100 r first order bonus
Choose the type of work Graduation work Term paper Abstract Master's thesis Report on practice Article Report Review Test work Monograph Problem solving Business plan Answers to questions Creative work Essay Drawing Compositions Translation Presentations Typing Other Increasing the uniqueness of the text Candidate's thesis Laboratory work Help on-line
Ask for a price
The state institutions of Sparta were:
Apella - a meeting of citizens of the policy;
Gerusia - council of elders;
Eforat - a board of 5 elected persons;
Two archagetes - kings.
In Sparta of the classical period (7th - 5th centuries BC), a peculiar system of state administration developed.
Archit of Tarentum in his essay "On Law and Justice" believes that the Spartan state organization harmoniously combines elements of three political regimes: monarchy, oligarchy and democracy.
The monarchical element is royal power. She did not play a leading role in government. Both kings, archagetes, as leaders of the times of military democracy, were the "supreme commanders" of the army and performed priestly functions: "... in the campaign, the king has no other duties, except for the duties of a priest and commander ...".
Kings were honored as heroes. In public life, they enjoyed privileges and honor.
The Spartans granted their kings special honors and rights as follows: both priestly positions - Zeus Lacedaemon and Zeus Urania (the god of heaven) and even the right to wage war with any country. Not a single Spartiate dares to oppose them, otherwise he is subject to damnation. A hundred selected warriors serve as bodyguards on the march. The kings can take as many sacrificial animals with them on a campaign as they like: from each victim they receive a skin and a dorsal part of the meat. Such were the special advantages of the kings during the war.
In peacetime, the kings were entitled to special advantages. During the sacrifices, the king sat in the 1st place at the sacrificial feast; compared to the rest of the participants, they are the first to be served treats and in double quantity. When drinking a libation, the kings relied on the first goblet and the skin of the sacrificial animal. On the 1st and 7th days of the beginning of the month, the community delivers a selected animal, and then a Laconian medimne of barley flour and a Laconian quarter of wine. In all competitions, kings have special places of honor. They are instructed to appoint any of the citizens as proxens and choose 2 Pythia each (ambassadors to Delphi, who dine with the kings on a common account). If the kings did not come to the feast, then they are sent to their homes 2 heniks of barley flour and a cauldron of wine for each. And when they come, they are served all the food in 2 quantities. The same honor is given to them by a private citizen, inviting them to dinner.
Here are the posthumous honors of kings. Riders announced the death of the king to all parts of Laconia, and women go around the city and beat the cauldrons. As soon as these sounds are heard, in every house 2 free people - a man and a woman - should put on mourning. Severe punishment awaited those who did not obey this order ... Whenever the king of the Lacedaemonians died, a certain number of perieks, in addition to the Spartans, must be present at the burial. Many thousands of perieks, helots and Spartans gathered together with their wives, they violently beat themselves on the forehead, raised loud cries and at the same time lamented that the late king was the best of the kings. If death befell the king on the battlefield, then in his house they installed the image of the deceased on a bed lined with bedding, carried it out. After the burial of the king, the court and the market are closed for 10 days, and there are also no meetings for the election of officials, but these days all the Lacedaemonians are in mourning.
After the death of the king, his heir, assuming the throne, forgives the Spartans all debts to the king or promises.
Xenophon in the Lacedaemonian Politia describes roughly the same relationship between the kings and the community of citizens, adding some details about the relationship that developed between the kings and the ephors. “When the king appears, everyone gets up, except for the ephors, who continue to sit on their chairs. The ephors and the king exchange oaths every month: the ephors swear on behalf of the policy, the king - on his own behalf swears to rule in accordance with the laws established in the state, and the policy undertakes to keep the royal power inviolable as long as the king is true to his oath. Such are the honors paid to the king in Sparta ... They differ only slightly from the honors given to private individuals. Indeed, Lycurgus did not want either to inspire the kings with a desire for tyranny, or to arouse the envy of fellow citizens for their power. As for the honors paid to the king after death, it is clear from the laws of Lycurgus. That the Lacedaemonian kings were honored not as ordinary people, but as heroes.
The duties of only the kings included decisions on certain issues. Only one king was given the right to decide on the following matters: the choice of a husband for the daughter-heiress and communal roads (safety protection) ... if anyone wants to adopt a child, he must do this in the presence of the kings. The kings also sat in the council of 28 gerons... each had 2 votes.
In the Gerousia, the kings presided. The supreme power in meetings should belong to god-like kings, after them - to the elders - geronts.
The kings of Sparta were large landowners. In addition to the land plots allocated to them on the lands of the perieks, they owned fertile plots allocated from state lands. In addition, they were entitled to the above-described offerings “from the people”: sacrificial animals, wine, barley flour, i.e. the maintenance of the royal house was largely based on the in-kind supplies of the Spartan community. As commanders, they were entitled to part of the spoils of war, while the rest of the booty became the property of the entire community.
The simultaneous reign of two kings, descended from the genus Agiad and Eurypontides, can be explained by the fact that the nobility of the Achaean society, which had risen to a higher level of cultural development before the conquest, entered the community of the conquerors.
Royal power passed by inheritance, from father to son. But the simultaneous reign of two kings was obligatory.
Thus, the kings enjoyed economic privileges and were honored as heroes, but the main function of the kings was military powers. During the campaigns, the kings enjoyed unlimited power, having the right to life and death of any warrior. During the campaign, none of the officials had the right to interfere with the orders of the kings or disobey them. All decisions were made jointly by the kings and only in this case were they binding.
Herodotus describes an attempt by King Cleomenes to arrest the inhabitants of Aegina, accused by the Athenians of collaborating with the Persians. Some of the Aeginians resisted him "... declaring that Cleomenes ... was acting without the permission of the Spartan authorities ... otherwise he would have arrived with another king."
After the end of the war, the power of the kings was limited to priestly functions and a few other duties.
The weakness of royal power, the control over it by the ephorate and the co-kings prove that the institution of royal power in Sparta inherited many archaic features dating back to the time of military democracy.
In order to avoid the establishment of the tyranny of the kings in Sparta, one of the tasks of the ephorate and the gerontes was to maintain constant hostility between the kings, while the most important decisions were valid only with the approval of both kings.
Thus, the power of the military leader remained behind the kings, but political rights were severely curtailed. This circumstance made it possible to adapt the institution of royal power to the needs of a large slave-owning state based on the exploitation of the conquered population, and therefore, in need of a cohesive army, on the one hand, and on the other hand, interested in maintaining equality among citizens, which is impossible under a full monarchy.
