Preventive war - suicide for fear of death

Otto von Bismarck

The Galicia-Volyn principality was located in the southwestern part of Russia. With the beginning of feudal fragmentation, the principality separated from the Kyiv authorities and really claimed the leading role in Russia. This principality was distinguished by the presence of fertile soils, forests, trade routes and a specific management system.

princes

Princes of Galicia-Volyn principality:

• Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187). Ruled in Galicia.
• Roman Mstislavich. From 1170 he ruled in Volhynia, and in 1199 he subjugated Galich, forming a single principality. Ruled until 1205.
• Daniel Romanovich. 1205-1219 - rule under the guardianship of the mother. Next is self-management.

In times of fragmentation, the boyars enjoyed great influence. suffice it to say that both Roman Mstislavich and Daniil Romanovich waged the main struggle not with neighboring principalities and kingdoms, but with their own boyars. The results were not the best. In 1205, after the death of Roman, his young children were expelled from the principality. Leapfrog began with the invitation of the rulers. It came to the point that for some time the boyar Volodyslav Kormilichich became the prince of the Galicia-Volyn principality. It was a unique case of a local interruption of the Rurik dynasty in a separate principality.

In 1254, Daniel proclaimed himself king, and the principality became a kingdom. After the death of the prince-king in 1264, the principality broke up into a number of small regions that existed until 1352, when Galicia passed to Poland, Volhynia to Lithuania.

Development

The Galicia-Volyn principality, the development of which was carried out in the 12th-13th centuries, can be reduced to the following main dates:

• 1199 - unification into a single principality. Before that, there were 2 centers - Volyn and Galich.
• 1214 - Treaty of Seles between Hungary and Poland. The Hungarians planned to take Eastern Galicia for themselves, and the Poles Western.
• 1234 - Mikhail Vsevolodovich Chernigov occupied Galich.
• 1236 - Daniil Romanovich captures Galich.
• 1240 - he also captures Kyiv.
• 1264 - the principality was divided into many smaller ones.
• 1352 - Poland captured Galicia, and Lithuania captured Volhynia.

The favorable geographical position of the principality led to constant attempts by neighbors to seize this territory. It is not only about the fight against other specific principalities, but also the confrontation with Lithuania, Hungary and Poland. All these countries have repeatedly equipped military campaigns against the principality.

Geographic location and land

The Galicia-Volyn principality was located in the southwestern part of Russia between the Dniester and the Prut, as well as with access to the Carpathians. the main characteristic of the geographical position of the principality is the presence of a mild climate and fertile lands. There were chernozem lands, extensive forests and deposits of rock salt, thanks to which the principality managed to grow rich. The chronicles indicate that salt was traded with Byzantium, Poland, the Czech Republic and other countries.

Neighbors of the Galicia-Volyn principality:

• Kingdom of Hungary
• Polish kingdom
• Lithuanian principality
• Polotsk principality
• Turov-Pinsk Principality
• Kiev principality
• Polovtsian steppes

To the south were undeveloped lands, views of which were not only the Galician-Volyn princes, but also the Polovtsy with the Hungarians.

Large cities: Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Berestye, Lutsk, Lvov, Dorogobuzh, Terebovl.

Map

Map of the Galicia-Volyn principality with a geographical position within the Specific Rus.

Economic development

Features of the economic development of the Galicia-Volyn principality should be sought in the geographical position. Fertile lands had an impact on the wealth of the region, but much more important was the presence of salt mining, the trade of which brought a lot of money to the treasury. Another important economic feature of the region is that international trade routes passed through the principality.

culture

In the Galicia-Volyn principality, chronicle writing flourished. The peak of this process fell on the period of the reign of Daniel Romanovich. This prince in the annals is called an ideal ruler, as well as a magnificent warrior: daring, fearless and wise. If we consider the annals of these lands, they are more like a colorful story. If in other chronicles there is an enumeration of facts and events, then in this case the situation is different - the whole narrative goes in the form of a story.

