Land and Freedom", proclamations of 1861-1863, circle of N. A. Ishutin and others).

All this could not but frighten Alexander II, who was by no means a staunch liberal at heart, and bitterly stated the "ungratefulness" of the people. After D. Karakozov made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the emperor in St. Petersburg in 1866, obvious shifts to the right began in the government course, and Alexander II himself noticeably cooled down to continue the reforms, which in addition required significant financial resources and educated personnel. The attention of the tsar, whose personal life was also very difficult (the death of his son-heir, the cooling of relations with his wife, a complicated love affair with Ekaterina Dolgoruky), increasingly switched to foreign policy problems: the conquest of Central Asia, the end of the Caucasian War, diplomatic maneuvers between France, Germany and Austria-Hungary, the war with Turkey (1877–1878), etc.

The further, the more the split grew in Russian society between the democratic forces that quickly evolved to the left and the conservatives, who managed to win over the tsar to their side. At the same time, the liberal "centre", which could balance the extreme currents, was still very weak, being attacked and persecuted by the authorities and ruthlessly criticized by the revolutionaries. Its main postulates were: the free development of the human personality, state guarantees of observance of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the inviolability of private property, freedom of economic competition, ideological and political pluralism, the rejection of revolutionary violence and adherence to evolutionary methods of social development. Translated into the language of practical politics, this meant that the liberals were in favor of eliminating all estate privileges, involving zemstvo and city public figures in lawmaking and governing the country, alleviating the position of the peasantry and introducing it to culture. The most prominent representatives of liberalism in Russia in the second half of the XIX century. were K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, V. A. Goltsev, and among the liberal press organs, the journals Vestnik Evropy, Russkaya Mysl, and others stood out. However, in the conditions of autocratic Russia, liberalism was doomed to a long period " uterine development, remaining organizationally unformed and trying to find footholds in zemstvos, city dumas, universities and various scientific societies.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II and their historical significance.

(Peasant reform). Serfdom in Russia took such forms that it differed little from slavery, it was condemned by all sections of Russian society. But the government was able to abolish it only in 1861. In the economic sphere, there was an increase in the crisis of the landlord economy, based on the forced, inefficient labor of serfs. The unrest of the peasants increased. The defeat in the Crimean War showed that serfdom was the main cause of military and technical backwardness. The government embarked on the path of social, eq. and political reform. According to the peasant reform, the peasants received freedom (without redemption) and land allotment (for redemption). The peasant had to pay a quarter of the amount of land to the landowner. The landowner received the remaining amount from the state, and the peasant repaid it for 49 years, the relationship between peasants and landlords was regulated by ʼʼ Chartersʼʼ, peasants could engage in entrepreneurship, move to other estates. The reform prevented mass demonstrations of peasants. Land reform. City government reform. The abolition of serfdom caused the utmost importance of carrying out other bourgeois. On January 1, 1864, the "Regulations on Provincial and District Zemstvo Institutions" was issued, introducing non-estate elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos, which consisted of administrative and executive bodies. Zemstvos were responsible for public education, for public health, for food supplies, for the quality of roads. This required funds, the Zemstvos were allowed to introduce new taxes. On June 16, 1870, the "City Regulations" were published, according to which elective self-government was introduced in cities - city dumas. The city duma elected the city council (mayor). The right to elect and be elected to the City Duma had only residents with a property qualification (owners of houses, torᴦ.-industrial establishments,). City Dumas were under the jurisdiction of the Senate. The city reform was a step forward in the organization of city government, it contributed to the development of the city economy, industry and trade. Judicial reform. Simultaneously with the Zemstvo, a judicial one was also prepared. The jurors now established only the guilt or innocence of the defendant, the measure of punishment was determined by the judges. For the analysis of petty offenses and civil cases in counties and cities, the World Court was introduced. military transformation. The army played an important role in the social and political life of Russia. The necessity and urgency of military reform was determined by the defeat in the Crimean War - its technical. and tactical backwardness of the army. The European powers increased their military potential, which posed a threat to Russia's security. The order of staffing and command and control of troops, the relationship in the army did not correspond to the transformations that were taking place in society. In 1874, a charter on universal military service was issued. Under the new law, all young people who had reached the age of 14-21 were called up, but the government each year determined an extremely important number of recruits, and only this number was chosen from the recruits by lot. Other reforms. The university charter of 1863 expanded the autonomy of the universities: it granted economic and administrative independence, teachers and students participated in resolving issues of internal life. Financial reform 1862-1866 - the right to dispose of the country's financial resources was given to the Minister of Finance, whose activities were subject to accounting by the State Control. In 1860, the State Bank was established, lending to trade and industrial enterprises. The construction of a railway network was considered a means of raising the economic power. The import of goods to Russia has increased. The number of commercial and industrial enterprises, factories and plants has increased.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II and their historical significance. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Liberal reforms of Alexander II and their historical significance." 2017, 2018.

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No less brilliant man, but much more liberal. Good quality education. Zhukovsky is one of the educators. He sought to limit the time allotted for military affairs so that Alexander II would not repeat the behavior of Nicholas I. He loved life in all its manifestations. Reasonable. He came to power not at the best time (defeat in the Crimean War.) After the defeat in the Crimean War came the realization of the need for liberal reforms, the continuation of further Europeanization of the country. (The war showed the economic backwardness of Russia.) The peasant reform (the abolition of serfdom) took the first place in terms of time and significance. “It is necessary to cancel from above until it itself begins to cancel itself from below,” says Alexander II, in order to start reforming faster. Preparations for this reform proceeded in an atmosphere of openness, that is, the availability of information to society about the activities of state institutions, public organizations and officials at all levels.