In this regard, the Gerousia and the ephorate were given part of those political rights that the kings were deprived of.
Gerousia- council of elders. Tradition attributes the creation of this governing body to the reformer Lycurgus. Allegedly, the first elder Lycurgus appointed from among those who took part in his plan. Then he put in place of the dead, each time to choose from citizens who have reached 60 years of age, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant.
The leading role in the design of the gerousia can hardly be recognized only for Lycurgus. A similar governing body existed among the Dorian tribes since the time of military democracy, the Lycurgus retra only legitimized a certain number of gerontes, leaving the principle of their election little changed.
In addition to the two presiding kings, the Gerousia included 28 elders who constantly supported the kings, resisted democracy, but at the same time helped the people to keep the fatherland from tyranny.
Geronts were elected for life at a popular assembly. Moreover, the registration of votes was carried out very conditionally - the Spartans make a decision by voting with a cry, and not with pebbles.
Despite the fact that the strength of the cry, and hence the victory of the applicant, was assessed by special elected representatives who were indoors at the time of voting, the voting results were inaccurate and subjective.
Initially, the gerousia was the supreme court of the community and the custodian of oral law, at the same time it was also the supreme council of the state. Her decisions concerned both foreign and domestic policy of Sparta. Later the state court for criminal cases and state crimes.
Thus, having shared powers with the ephorate, the ancient tribal body - the council of elders - adapted to the new conditions of the slave-owning state.
Apella- People's Assembly of full-fledged Spartiate citizens. Initially, the functions of the appella were wide. She had the right to make and reject laws, decide questions of war and peace, as well as decide the most important matters within the community itself. But after the limitation of the power of the apella by the second retroa, the most important function of the apella was the choice of officials. The earlier broad powers of the appella were severely limited. The members of the appeal did not have the right, on their own initiative, to propose any questions to the consideration of the people's assembly, but had only to express their attitude to the questions proposed to them by the gerousia and the archaetes. Many usually expressed this with a cry or, in controversial cases, parted to the sides, and the majority were determined by the gerons by eye. This method of voting indicates the great antiquity of the existence of the apella; it probably goes back to the tribal assemblies of the Dorians.
Since there was no discussion of questions from citizens in the appeal, it was only required to express their opinion by voting, and such an archaic method of voting allowed abuse, the gerusia, of course, could carry out any decisions. If the majority of the Spartans spoke out against the resolution proposed by the Gerousia, then the Gerousia had the right, in the second retreat, to dissolve the assembly. Thus, after limiting the role of the national assembly by the second retro, the apella ceased to play an active role in the life of the Spartan state and turned only into an advisory body under the gerousia.
This position of the appella allowed it to exist in the conditions of a slave-owning state for a long time, although in essence it was archaism. The preservation of such an ancient body created the appearance of democracy and made it possible to rally the Spartans.
ephorat- the official board of ephors, consisting of 5 people, annually re-elected from the entire Spartiate community.
Initially, the ephorate was established to limit the power of kings and their influence on state affairs. Lycurgus gave the government a mixed character, but his successors, seeing that the oligarchy is still too strong, throws on it, like a bridle, the power of ephors - guardians - about 130 years after Lycurgus, under King Peopompus. This is also evidenced by the earlier mutual oath of kings and ephors.
According to legend, once every 8 years, the ephors spent the night outside the house, watching the sky. If on that night they did not see a star falling in a certain direction, this meant that one of the kings was subject to removal, as not keeping the oath given to them.
The Second Messenian War, accompanied by the enslavement of the entire free population of the valleys, led to the strengthening of the ephorate.
An important function of the ephors was the police supervision of the protection of the established constitution, in connection with which the civil court was transferred from Gerusia to the ephors. In the hands of the ephors is the power to decide on important lawsuits.
During the war, two members of the college of ephors participated in campaigns to constantly monitor the activities of the kings. During the war, they did not have the right to interfere with the orders of the kings, but after the war they could judge the kings. So, on his return from Argos, King Cleomenes was brought to trial by the ephors.
Ephorate controlled all the magistracies of the state
The system of Spartan education was now subject to the control of the ephors. The ephors also had the right to remove foreigners from Sparta. The right to control the distribution of military booty, the establishment of taxes and the conduct of military recruitment also passed into their hands.
Particularly important were the functions of the ephors to control the helots and perieks. It was they who set the start time of the crypts. Over the perieks, they received the right of a criminal court.
Having the right to immediately punish any citizen who violated the customs of Sparta, the ephors themselves were not subject to trial and remained uncontrolled, it seemed that the ephorate was established in the interests of the people, but in fact it served to strengthen the influence of the nobility.
Thus, the college of ephors gradually became the most influential state body.
As a result, having described all the governing bodies of ancient Sparta, representing, as mentioned at the beginning, the heads, oligarchic, monarchical and democratic political regimes, we can conclude that the real power was concentrated in the hands of the ephors.
So, kings and gerusia, two aristocratic institutions of power, took part in the government. But due to balancing each other, all three institutions of power created a special type of government inherent in Sparta - an oligarchic republic.
The military nature of Spartan society contributed to the preservation among the Spartans of the remnants of pre-class relations. Such a relic was the significant socialization of the life of the Spartans, associated with their complete elimination from economic activity and with their equally complete transformation into a military ruling class.
Ancient Sparta was the main economic and military rival of Athens. The city-state and its surrounding territory were located on the Peloponnese peninsula, southwest of Athens. Administratively, Sparta (also called Lacedaemon) was the capital of the province of Laconia.
The adjective "Spartan" in the modern world came from energetic warriors with an iron heart and steel endurance. The inhabitants of Sparta were famous not for arts, science or architecture, but for brave warriors, for whom the concept of honor, courage and strength were put above all else. Athens of that time, with its beautiful statues and temples, was a stronghold of poetry, philosophy and politics, which dominated the intellectual life of Greece. However, such superiority was bound to end someday.
Raising children in Sparta
One of the principles that guided the inhabitants of Sparta was that the life of every person, from the moment of birth until death, belongs entirely to the state. The elders of the city were empowered to decide the fate of newborns - healthy and strong children were left in the city, and weak or sick children were thrown into the nearest abyss. So the Spartans tried to secure physical superiority over their enemies. Children who have passed the "natural selection" were brought up in conditions of severe discipline. At the age of 7, the boys were taken away from their parents and brought up separately, in small groups. The strongest and most courageous young men eventually became captains. The boys slept in the common rooms on hard and uncomfortable reed beds. Young Spartans ate simple food - a soup of pig blood, meat and vinegar, lentils and other coarse food.