The architecture of Galich and Volhynia is unique. European culture left an imprint on it, as well as the proximity of Kyiv with its traditions. As a result, an amazing color was achieved, and the cities began to amaze with their beauty and grace. Architects in construction used colorful glasses that let light through, decoration of buildings inside and out, relief images, gilding and much more. These were rich cities, which was reflected in the culture.

Peculiarities

The political features of the Galicia-Volyn principality relate to the management system. schematically, it can be depicted as a horizontal straight line.

Power was distributed almost equally between the prince, the veche and the boyars. Therefore, the positions of the boyars were so strong, and therefore there was a struggle for power between rich people and the prince. after all, in other large principalities, triangles of control were traced, where someone was at the top and received a dominant role. This was not the case in this kingdom.

General features of the development of the principality during the period of feudal fragmentation (11-13 centuries):

• Struggle with Kyiv for supremacy in Russia
• Active development of rock salt mining.
• A large number of arable land and forests.
• Active foreign trade and urban growth at this expense.

History of the Galicia-Volyn principality- an integral part of the history of Russia during the period of feudal fragmentation, which was a natural stage in the development of the country.

The feudal mode of production with subsistence farming, the weakness of economic ties led to the disintegration of the territory of Russia into separate lands and principalities. Among them were Galicia and Volyn, which at the end of the 12th century united as part of the Galicia-Volyn principality. In the southwestern part of Russia, the Galicia-Volyn principality was the direct heir of Kievan Rus, the successor of its traditions. The period under study is characterized by a number of important socio-economic phenomena. This is primarily the growth of feudal property through the development of agriculture through the enslavement of the masses of the peasantry. There is also a process of separation of handicrafts from agriculture, the growth of cities as centers of the handicraft population and trade exchange, covering wide areas. Social relations are aggravated, the struggle of the oppressed working masses against the exploiters is unfolding.

A characteristic feature of this period is the struggle of the princes against the boyars for the strengthening of the monarchical power and for the stable unification of the Galicia-Volyn lands into one principality. Such a "unification of more significant areas into feudal kingdoms" counteracted the process of fragmentation of Russia and was undoubtedly a progressive phenomenon. The struggle for the unity of actions of the Russian principalities, for their unification to repel the aggression of foreign feudal lords, was also of great importance.

The territory of both Volhynia and Galicia was divided into separate lands, or principalities. Volyn until the middle of the XII century. formed one Vladimir principality. Later, as a result of princely strife and hereditary division of possessions, small volosts began to appear, which eventually turned into principalities.

The Galicia-Volyn principality arose as a result of the unification of the Galician principality with Volyn, which was carried out by Roman Mstislavich in 1199.

The origin and development of the Galicia-Volyn principality - the heir to Kievan Rus

Unification of Volyn and Galicia

Despite internecine wars between individual princes, Volhynia and Galicia have long maintained close economic and cultural relations. These relationships became a prerequisite for the unification of Volhynia and Galicia in one principality, which later played an extremely important role in the life of the Eastern Slavs for almost 150 years. Its further history should be considered in the context of the formation of three centers of consolidation, new state formations based on mono-ethnic soil - Ukrainian in the south, Belarusian in the northwest, and Russian in the northeast.

The emergence and rise of the Galicia-Volyn state was facilitated by:
1. Good geographical location.
2. The need for a (joint) struggle between the two principalities against aggression from Poland, Hungary, and later the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
3. The policy of princes Roman (1199-1205) and Daniel (1238-1264) united vigorously.
4. The existence of rich salt deposits on the territory of the principality, and this contributed to economic growth and intensification of trade.

The state development of the Galicia-Volyn principality took place in several stages.

Shortly after the death of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Prince of Volyn Roman Mstislavich, at the invitation of the Galician boyars, occupied Galich, but could not establish himself there. Only in 1199, after the death of Vladimir Yaroslavich, the last representative of the Rostislavich dynasty, did Roman Mstislavich succeed in combining Volyn and Galicia under his rule into one principality.