1856 - Alexander II for the first time officially announced the need for the OKP before representatives of the Moscow nobility. He also really wanted the request for a solution to the peasant issue to come from the landowners.

The manifesto announcing the abolition of serfdom was issued on February 19, 1861 (voluntary donation of the nobility).

The peasants received: personal freedom for free (but without land); full legal capacity; ownership of all your property.

Cons of the peasant reform:

1) The lack of rights of the peasants as an estate remained (they could be flogged; they paid poll taxes, recruitment duty);

2) Prior to the conclusion of the redemption transaction, the peasants became temporarily liable;

3) The peasants had to pay the state annual redemption payments (for 49 years) - they were in double dependence - before the landowners and before the state;

4) The peasants lost "segments" (the landlords could cut off up to 1/3 of the peasant land for themselves);

5) Only about 20% of the peasants bought the land.

Outcomes: Feudal forms of land ownership have been preserved: peasant-communal; landowners. Peasants-owners have a community. Peasants remained users, but did not become owners.

Findings:

1) the main significance of the OKP is the beginning of the free development of capitalism in Russia, specialization in industry.

2) The abolition of serfdom meant the renewal of feudalism, but not its liquidation. 3) The abolition of serfdom was such a profound event that other reforms could not help but follow, the purpose of which was to adapt the autocratic system to the needs of the country's capitalist development.

Local government reform.

Stage 1 - 1864 Zemstvo reform - zemstvos appeared - elected all-estate bodies of local self-government, were separated from politics - they were engaged in economic and cultural activities within the province or county; enjoyed prestige among the people. One of the reasons for the Zemstvo reform was the desire to compensate for the nobles - at least partial - the loss of their former power.

Stage 2 - 1870 urban reform- City Dumas of a new type appeared (the functions are the same as Zemstvos, but on a city scale). The condition for participation in the elections is the possession of property. The emergence of a single urban estate that owns property - the bourgeoisie. A prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law.

Judicial reform (1864). Innovation in judiciary:

1) the independence of the court from the administration has been declared; preliminary investigation - the investigators did not obey the police;

2) the vowel of the proceedings (any person could be present at the trial.) This innovation had an educational value. => decrease in crime + objectivity increases, corruption decreases, law-abiding citizens are brought up;

3) the adversarial nature of the parties is introduced (prosecutor - lawyer);

4) criminal cases are considered with the participation of jurors, who were selected from all classes, except for employees.

5) Cancellation of estate courts = equality of all estates, but the court for spiritual and military affairs (closed) has been preserved. For persons from 1-4 ranks, the crime was judged by the Supreme Court (also closed).

For judges - property qualification.

Reform of education and printing (1863 - 1864). the new liberal charter of the university (1863), which restored the autonomy of the universities; the development of women's higher education and secondary medical education for women was started; secondary education was unified - gymnasiums - children from all classes were accepted; girls' gymnasiums appeared; the network of primary education has grown. Until the end of 19 the number of all educational institutions increased 10 times, the number of literate people amounted to 22.3%. Censorship was relaxed.

military reform. Military settlements and corporal punishment were eliminated, food was improved. The main measures of the military reform of 1874 were the abolition of conscription, and the introduction of universal (all-class) military service. Changing the principle of manning the armed forces. The ground forces served 6 years, the fleet - 7 years. Reduction of the army in peacetime. => Less money spent on maintenance in peacetime. They used to serve 25 years => many old ones are ballast. The combat effectiveness did not fall, because there was a reserve. For persons who received an education, the term of service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from elementary schools) to 6 months (for those who had higher education).

Preparation of the first draft of the Constitution:

ü Provided for the rights and freedoms of citizens;

ü Strengthened the imperial power;

ü Assumed the presence of a bicameral parliament - the State Duma and the State Council.

Conclusions on the reforms: The reforms laid the foundation for the development of capitalism in Russia. The implementation of the reforms was very difficult. In practice, reforms were developed by liberals and implemented by old conservative officials. The reforms were bourgeois and liberal, but contradictory and incomplete. During the reforms, there was a decrease in the standard of living of the population, especially peasants (restructuring of farms, new orders). => The society perceived the reforms ambiguously.

=> Populism arose in Russia - this is an ideological and political movement of the raznochintsy intelligentsia (people from the people - petty-bourgeois estates, civil servants, clergy); it is a kind of utopian socialism. Main ideas: Capitalism in Russia is imposed by the state, has no support from below. => It can be eliminated with the help of a peasant revolution and a just society can be created. The populists wanted to preserve the commune in order to build a socialist society on its basis. In the 70s. the movement “Walking to the People” arose (it ended unsuccessfully, the peasants did not understand what the populists were talking about; they handed them over to the police). Most of the populists became disillusioned with the methods of propaganda and went over to underground terrorist organizations.

1877–1878 - Russian-Turkish war. Russian victory. The growth of Russia's prestige. Russia finally entrenched itself in the Black Sea.

1879 - "Narodnaya Volya" was created - an underground terrorist organization. The goal is to kill Alexander II. The regicide was not the beginning of a peasant uprising. Moreover, the people felt sorry for Alexander. Populism has reached an impasse. The assassination of Alexander II had a powerful direct impact on the policy of the next tsar - Alexander III.