One day, a wealthy guest who came to Sparta from Sybaris decided to taste the “black stew”, after which he said that now he understands why Spartan warriors lose their lives so easily. Often the boys were left hungry for several days, thereby inciting petty theft in the market. This was not done with the intent to make the young man a skilled thief, but only to develop ingenuity and dexterity - if he was caught stealing, he was severely punished. There are legends about a young Spartan who stole a young fox from the market, and when it was time for dinner, he hid it under his clothes. So that the boy would not be convicted of theft, he endured the pain from the fact that the fox gnawed his stomach, and died without issuing a single sound. Over time, the discipline only became tougher. All adult males between the ages of 20 and 60 were required to serve in the Spartan army. They were allowed to marry, but even after that, the Spartans continued to spend the night in barracks and eat in common canteens. Warriors were not allowed to own any property, especially gold and silver. Their money looked like iron bars of various sizes. Restraint extended not only to life, food and clothing, but also to the speech of the Spartans. In conversation, they were very laconic, limiting themselves to extremely concise and specific answers. This manner of communication in ancient Greece was called "conciseness" on behalf of the area in which Sparta was located.
Life of the Spartans
In general, as in any other culture, issues of life and nutrition shed light on interesting little things in people's lives. The Spartans, unlike the inhabitants of other Greek cities, did not attach much importance to food. In their opinion, food should not serve to satisfy, but only to saturate the warrior before the battle. The Spartans dined at a common table, while the products for lunch were handed over in the same amount - this was how the equality of all citizens was maintained. Neighbors on the table vigilantly watched each other, and if someone did not like the food, he was ridiculed and compared with the spoiled inhabitants of Athens. But when the time came for the battle, the Spartans changed dramatically: they put on the best outfits, and marched towards death with songs and music. From birth, they were taught to perceive each day as their last, not to be afraid and not to retreat. Death in battle was desirable and equated to the ideal end of a real man's life. There were 3 classes of inhabitants in Laconia. The first, most revered, were inhabitants of Sparta who had military training and participated in the political life of the city. Second class - perieki, or residents of surrounding small towns and villages. They were free, although they did not have any political rights. Engaged in trade and handicrafts, the perieks were a kind of "service personnel" for the Spartan army. lower class - helots, were serfs, and did not differ much from slaves. Due to the fact that their marriages were not controlled by the state, the helots were the most numerous category of inhabitants, and were kept from rebellion only thanks to the iron grip of their masters.
Political life of Sparta
One of the features of Sparta was that two kings were at the head of the state at the same time. They ruled jointly, serving as high priests and military leaders. Each of the kings controlled the activities of the other, which ensured the openness and fairness of the decisions of the authorities. The kings were subject to a "cabinet of ministers", consisting of five ethers or observers, who exercised general guardianship over laws and customs. The legislative branch consisted of a council of elders headed by two kings. The Council elected the most respected people of Sparta who have overcome the 60-year age barrier. Army of Sparta, despite the relatively modest number, was well trained and disciplined. Each warrior was filled with the determination to win or die - to return with a loss was unacceptable, and was an indelible shame for life. Wives and mothers, sending their husbands and sons to war, solemnly handed them a shield with the words: "Come back with a shield or on it." Over time, the militant Spartans captured most of the Peloponnese, significantly expanding the boundaries of possessions. A clash with Athens was inevitable. The rivalry came to a head during the Peloponnesian War, and led to the fall of Athens. But the tyranny of the Spartans caused the hatred of the inhabitants and mass uprisings, which led to the gradual liberalization of power. The number of specially trained warriors decreased, which allowed the inhabitants of Thebes, after about 30 years of Spartan oppression, to overthrow the power of the invaders.
History of Sparta interesting not only from the point of view of military achievements, but also the factors of the political and life structure. Courage, selflessness and the desire for victory of the Spartan warriors - these are the qualities thanks to which it was possible not only to restrain the constant attacks of enemies, but also to expand the boundaries of influence. The warriors of this small state easily defeated armies of many thousands and were a clear threat to the enemies. Sparta and its inhabitants, brought up on the principles of restraint and the rule of force, were the opposite of the educated and pampered by the rich life of Athens, which in the end led to a clash of these two civilizations.
Marathon.From myths to reality
As with all ancient history, the facts about the legend of Marathon are not easy to sort out. Herodotus mentions a battle when the Greeks and their brave allies, the Plataeans, defeated the superior forces of the Persians. In the Greek army there was a runner, Philippides (or Pheidippides), who ran from Athens to Sparta to bring the Spartans to the aid. It is believed that he traveled approximately 245 kilometers in 48 hours. The modern Spartathlon recorded for the same distance a record running time of 20 hours and 25 minutes, which was achieved by the Greek runner Janis Kouros in 1984.
Car rental in Greece
One who travels to the country of olives makes far-reaching plans. Greece is very convenient to travel by car. This is especially true of its mainland, but it is also permissible to travel around the large islands by car if you plan your trip according to ferry schedules.
Lake Vouliagmeni
Among the typically beautiful Greek landscape, 21 kilometers from Athens is Lake Vouliagmeni. It is only 100 meters from the sea. Surprisingly, scientists do not find any mention of this lake in ancient times. Perhaps the ancient chroniclers simply ignored it, or perhaps it did not exist at that time. We find the first mention of the lake in the chronographs of the Ottoman Empire.
Family in the understanding of the Greeks
Ioannis Kapodistrias.
Among the many glorious and prominent Hellenes, the figure of Ioannis Kapodistrias rises separately. This man is not just a well-known person, he is the smartest politician and diplomat who, with his labors, laid the foundation of Greek statehood.
The Spartan community that arose as a result of the merger of the tribal communities of Laconia (Sinoikism) in the 9th century. BC, as a result of wars, robberies, strife, arbitrariness, it was on the verge of collapse. The laws of the legendary Lycurgus led to the flowering of the Spartan state, thanks to which Sparta existed until the 2nd century BC. BC.
Lycurgus was one of the kings of Sparta. He was the successor to a brother who died suddenly. Upon learning that his brother's wife was pregnant, in the event of the birth of a boy, he promised the latter the throne. After the birth of the heir, Lycurgus, being the guardian, performed all the functions of the king and earned the love and respect of the people for his wisdom and justice. But the enemies slandered Lycurgus, saying that he wants the death of his ward, after which Lycurgus left his homeland. The Spartans repeatedly asked him to return. Enlisting the opinion of the Pythia - the priestess of the Delphic oracle (sanctuary) that his laws would be better than the laws of other states, Lycurgus returned to his homeland. The weak-willed nephew - King Harilay - like other citizens adopted his laws.