The formation of the united Galicia-Volyn state was an event of great historical importance. No wonder the chronicler called Roman the Grand Duke, "the king in Russia", "the autocrat of all Russia." Having mastered a significant part of the Kyiv heritage. The Galicia-Volyn principality at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries was not inferior to the Holy Roman Empire in terms of the size of its possessions. Its strengthening against the background of the progressive decline of the principalities of the Middle Dnieper testified to the fact that the center of political and economic life is gradually moving to the west.

Roman chose Kyiv as the center of his state, not oriented towards Byzantium, but Galich, close to the borders of the Western states.
Over time, Roman becomes a political figure on the European historical scene, as evidenced by the offer of the Pope in 1204 in exchange and acceptance by the prince of Catholicism to crown him. The Galicia-Volyn principality is drawn into a fierce struggle between the Hohenstaufen and the Welfs, which escalated in what was then Catholic Europe. However, not only with the sword did Roman gain fame. In the last years of his life, he proposed a model for supporting the "good order" in Russia. According to this project, it was planned to end the princely civil strife, the consolidation of forces for the appearance of an external enemy. However, the Galician-Volyn prince failed to unite Russia. In 1205, he tragically died near the town of Zawichost during a fight with the soldiers of the Krakow prince Leshka the White.

Temporary collapse of a single state (1205-1238)

With the death of Roman, an almost 30-year period of struggle for the Galician table begins. The characteristic features of state life at that time were:
- the progressive self-will of the boyars, which reached an unprecedented violation of the norms of feudal law - the announcement of the prince of the boyar Vladislav Kormilchich (1213-1214);
- continuous interference in the internal affairs of the Western European lands of neighboring states - Hungary and Poland, the consequence and manifestation of which was the proclamation of the “King of Galicia” and Volodymyriya Kolman (Koloman), married to the two-year-old Polish princess Salome (the military occupation began after that lasted from 1214 to 1219 .);
- the growing Mongol threat, which first manifested itself in 1223 on the banks of the Kalka River (Galician and Volyn formations were part of the coalition of Russian princes);
- energetic struggle for the restoration of the state unity of Daniel of Galicia, successfully ended in 1238.

Galicia-Volyn principality in the reign of Daniel of Galicia (1238 - 1264).

Having restored unity, the Galicia-Volyn principality is gaining strength and regaining lost positions. In the spring of 1238, Daniel defeated the Teutonic knights of the Dobzhinsky Order near Dorogochin.

Soon he again extends his influence to Kyiv, in which he leaves his governor Dmitry to manage.

Feeling the reality of a constant threat from the West and East, he brings together a number of castle towns (Danilov, Kremenets, Ugrovesk, etc.).
During the period of the Mongol invasion, Daniel of Galicia was not in the principality: he was in Hungary and Poland.

When the hordes of Batu moved to Hungary, Daniil returned to his native lands, where he was expected not only by significant demographic losses, but also by another clash with the arbitrariness of the Galician boyars, who invited the Chernigov prince Rostislav to the throne. But in 1245 Daniel defeated the troops of Rostislav.

In the same 1245, the prince was forced to go to the Golden Horde in order to receive a label to manage the lands. Formally recognizing dependence on the khan, Daniel thereby tried to buy time to gather forces and prepare a decisive blow.
Old cities were actively fortified and fortresses of a new type were built, located on hills with stone walls, and the army was reorganized: the infantry was formed, the cavalry was re-equipped.

Daniil Galitsky was not able to realize the plans before the creation of the anti-Horde coalition. Taking advantage of Daniel's predicament, Pope Innocent IV promised the Galician-Volyn prince real help in the fight against the Golden Horde and the royal crown, subject to the conclusion of a union of the Russian Orthodox Church with the Catholic Church under the auspices of the pope.

In 1253 Danil's coronation takes place in the city of Dorogochin.

But not feeling real help from the papal curia, Daniel terminates the agreement with the Vatican and enters into an open armed struggle with the Golden Horde. At the end of 1254, Daniil of Galicia went on the offensive against the troops of Kuremsa, who was trying to occupy the Galician Lower. As a result of successful and decisive actions, the prince managed to win back the lands along the Southern Bug, Sluch and Teterev from the nomads.