Tagunov D.E. notes that the reforms of Lycurgus are a whole complex of socio-economic and legal transformations, formalized by a retro - an agreement on the "best state structure". The anti-aristocratic orientation of the Lycurgus Retra is obvious. After the reforms, the nobility formally disappeared, as if dissolved in the mass of the demos. In a short time, Lycurgus established an exemplary order, saved the people from unrest and turmoil; legends attribute to him the creation of such foundations of Spartan society, which struck with their stability.
According to L.G. Pechatnova, the Great Retra of Lycurgus is a sign of the beginning of the consolidation of the civil collective, in which not the aristocracy was reduced to the people, but, on the contrary, the entire Spartan people turned into the ruling class. It is not for nothing that the Spartans began to call themselves homeys very early, i.e. equal. But their equality was very peculiar - it was equality within the layer of masters.
According to Ilyinsky N.I., the “Lycurgus system” finally took shape in Sparta by the end of the 7th century. BC. Retra on the social and political structure of the state solved two main tasks - to ensure the unity of the Spartans and their joint dominance over the conquered population by restraining property differentiation. Order and unity strengthened Sparta.
It should be noted that, of course, the established political system of the Spartan state was not created at once, thanks to the talent of one legislator. The system was honed gradually, amendments were made to the former Lycurgus legislation. But still, it is the laws of Lycurgus that are the beginning of a conscious transformation of the entire society and state.
When the laws of Lycurgus entered into life, he informed the people that he must make a very important transformation, but for this he must visit the Delphic oracle. Having sworn an oath that the Spartans would not change anything in his legislation before his return, he set off. Hearing from the oracle that Sparta will prosper if she lives by his laws. He chose to die without returning to Sparta so that the Spartans would not learn of his death and renounce their oath.
According to M.N. Botvinnik, Lycurgus did not deceive his hopes. While Sparta adhered to his laws, for several centuries, she remained one of the most powerful states of Greece. Only at the end of the 5th c. BC, when self-interest and property inequality penetrated into Sparta along with gold and silver, the laws of Lycurgus were dealt a mortal blow.
According to Plutarch, Lycurgus surpasses in glory all the Greeks who have ever acted in the public arena. That is why Aristotle claims that Lycurgus did not receive in Lacedaemon everything that is due to him by right, although the honors rendered by the Spartans to their legislator are extremely great: a temple was erected to him and sacrifices are made annually, as to a god. It is said that when the remains of Lycurgus were transferred to their homeland, lightning struck the tomb. Subsequently, this did not fall to the lot of any of the famous people, except for Euripides, who died and was buried in Macedonia near Aretusa. With him alone, after death, the same thing happened that once - with the purest and most amiable man to the gods, and in the eyes of the passionate admirers of Euripides - this is a great sign that serves as a justification for their ardent commitment.
Having considered the personality of the legislator Lycurgus and the significance of his reforms, the author of the course work will further consider the essence of the state structure of the Spartan policy, which developed after the reforms carried out by Lycurgus.
According to I.D. Stadub, the state system of slave-owning Sparta was formed as a result of the transformation of military democracy into a republic, which eventually acquired an aristocratic character. From the primitive communal era, the people's assembly (apella), the council of elders (gerusia) and two kings, the archagetes, survived here.
The supreme authority in Sparta was the apella, which included all full-fledged Spartans who had reached the age of 30 and had not lost their land allotment. Full-fledged Spartans, together with their families, were no more than 10% of the total population. Members of the people's assembly did not make any proposals, but only spoke for or against the proposals of the kings or the gerousia - the council of elders. When deciding on particularly important issues, they parted in different directions and the majority was determined by eye, in other cases they expressed their opinions by shouting.
The square where the meetings took place was undecorated, there was not even any protection from the sun and wind, there was nowhere to sit on it. This was due to the fear that the decoration would not make the speakers long-winded. Plutarch explains this by the fact that, according to Lycurgus, nothing like this contributes to the soundness of judgments, on the contrary, it causes only harm, occupying the minds of the audience with trifles and nonsense, scattering their attention, because instead of doing business, they look at statues, pictures or the ceiling of the Council, overly ornate.
Apella resolved such issues as the choice of the leader of a military campaign, the election of an official. But the decisions were not discussed - they were either accepted or rejected.
Historians clarify the following about royal power: “the Spartiate community was headed by two kings who belonged to the two ruling dynasties in Sparta - Eurypontides and Agiads. The kings led the military militia, played a prominent role in the cult, but their power was limited by gerousia, in which, along with , included 28 more influential Spartans elected for life by the people's assembly who had reached the age of 60.
Derevensky B.G. also confirms the limitation of royal power by Gerusia: two kings ruled in Sparta, each of whom passed on his power by inheritance. However, the real power belonged to the council of elders, elected from among the noble Spartans, not younger than sixty years of age. This council decided all state affairs, while the kings commanded the army. In addition, the kings or archagetes exercised judicial power, were the high priests.
The kings were not supposed to have physical defects. Every nine years they underwent a religious test, after which they reigned for the next nine years. The main business of the kings, according to Ilyinsky N.I., was not to prove their generosity and right to the throne, but to skillfully command the army and fight courageously in battle.
Mark Naumovich reports the following about the kings: “simultaneously with Harilaus, who came from the Eurypontides clan, Archelaus from the Agiad clan ruled in Sparta. Both kings hated each other: each strove for sole unlimited power, which in Greece was called despotism. This enmity weakened the state system.
According to Plutarch, of the numerous innovations of Lycurgus, the Council of Elders was the first and most important. In conjunction with the feverish and inflamed, according to Plato, royal power, having an equal right to vote with it in deciding the most important matters, this Council became a guarantee of well-being and prudence. The state, which rushed from side to side, leaning now to tyranny, when the kings won, then to full democracy, when the crowd took over, placing in the middle, like ballast in the hold of a ship, the power of the elders, found balance, stability and order: twenty-eight the elders now constantly supported the kings, resisting democracy, but at the same time helping the people to keep the fatherland from tyranny.
If the kings were younger than 30 years old, they were represented in the Gerousia by guardians from among the royal relatives. After the death of the geront, members of the apella who had reached the age of sixty proposed their candidacy. The commission for the election of the geront was in a closed room, and at this time the apella shouted its opinion on the candidates passing by the room. For whom they shouted the loudest, he was chosen geront.