In 1258, the Horde launched a new massive offensive led by Burundai. Having no strength to resist, Daniel of Galicia was forced to order the destruction of the fortifications of Vladimir, Lutsk, Kremenets, Danilov and other cities. Only the fortifications of impregnable Hill, where Daniel died in 1264, after a serious illness, survived.

Stability and rise (1264 - 1323)

After the death of Daniel of Galicia, the principality again loses its unity: its lands were divided among the three descendants of the prince - Lev, Mstislav and Shvarno.

Lev Danilovich (1264 - 1301) continued the state policy of his father most consistently. Although he was forced to admit his dependence on Nogai, it was this prince who annexed Transcarpathia and Lublin land to his possessions. Thanks to him, the territory of the Galicia-Volyn state became the largest in its history.

At the turn of the XIII - XIV centuries. the unity of the Galicia-Volyn state was restored under the rule of Leo's successor, Prince Yuri I (1301 - 1315). This was the period when the Golden Horde, which was torn apart by internal strife and strife, gradually lost power over the conquered territories.
Yuri, like Daniel, took the royal title. During the period of his reign, social development stabilized, cities flourished, trade ascended, economic development grew.

Yuri I's successors were his sons - Andrei and Leo II (1315 - 1323). They divided the territory of the principality into spheres of influence, but ruled jointly, duumvirate, and therefore the collapse of a single state did not occur. The struggle with the Horde ended tragically for them: in 1323, in the battle with the troops of Khan Uzbek, the young princes died.

The value of the Galicia-Volyn state for the Ukrainian people.

In fact, the Galicia-Volyn state on Ukrainian soil was built by Ukrainian hands, who managed to unite around themselves most of the Ukrainian ethnographic theory of their time, in fact, in the middle of the 14th century. ceased to exist. But a century and a half of its existence did not pass without a trace for the future fate of the Ukrainian people.

In the culture of the Galician-Volynian day, even more clearly than before, there is an original combination of the Slavic heritage and new features due to ties with Byzantium, Western and Central Europe, and the countries of the East. The principality has an honorable place in the formation of Ukrainian culture, in strengthening its ties with the cultures of others peoples. For centuries, in difficult times of domination by foreign states, Ukrainian figures of literature, art, and education turned to the heritage of past eras, including the times of the Galicia-Volyn principality. The memory of its former greatness supported the spirit of the Ukrainian liberation struggle.

The state traditions of the era of Kievan Rus and the Galicia-Volyn principality were of great importance for the preservation and strengthening of the historical identity of the Ukrainian people.

Consequently, the development of culture in the Galicia-Volyn principality contributed to the consolidation of the historical traditions of Kievan Rus. For many centuries, these traditions have been preserved in architecture, fine arts, literature, annals and historical works. The heritage of Kievan Rus was one of the essential factors in the unification of the cultures of the Eastern European peoples.

At the end of the 12th century, a significant historical event took place: the territories of Galicia and Volyn separate principalities were united into a single Galicia-Volyn principality. As a result of such a reunification, the largest ancient Russian state of the Rurik dynasty arose. A wise ruler, Prince Roman Mstislavovich, was able to unite together two independent principalities.

First, he, taking advantage of civil strife, occupied Galich, and after the death of Vladimir Yaroslavich, he deftly connected these territories. Common cultural traditions, as well as common enemies (in the person of the Poles, the Golden Horde and the Hungarians) also contributed to the reunification of these lands. The principality existed for more than 200 years, and its wise ruler was subsequently called the "autocrat of all Russia."

The peculiarity of the geographical location of the principality was in a favorable territorial location. The state was located on the fertile chernozems of Southwestern Russia. The principality was adjacent to Lithuania - on the north side; with the Golden Horde - on the south side; with Kyiv, as well as the Turov-Pinsk principalities - from the eastern side; with the Kingdom of Poland - along the western borders. And the majestic Carpathians served as a natural border with Hungary.

The natural conditions in the state were magnificent: luxurious and picturesque nature, a huge number of clean reservoirs. In the south, the principality was washed by the majestic Danube, and in the east by the full-flowing rivers Styr and Pripyat.

There is no exact information about the population. Unfortunately, reliable lists have not reached us. It is only known that the princely subjects regularly conducted a census of the population in the territories under their control. Regular population growth was ensured by the resettlement of the inhabitants of the conquered lands to the territory of the principality.

The inhabitants of the Ukrainian steppes also regularly moved to the territory of the state in search of protection from the constant raids on the steppe by the Mongol-Tatars. The main part of the population were Eastern Slavs. But there were also small settlements of Poles, Yotvingians, Lithuanians, Prussians and Tatars.

Important! In large cities, merchant and craft settlements of Germans and Jews also existed separately.

State characteristics

Favorable geographical location contributed to the rapid development of the state. The characterization of the Volyn principality would be incomplete without a description of its largest cities.

According to ancient chronicles, there were about 80 of them in the principality. The largest cities:

1. Lviv - this ancient beautiful city, even at the present stage, is the cultural capital of Ukraine. The city was named in honor of the son of Danil Galitsky - Leo.
2. Vladimir-Volynsky is a large and beautiful city, the advantageous geographical location of which contributed to the formation of a large Jewish community there in the 13th-14th centuries. A tragic fate befell the city during World War II, when the Germans massacred 25,000 people in this city.
3. Galich is also a luxurious ancient city, which became the first capital of the Galician state.

Political system

Administration in the Volyn principality deserves special attention. The policy of the state is still of particular interest and subject of discussion among historians. Official historical science is inclined to the version that real power was concentrated in the hands of noble boyars. It was this nobility that made the most responsible decisions in the state. At general councils, they decided which of all the applicants to put on the princely throne, and from whom to take power. And even if the prince independently made a decision, the boyars still had to approve it, they could also appeal against it.

The body of power, which included noble boyars, was called the council. Bishops and large landowners also made up the council. The social system was feudal. Society was divided into five strata, between which there were striking differences.

The table will clearly show the social strata.

Name	Own
men	Votchinniki, large landowners
feudal lords	Owned the land as long as they were in the service of the prince
church nobility	At their disposal were large lands, as well as peasants. The prince gave them the land. In this category of the population were exclusively educated people
artisans	They owned pottery, jewelry, etc. workshops. They lived exclusively in big cities. The products they produced were supplied to the domestic and foreign markets.
smerdy (peasants)	The largest category of the population. They didn't own anything. They cultivated the lands of the feudal lords, and paid a constant tribute (tax in kind to the state), lived in separate communities

The main law in the state was the Russian Truth of Yaroslav the Wise.

Useful video: history of Galicia-Volyn principality

Economic Features

The economy in the Galicia-Volyn lands was quite developed. It was based mainly on subsistence agriculture. Courtyards had their own self-sufficient lands, owned their own arable land, meadows, forests and hayfields, as well as places for hunting and fishing.

The most popular cereal crops were rye and oats, wheat and barley were not very popular. From livestock breeding, horse breeding was the most popular, as well as sheep breeding and pig breeding. Salt making was the most popular industry. Many forests contributed to the development of woodworking and construction.

Pottery, jewelry, blacksmithing and weaponry were also developed. Trading did not develop much, the lack of access to the sea and river ports contributed to the unpopularity of trade. Internal trade was conducted mainly in large cities.

Army

Military affairs played a key role in the existence of the state system. Constant wars and civil strife contributed to the development of the army.

The army was divided into two parts:

• squads,
• warriors.

The warriors made up the princely army, the squad was formed exclusively from the boyar estates. The duty of all noble boyars was unconditional participation in military campaigns. Moreover, each boyar had to go on a campaign with cavalry and subjects. Their number could reach 1000. Simple boyars had to go on a campaign with two escorts: a gunsmith and an archer.

A separate princely guard was made up of very young boyars. They were constantly near the prince.

Simple howls were a kind of people's militia. Unlike combatants, their participation in military campaigns was not so in demand.

cultural traditions

A rather distinctive culture was formed on the territory of the principality, the origins of which relied both on ancient Russian cultural traditions and those borrowed from neighboring states.