According to Botvinnik M.N., in order for the kings, geronts and people not to argue among themselves because of power, Lycurgus drew up an agreement between them - a law on the division of power. “Let,” the law said, “the people be divided both by place of residence and into tribes, let 30 people enter the Gerousia together with the kings, and the people from time to time gather at the Eurota River for meetings. There, let the people be offered solutions that they may accept or reject. Let the people have supreme power and strength." However, stratification occurred in the Spartan community. So in addition to the "big retra" it is said that if the apella makes a wrong decision, the kings and gerousia dissolve the people's assembly and cancel the decision.
This is confirmed by Yu. It did not have real power and did not solve the main state issues.It was sometimes collected simply according to custom.
Such a governing body as ephors, elected by the people's assembly, appeared a little later. There were five of them in total, and they had enormous power: they could overturn the decision of the kings, dealt with finances and foreign policy relations, supervised the behavior of the Spartans, they conducted civil cases. According to N. Ilyinsky, the ephors in Sparta appeared as a result of acute conflicts between tribal leaders and tribal aristocracy. The latter, which received a large share of military booty and the opportunity to oppress free community members, sought to limit the life-long power of the leaders to the power of representatives of the aristocracy elected for a certain period. So the ephors appeared, who were elected from the "worthy"
Ephors, as a body of control over gerousia and kings, was either a representation of the five villages that made up the city of Sparta, or a representation of the five obs into which the Spartan policy was divided.
The word "ephor" means "overseer", "observer". At first, the functions of the ephors were as follows: they watched the stars in order to find out if the ruling kings were pleasing. If a star was falling at that time, it meant that one king needed to be removed.
Pikus N.N. writes that the ephors were elected from among all the Spartans for a period of one year and had the highest control power, had the right to prosecute and judge all the Spartans, including the gerontes and kings. They oversaw the strict observance of the rules of the Spartan way of life, led domestic and foreign policy and terrorist activities against the helots.
In their activities, the ephors reported only to their successors. Therefore, the lack of control and legal impunity led to the abuse of power. The ephors could call the king for a conversation, and if the latter did not appear, he was brought by force
Despite the fact that judicial functions were performed by each of the state bodies, Stadub I.D. clearly defines the competence of everyone: criminal cases, especially state crimes, were considered by the gerousia, civil disputes - ephors, and disputes about the use of roads - archagetes. Helots were punished without trial and preliminary investigation. The evidence was oaths, testimonies of witnesses, ordeals (God's judgment) and being caught red-handed. Punishments were at the discretion of the judges. Fines, exile, deprivation of rights (atimiya) and the death penalty were widespread, which was applied in the form of throwing off a cliff, strangulation.
According to Krushkol Yu.S., the Spartan system was the most reactionary among the ancient Greek states. And Sparta itself, which had hegemony in the Peloponnesian Union, always supported, along with this union, all the anti-democratic actions and trends that arose in ancient Greece.
Thus, the Spartan state achieved its power thanks to the reforms of Lycurgus. The legislation of Lycurgus is based on two main principles: firstly, by restraining property differentiation, ensure the unity of the Spartans; secondly, the joint dominance of the Spartans over the conquered population. The political system of Sparta is an aristocratic republic, the state authorities in which were the People's Assembly, the Council of Elders, kings and ephors.
The People's Assembly adopted or canceled the decisions put forward by the Gerousia. It was of a formal nature, since the Council of Elders could reject their decision. Gerousia decided all state affairs, considered criminal cases, especially state crimes. The kings commanded the army, led the religious cult, performed a judicial function. The ephors were in charge of domestic and foreign policy and resolved civil disputes.
Home > DocumentGERUSIA
In Sparta, the council of elders, or gerousia, with the low importance of the national assembly, was in fact the highest government body. At the time of the establishment of the Gerusia, its chairmen were the kings, and later the ephors. Gerousia was in charge of all current state affairs; she also held the supreme judicial power. Only the gerontes, for example, could judge kings. Both the method of election, and the lack of accountability, and the lifetime membership in the Gerousia most corresponded to the oligarchic essence of the Spartan state. Gerousia in Sparta consisted of 30 people: 28 gerontes over the age of 60, elected for life from among the best citizens belonging to the noblest families and 2 kings, later ephors.
(PLUTARCH. LYCURGUS, 26)
... Lycurgus appointed the first elders from among those who took part in his plan. Then he decided to replace the dead every time to choose from citizens who have reached sixty years of age, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant ... This decision was made as follows. When the people gathered, the special elected ones closed themselves in the house next door, so that no one could see them, and they themselves could not see what was happening outside, but would only hear the voices of those assembled. The people in this case, as in all others, decided the matter by shouting. Applicants were not introduced all at once, but in turn, in accordance with the lot, and they silently passed through the meeting. Those who were locked up had signs on which they noted the strength of the scream, not knowing to whom they were shouting, but only concluding that the first, second, third, in general, the next competitor had come out. The chosen one was declared the one to whom they shouted more and louder than others. With a wreath on his head, he went around the temples of the gods. He was followed by a huge crowd of young people, praising and glorifying the new elder, and women who sang of his valor and proclaimed his fate happy. Each of his relatives asked him to eat, saying that the state was honoring him with this treat. Having finished his rounds, he went to a common meal; the established order was not violated in any way, except for the fact that the elder received the second share, but did not eat it, but put it off. His relatives stood at the door, after dinner he called one of them, whom he respected more than others, and, handing her this share, said that he was giving away the award that he himself had received, after which the rest of the women, glorifying this chosen one, escorted her home.
OFFICIALS
Other officials in Sparta, who performed state orders or were in charge of a separate branch of government, were elected by the apella, or appointed by the ephors. The latter controlled their activities. All officials were divided into civilian and military. Civil, according to the duties assigned to them, were divided into:
- in charge of the affairs of the oracle; they belonged to the closest retinue of the king, dined with him at public expense 16 ; in charge of the accommodation of foreigners and ambassadors; who followed the upbringing and behavior of boys; these officials were subordinate to others who oversaw the physical development of young people; overseers of the behavior of women; controllers of order in the markets of imported goods; managing perieks.