Cultural centers were large monasteries in cities. They were also the main centers of education. Cultural life was mainly concentrated in Volhynia, in Vladimir, and also in Galich. It was in these cities that libraries were concentrated, and writing was developed in them.

Orthodox churches and monasteries were famous for their exquisite architecture. On the Volyn lands, the Dnieper architectural traditions were honored. In the Galician land, mainly Romanesque architectural styles and trends were used, borrowed mainly from Hungary, the Czech Republic and Poland.

Important! It was Galician architecture that was particularly diverse. Exquisite white stone was used to finish the buildings. The walls were faced with ceramic relief tiles, which depicted the plant world, geographical ornaments, and military themes were also widely used.

The 12th century was marked by a special flourishing of the region's architecture. It was at this time that the majestic Assumption Cathedral was built in the city of Galich. This mighty cathedral was only slightly inferior in size to St. Sophia of Kyiv. It was built during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl and symbolized the power of the principality. During the excavation of the foundation of the cathedral, a sarcophagus with the remains of the prince himself was discovered.

Of the other architectural monuments, we note the most significant:

• The grandiose church of St. Panteleimon has survived to this day. It is located in the village of Krylos in the Ivano-Frankivsk region.
• The city of Holm became a fairly large architectural center already in the 13th century. Unfortunately, not a single architectural structure in the Hill has survived to this day.
• The majestic Assumption Cathedral in the city of Vladimir has survived to this day. The cathedral was built by order of Mstislav Izyaslavich in 1160.
• A completely new type of structures, which were of a defensive nature, appeared in Volhynia in the 13th century. These were huge donjon towers, which were built of brick or stone.

Useful video: Galicia-Volyn principality

Conclusion

The Galicia-Volyn principality was a powerful and economically developed state with majestic architecture and well-established cultural traditions. Power in this principality was concentrated in the hands of the prince and noble boyars.

The Galicia-Volyn principality was formed on the territory of two adjacent ancient Russian regions - Galicia and Volhynia. At first, there were two separate principalities here - Galicia and Volyn, then they were merged into one. The Galician land occupied the southwestern corner of ancient Russia, covering the territory of modern Moldavia and Northern Bukovina. In the south, it reached the Black Sea and the Danube, in the west it bordered on Hungary, from which it was separated by the Carpathians, in the north-west - with Poland, in the north - with Volhynia and in the east - with the Kyiv principality. Volyn occupied the region of the Upper Pripyat and its right tributaries. Its neighbors were Poland, Lithuania, Turov-Pinsk Principality and Galicia.

Galician land was densely populated. Since ancient times, arable farming flourished here. Plentiful crops were grown on fat chernozems. There were many livestock. On the territory of Galicia were rich salt mines. Table salt was exported from here to the Russian principalities and neighboring foreign states. Volyn was also an ancient rich Slavic region.

In Galicia-Volyn Rus, handicrafts reached a high level of development. There were relatively many cities (about 80). The largest of them were Vladimir, Lutsk, Buzhsk, Cherven, Belz, Pinsk, Berestye - in Volyn and Galich, Przemysl, Zvenigorod, Terebovl, Kholm - in Galicia. The capitals of the lands - Galich and Vladimir - were among the largest ancient Russian urban centers. The growth of handicrafts and agriculture contributed to the development of domestic trade. At that time, Galicia-Volyn Rus carried on a brisk trade with other Russian principalities and foreign states, which was greatly facilitated by its advantageous position on water and land trade routes. The Galicia-Volyn land traded with Byzantium, the Danubian countries, Crimea, Poland, Germany, the Czech Republic and other countries. Many foreign merchants lived in its cities - Germans, Surozh, Bulgarians, Jews, Armenians, as well as merchants from other Russian principalities.

In the Galician land, as the most developed part of ancient Russia, a large boyar land ownership was formed early. The power of the princes settled here quite late - at the end of the 11th century.

By the time the princes arrived here, the main lands had already been captured by local boyars. The Galician princes therefore failed to create any significant princely domain. This circumstance left a deep impression on the entire socio-political life of the Galicia-Volyn principality. 12th and 13th centuries the history of Galicia-Volyn Rus is filled with an almost incessant struggle between the princely power and the boyars. The rich and strong Galician boyars looked at the prince as their protege, called upon to protect their interests from the people and from external enemies. They had their own body - the boyar council, with the help of which they sought to keep the prince in their hands and direct his activities. The princely power relied on service feudal lords, whose center was mainly Volyn, and on the growing power of cities interested in limiting the feudal privileges of the landed nobility and destroying feudal barriers that hindered the development of crafts and trade.

Despite a fierce struggle, the Galician-Volyn princes were unable to break the boyars, although some of them managed to greatly increase the importance of princely power. Describing the power of the boyars, the chronicler writes that they "name themselves princes, but they themselves hold the whole land." In the struggle for power, the boyars did not disdain any means. They willingly gave themselves under the protection of the Polish and Hungarian feudal lords. The interweaving of internal struggle with external wars is a characteristic feature of the history of the Galicia-Volyn principality of the 12th - 13th centuries.

The Galician land became isolated from Kyiv by the beginning of the 12th century. in the line of great-grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise - the Rostislavichs. Somewhat later, in the middle of the 12th century, Volhynia also became independent. From the middle of the XII century. both principalities are experiencing significant political upsurge. In the Galician land at that time, one of the prominent Western Russian princes, Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1153 - 1187), ruled. Yaroslav established his power at the mouth of the Danube, defeated the Kyiv prince and captured Kyiv (1154), where he planted his ally, the Smolensk prince Rostislav, established peaceful relations with Byzantium and allied with Hungary. Glory to the power of Yaroslav Osmomysl spread throughout Russia and beyond. Addressing him, the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign says: “Galichki Osmomysl Yaroslav! Sit high on your gold-plated table, propped up the Ugrian mountains with your iron shelves, blocked the queen's path, shutting the gates of the Danube.

Yaroslav's son Vladimir, as a result of a clash with the Galician boyars, fled to the Hungarian king. A certain prince, the great-great-grandson of Monomakh, Roman Mstislavovich, took advantage of his flight and in 1188 captured Galich, but not for long. He had to wage a stubborn struggle with the Galician boyars, who were supported by the Hungarian king. Only in 1199, Roman, with the support of the townspeople, managed to unite the Galician and Volyn principalities. He successfully fought against the Galician boyars, took away some of their land. Prince Roman in 1201 took possession of Kyiv. His title of "Grand Duke" was recognized in the Galician land, and in Novgorod, and in Byzantium. The newly created powerful principality attracted the attention of Pope Innocent III, who wanted to draw it into the orbit of his influence. An embassy was sent from Rome to Prince Roman with an offer of a royal title, but the pope's proposals were rejected by Roman.

In 1201, Roman was killed in a battle with the Poles. After his death, two young sons remained - Daniel and Vasilko.

The Hungarian and Polish kings, taking advantage of the opportunity, made claims to Galich and Volhynia.

The widow of Roman with her children was forced to flee. Only after a long struggle did Daniel Romanovich establish himself in Galich by 1238, relying on the population of the cities. Both principalities were reunited. Daniil Romanovich (1238 - 1264) waged a fierce struggle against the boyars, who called on both Polish and Hungarian interventionists against the prince. Daniel even moved the capital to Hill, which became the center of the united Galicia-Volyn principality.

When Daniel annexed the Turov-Pinsk principality to his possessions, the lands of the Galicia-Volyn principality reached almost to Kyiv. In addition, Daniel fought with Lithuania and Poland. From the Lithuanian tribe of the Yotvingians, he took away significant land areas, and in the fight against Poland captured Lublin. The heyday of the Galicia-Volyn principality was dealt a blow by the invasion of Batu. Daniel could not fight the hordes of the Tatar-Mongols and was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Khan of the Golden Horde. However, he did not leave thoughts about the struggle and tried to organize a crusade against the conquerors. To do this, he entered into an alliance with the pope. Daniel also hoped to get support from the Hungarian and Polish kings. However, after the Tatar-Mongols began to directly threaten an invasion, Daniel's "allies" did not help him. Pope Innocent IV stubbornly sought to spread his political and ecclesiastical influence in the Galicia-Volyn principality, but Daniel retained complete independence in relations with Rome.