- Navarchs - managed the fleet, were elected for 1 year without the right to re-election. In the year of service, the navarchs enjoyed enormous power, comparable to that of the tsar 17 ; Advisers, closest assistants, and sometimes actually navarchs; Adjutants of the Navarchs; 6 commanders of the ground forces: they were in the closest retinue of the king and in peacetime followed the sissitia; 3 people were placed over the royal bodyguards, they were elected by ephors from the best 30-year-old men; 300 men under the age of 30 made up the bodyguard unit itself; 5 warriors from among the "horsemen" were chosen as agents to carry out assignments abroad; armed groups for carrying out cryptia.
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS
Judicial proceedings in Sparta seem to have been quite simple and based on customary law, although we know little about it. Judicial power was in the hands of the kings, gerousia and ephors. In the appellation disputes were resolved only on the succession to the throne. The judicial competence of the kings included the following issues: inheritance, marriage of heir girls, chairmanship of the tribunal during the war. The jurisdiction of the gerousia included criminal cases, together with the ephors and the presiding king, the court of another king, accused of something. Criminal cases in which the accused would face the death penalty in order to avoid mistakes were considered for several days. The jurisdiction of the ephors also included civil, especially property matters. The punishments were: monetary fines, atimii 18 and the death penalty. Atimia comprehended mainly cowards who fled from the battlefield, surrendered and was a very severe punishment. The death penalty consisted of strangulation, which was carried out at night in a special room of the prison or in overthrow into the abyss near the city. Imprisonment was not imputed as a punishment.
FINANCE
The state treasury, managed by the ephors, was small. The sources of income were taxes from the perieks and sometimes extraordinary contributions; in wartime, trophies were added to them, as well as subsidies from foreign states (especially Persia). The tale of Lycurgus forbidding the use of money is no doubt fictional, since in ancient times Greece was generally poor, and the first silver coin was minted by the Argos king Phidon. But until | V century. in Sparta, iron money was used, which was iron coins called "sacrificial cake". Such money was poorly convertible (1 to 1200 in relation to silver), which is why they could not be used in large quantities, which led to the development of barter. But in the cities of the Periyek, engaged in trade, foreign gold and silver were used, although Spartan laws forbade the possession of gold and silver by private individuals, 19 with the fall of ancient discipline, very significant wealth was concentrated in the hands of private individuals.
LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS
The main sources on the legislation of Lycurgus and the Spartan state system as a whole are two special treatises, one - Xenophon's "Lacedaemonian polity", and the other - Plutarch's "Comparative Lives". By |X- the first half of V|| in. BC. includes a series of reforms, both agrarian and socio-political. The legendary personality of Lycurgus is associated with a number of innovations that had an anti-aristocratic coloring and were aimed at strengthening the dominance of the Spartiate community over the mass of the enslaved population. These events, combined with reforms in the military field, which formed the essence of the new structure of Sparta, were, as it were, sent from above by the will of the Delphic oracle. With regard to Lycurgus's authorship of the laws of Sparta, there are several points of view that allow us to trace how the appearance of a particular person in the social structure was preceded by a transformed myth about the ancient Laconian deity Lycurgus. The existence of an earlier special cult of Lycurgus, which arose before the emergence of any legislative institutions, was noted, at the same time it was recognized that Spartan customs were deeply connected with the primitive social organization and developed from the bowels of the human community, regardless of any lawmaking. Proponents of another theory argued that the ancient Dorian laws, gradually forgotten and no longer respected, were restored by adherents of the ancient way from among the Spartans themselves. One way or another, but the hypothetical Lycurgus, as an authoritative legendary hero or deity, fully corresponded in his qualities to the mission of the reformer of Spartan society entrusted to him. Although there is no unequivocal answer to the question why the people of the legislator were chosen from all the possible gods and heroes, but after the second Messenian war and the crisis that arose as a result of the war, the civil society of Sparta was finally consolidated on the basis of the once existing and already almost forgotten systems of severe social control. This allowed the Spartans to quickly cope with the destructive tendencies within their own society and resist external opponents. In the history of the state of Sparta, in their maximalist version, polis democracy and collectivism were presented with the authoritarian institution of the ephorate. Gradually, the college of ephors grew into an imperious closed layer, standing above all the citizens of Sparta. Thus, Lycurgus created the main political institutions of the Spartan state.
(PLUTARCH. LYCURGUS, 5-6)
5. The Lacedaemonians yearned for Lycurgus and repeatedly invited him to return... The kings themselves also looked forward to his return, hoping that in his presence the crowd would treat them more respectfully. The Spartans were in such a mood when Lycurgus arrived back and immediately began to change and transform the entire state structure ... Lycurgus decided to involve the best citizens in the execution of his plan and conducted secret negotiations first with friends ... Of the many innovations of Lycurgus, the Council of Elders was the first and most important (gerousia). In conjunction with ... the royal power, having an equal right to vote with it in deciding the most important matters, this Council became a guarantee of well-being and prudence. The state, which rushed from side to side, leaning now to tyranny, when the kings won, then to full democracy, when the crowd took over, placing in the middle, like ballast in the hold of a ship, the power of the elders, found balance, stability and order: twenty-eight the elders (geronts) now constantly supported the kings, resisting democracy, but at the same time helping the people to keep the fatherland from tyranny. In my opinion, Lycurgus appointed twenty-eight elders, most likely so that, together with the two kings, there were exactly thirty of them. 6. Lycurgus attached so much importance to the power of the Council that he brought from Delphi a special prophecy on this subject, which is called "retra". It reads: "Establish a temple of Zeus Sillania and Athena Sillania. Divide into phyla and obas. Establish a gerousia of 30 members with archagetes jointly. people." The order to "divide" refers to the people, and the phyla and oby are the names of the parts and groups into which it should be divided. The archagetes are the kings. None of the ordinary citizens was allowed to submit their opinion, and the people, converging, only approved or rejected what the elders and kings would offer. But subsequently, the crowd of various kinds of withdrawals and additions began to distort and mutilate the approved decisions, and then the kings Polydorus and Theopompus made the following addition to the retra: "If the people decide incorrectly, dissolve the gerontes and archaetes", that is, the decision was not considered accepted, but to leave and dissolve the people on the grounds that it perverts and twists the best and most useful. They even convinced the whole state that this is the command of God ... The second and most daring of the transformations of Lycurgus is the redistribution of the land. ... Lycurgus ... persuaded the Spartans to unite all the lands, and then divide them again and continue to maintain property equality ... He divided Laconia between the perieks into 30,000 plots, the Spartan lands into 9,000, according to the number of Spartiate families. Each allotment was such as to bring 70 medimns 20 barley per man and 12 per woman ... ... One of the benefits and advantages that Lycurgus brought to the citizens was an abundance of leisure. It was strictly forbidden for them to engage in crafts ... Helots influenced their land, making the appointed tax ...
THE DEGENERATION AND DECLINE OF SPARTA
Little by little, having spread their possessions by force of arms and establishing their dominion in the Peloponnese, Sparta in the middle of the 5th century. became the head of the Dorian states, founded for external protection. The significance of her hegemony was very great during the Greco-Persian wars, when Sparta was looked upon as a natural protector and representative of the interests of all Hellas, and she had the honor of leading not only land, but also naval forces. But soon the arrogance and oppression of Sparta aroused the displeasure of the allies, and hegemony at sea passed to Athens. Sparta, apparently easily allowing this transition, nevertheless began to treat with constant envy the growth of Athenian power. 50 years after the campaign of Xerxes, a clear gap occurred between Athens and Sparta, and a fierce 27-year war for dominance in Greece began (Peloponnesian War, 431-404). It ended with the complete triumph of Sparta and the defeat of Athens; however, this triumph was short-lived, and from that time Sparta begins to noticeably tend to fall. The life of the Spartans, devoid of any internal movement by the ancient institutions, one-sidedly aimed at developing only military prowess, naturally found its goal in conquest strivings, which strained the forces of the state too much and at the same time had a harmful effect on citizens, acquainting them with the luxurious and free life of others. Greeks. As a result of the victories of Lysander, a large amount of gold and silver penetrated into Sparta, which aroused all the more greed for itself, because until then noble metals were not in circulation there. The thirst for wealth took possession of all; even the death penalty, with which the state threatened persons who own noble metals, was not terrible for greed; even the best people of Sparta were unable to resist the temptation and were not shy about the means for their enrichment, the kings and elders themselves became corruptible. Now the ancient prediction of the oracle, which said that the greed of Sparta will bring her to death, has ceased to seem incredible. Campaigns in foreign countries had a very harmful effect on the Spartans, which introduced them to the freedom and charms of life abroad and opened up a new source to satisfy selfish interests. The state, of necessity, had to appoint (except for the knights) special generals and navarchs for distant campaigns and send citizens as harmosts to subordinate foreign cities, where even disinterested people would need special willpower to resist temptations, and the Spartans of that time directly looked at these positions as a means to enrichment. In the very way of life of the Spartans, as a result of an increase in material well-being, a change had to occur: new needs appeared, the desire for comfort, and the strict prescriptions of the ancient discipline became difficult for people who got acquainted with the freedom of life in other countries. In the inner life of Sparta itself, due to the inequality of the population, there were many elements that adversely affected the strength of the state system. The Spartans always looked at the helots as subdued enemies, alien to the state organism, and were not shy about the means to keep them constantly in an oppressed position. But a number of grave wars and misfortunes, which had a harmful effect on the spirit of citizens and contributed to a decrease in their number, made the state in dire need to fear the helots as enemies, and to involve them in campaigns. The fear aroused by the helots led to open persecution of them by means of cryptia, 21 which became more and more cruel over time. On the other hand, the need for “cannon fodder” for military purposes often forced the Spartans to resort to the liberation of the helots and created a new class of people (neodomods), on whom, together with the perieks, Sparta mainly laid all the burdens of the war, saving its citizens for small campaigns or for positions in the headquarters of kings and generals. These reasons explain the murderous hatred of the subordinate classes of the people for the ruling tribe, which was clearly shown in the conspiracy of Cinadon at the beginning of the 5th century. 22 The Spartan aristocracy itself, due to the isolation of its life and the absence of any refreshing element, little by little degenerated into a small and shy oligarchy. Since the Persian Wars, it has been subject to a constant and regular process of extinction, which can be traced by a few fairly definite figures. In ancient times there were 10,000 citizens in Sparta 23 ; Lycurgus, according to legend, divided the Spartan territory into 9,000 sections for citizens. During the Xerxes campaign against Hellas, there were more than 8,000 adult citizens in Sparta 24; 5,000 Spartans took part in the battle of Plataea, but they were not all able to bear arms 25 . In the battle of Mantinea in 418, 3584 Spartans stood in the ranks, making up ⅞ of the general militia 26, so there were up to 4300 people able to carry weapons then. In the time of Aristotle, in the 2nd half of the 5th century, it was already barely possible to count 1000 citizens, and a hundred years later, under Agis |V, there were no more than 700 27 . The reasons for such a rapid decrease in the number of citizens were, on the one hand, continuous wars, during which a significant number of citizens were sometimes exterminated at once, various misfortunes, on the other hand, the very conditions of life and especially land ownership in Sparta. Due to the inseparability and inalienability of land plots in each clan, established by ancient law, all land usually passed to the eldest sons of families, who thus alone remained materially secure, while the younger ones remained landless and therefore could not fulfill the legal duties of citizens and passed into the category of incomplete. Along with the reduction in the number of full-fledged citizens, the number of landowners naturally also decreased, the land was concentrated in the hands of a few owners, and thus a closed oligarchy gradually emerged. The loss of Messenia, liberated by Epaminondas from the rule of Sparta in 370, dealt an irreparable blow to those Spartans who owned plots in this country. The law of Ephor Epitadeus (in the 1st half of the 5th century) also had a very harmful effect in economic terms, giving each Spartiate the right to donate his house and plot to anyone during his lifetime and freely dispose of them by will 28 . For these reasons, the inequality in the distribution of land holdings among citizens has become so great over time that in half ||| in. all the lands accumulated in the hands of 100 clans, while all the other citizens (numbering about 600) made up a poor landless mass, which was completely dependent on the rich oligarchy, which concentrated all power in its hands. These circumstances explain to us why Sparta could not recover from the blow inflicted on her power by Epaminondas of Theban. The ancient fortress of the state system was undermined, the institutions of Lycurgus became only empty forms with which the ruling class covered up its egoistic aspirations. All power was concentrated in the hands of the ephors and the richest families, while the kings, having no power in the state, preferred at the head of mercenaries to serve foreign interests for money or to wallow in luxury at foreign courts. Under the name of Phiditius, the Spartan rich now arranged luxurious feasts, at which they competed in effeminacy with the eastern satraps and surprised foreigners with the brilliance and splendor of the furnishings and the sophistication of the dishes. And next to them, the mob nested in the city, deprived of their means of subsistence and access to positions, lazily and reluctantly defending it from external enemies and lying in wait for a convenient moment for a coup and uprising 29 .