After Daniel's death, the saddest pages in the history of the Galicia-Volyn principality began. Continuous strife between the princes led to the fact that in 1349 the Volyn principality was finally captured by Lithuania. The Galician principality fell under the rule of Poland, and Transcarpathian Rus became the prey of the Hungarian king.

The territory of the Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians to Polissya, capturing the course of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - the extraction of salt and mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trade with other countries, in which the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky were of great importance.

An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, in a constant struggle with which the princely government tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land were constantly influenced by the policies of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups applied for help or in order to find asylum.

The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the turmoil that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Leading a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subdue other lands of Southern Russia.

After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volhynia among themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich. After the conquest of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars, Daniil Romanovich became a vassal of the Golden Horde. However, the Galician prince, who possessed great diplomatic talents, skillfully used the contradictions between the Mongolian state and Western European countries.

The Golden Horde was interested in preserving the Principality of Galicia as a barrier from the West. In turn, the Vatican hoped, with the assistance of Daniel Romanovich, to subjugate the Russian Church and for this promised support in the fight against the Golden Horde and even the royal title. In 1253 (according to other sources in 1255) Daniil Romanovich was crowned, but he did not accept Catholicism and did not receive real support from Rome to fight the Tatars.

After the death of Daniel Romanovich, his successors could not resist the collapse of the Galicia-Volyn principality. By the middle of the XIV century. Volhynia was captured by Lithuania, and the Galician land - by Poland.

Novgorod land

Novgorod land from the very beginning of the history of Russia played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was the profit from the sale of craft products - beekeeping, hunting for fur and sea animals.

Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held in their hands the exit to the Baltic Sea, from the beginning of the XIII century. Novgorod border in the West went along the line of Lake Peipus and Pskov. Of great importance for Novgorod was the annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest industries brought enormous wealth.

Novgorod's trade relations with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, became stronger from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Cloth, weapons, metals, etc. were imported to Russia.

But despite the size of the territory of the Novgorod land, it was distinguished by a low level of population density, a relatively small number of cities compared to other Russian lands. All cities, except for the "younger brother" Pskov (separated from 1268), were noticeably inferior in terms of population and importance to the main city of the Russian medieval North - Lord Veliky Novgorod.

The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political separation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. The princes in Novgorod were left with exclusively official functions. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of land in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the possessions determined for the service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the XII century. the Novgorod prince was formally considered the Grand Duke of Vladimir, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod.

The supreme governing body of Novgorod was veche, real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of the Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of their control over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages.

From the environment and under the control of the boyars, elections were carried out posadnik(heads of the city government) and thousandth(head of the militia). Under boyar influence, the post of head of the church was replaced - archbishop. The archbishop was in charge of the treasury of the republic, external relations of Novgorod, the right of court, etc. The city was divided into 3 (later 5) parts - "ends", whose trade and craft representatives, along with the boyars, took a significant part in the management of the Novgorod land.

The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, as a rule, these movements did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully

used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.

The historical isolation of Novgorod from other Russian lands had important political consequences. Novgorod was reluctant to participate in all-Russian affairs, in particular, the payment of tribute to the Mongols. The richest and largest land of the Russian Middle Ages, Novgorod, could not become a potential center for the unification of Russian lands. The boyar nobility ruling in the republic strove to protect the "old times", to prevent any changes in the existing correlation of political forces within the Novogorod society.

Strengthening since the beginning of the XV century. tendencies in Novgorod oligarchy, those. the usurpation of power exclusively by the boyars played a fatal role in the fate of the republic. In the context of increased from the middle of the XV century. Moscow’s offensive against Novgorod independence, a significant part of Novgorod society, including the agricultural and trading elite that did not belong to the boyars, either went over to the side of Moscow, or took a position of passive non-intervention.