CONCLUSION
So, having relatively fully examined the internal organization of the Spartan state throughout the entire historical path of its existence, one involuntarily asks the question: how can one explain the features of the social and state system of Sparta? In my opinion, the following main points can be distinguished:
- living surrounded by a numerically superior, sharply hostile mass of helots, the Spartans were forced to turn their city into a permanent camp. Power in the camp was to be held by a few; the same danger was caused by the stubborn desire of the Spartan community to prevent the emergence of property inequality (and hence dissent); the agricultural nature of the community and the primitiveness of its internal structure prevented until a certain time the emergence of that social force that could take over the reorganization of society and the state on a democratic basis and accelerate the elimination of the remnants of the primitive communal system (as was the case in Athens).
SOURCES
- Xenophon
"The Lacedaemonian polity". Xenophon
"Greek History". Plutarch
"Comparative Lives". Plutarch
"The Ancient Customs of Sparta". Aristotle
"Politics". Herodotus
"Story". Strabo
. "Geography".
LITERATURE
Lurie S.Ya. "History of Greece".
Pechatnova L.G. "The Formation of the Spartan State".
Latyshev V.V. Essay on Greek Antiquities. State and military antiquities.
Berve G. "Tyrants of Greece".
Pvnevich K.V. "History of Ancient Greece".
Vasilevsky V.G. "Political Reform and Social Movement in Ancient Greece in its Decline".
www . centant . pu . en
2 Spartans (Greek)
3 Lacedaemonians (Greek)
4 Sissity - a socio-political institution in the system of the Spartan state, the content of which consisted in the implementation of public meals, organized at the expense of the established monthly contributions of the Spartans. Each sissitia consisted of about 15 people, and it was a military unit, the members of which ate together and spent most of the time. Participation in the session was obligatory.5 Vasilevsky V.G. "Political Reform and Social Movement in Ancient Sparta in its Decline".
6 Plutarch "Compare life." Lycurgus, 6.
7 Xenophon Lacquer floor XV, 3.
8 Ibid., XV, 6.
9 Plutarch Comparative Lives, Agis 19.
10 Xenophon Lacquer Floor XV, 7.
11 Plutarch "Comparative Lives" Cleomenes, 10.
12 Herodotus "History" Volume V| |, 3.
13 Aristotle Politia V, 9, 1.
14 Plutarch "Comparative Lives" Cleomenes, 9.
15 Aristotle Politia ||, 6, 14.
16 Herodotus "History" V|, 57.
17 Aristotle Politia ||, 6, 22.
18 Atimia - (Greek "disgrace") procedure for deprivation of civil and political rights.
19 Plutarch "Comparative Lives" Lysander, 17.
20 Medimn - a measure of loose bodies, about 52.5 liters.
21 Kryptii - punitive expeditions against the helots, periodically carried out by the state.
22 See Xenophon "Greek History" | | | ,3 ,4 sl.
23 See Aristotle "Politics" | |, 6, 12.
24 See Herodotus "History" V | |, 234
25 See ibid. | X,12
26 See Thucydides "History" Volume V, 64
27 See Plutarch, Comparative Lives, Agis, 5.
28 See Plutarch, Comparative Lives, Agis, 5.
29 See ibid.
The policy that had a great influence on the history of ancient Greece was Sparta.
At the heart of the emergence of the state in Sparta, usually attributed to the VIII-VII centuries. BC, lay the general patterns of decomposition of the primitive communal system. But if in Athens these regularities led to the almost complete extinction of tribal relations, then in Sparta the process of the emergence of the state was distinguished by significant features and was accompanied by the preservation of significant remnants of the tribal organization.
The main feature of the historical development of Sparta was the intervention in the formation of a class society by an external violent factor. Migration of tribes on the Balkan Peninsula, which began in the XII century. BC, was accompanied by military clashes between them.
The conquest of Messenia led to the emergence of joint ownership of the land by the conquerors - the main means of production in those conditions - and slaves. Along with it, a clear class differentiation arose - the Spartans turned into the ruling class of slave owners, and the subjugated inhabitants into slaves or inferior.
Organization of political power among the Spartans was typical for the period of the collapse of the primitive communal system:
Important! It should be borne in mind that:
- Each case is unique and individual.
- Careful study of the issue does not always guarantee a positive outcome of the case. It depends on many factors.
To get the most detailed advice on your issue, you just need to choose any of the proposed options:
- two tribal leaders (as a result of the unification of the Dorian and Achaean tribes);
- council of elders;
- college of ephors;
- people's assembly.
But it did not provide sufficient means for dominating the conquered population, whose number was approximately 20 times greater than the number of the conquerors. Objectively, there was a need for the organization of political power, which does not coincide with the entire population, providing an insignificant part of it with dominance over the mass of the enslaved.
At the same time, the need to dominate the enslaved masses, to ensure their exploitation required the unity of the Spartans, the preservation of some elements of the tribal community. This was also favored by the agrarian nature of the economy of Sparta, the well-known isolation of the country's territory, enclosed by mountain ranges, which prevented the development of foreign trade and commodity-money relations. The combination of these circumstances led to the preservation of significant elements of military democracy even in the conditions of a finally formed class society.
Features of the social system of Sparta
In Sparta there was a kind of class slave-owning society that has retained significant remnants of primitive communal relations.
Social groups:
- Spartans;
- hypomeyons (descended Spartans);
- perieks;
- helots.
The ruling class was Spartans. Only they were considered full citizens. The Spartans lived in the likeness of a city that united 5 villages and resembled a kind of military camp. Their life was strictly regulated. The main duty was considered military. A select few citizens were included in the privileged corps of 300 horsemen. Women, almost completely freed from household chores and caring for the upbringing of children, had some independence and had leisure for development.
In order to maintain unity, the Spartans had to participate in public meals - sissitia. The clothes and weapons of the warriors were the same. The rules against luxury established by Lycurgus also contributed to maintaining the unity of the Spartans. It was forbidden for the Spartans to trade, for them heavy, inconvenient iron coins were introduced.
However, these restrictions could not prevent the development of property differentiation, which undermined the unity and "equality" of the Spartans. Since land plots were inherited only by the eldest sons, the rest could only receive escheated plots. If there were none, they passed into the category hypomeyons(descended) and lost to participate in the national assembly and sissitia. The number of hypomeions steadily increased, and the number of Spartans decreased accordingly - from nine to four thousand by the end of the 4th century. BC.
perieki- residents of the peripheral mountainous infertile regions of Sparta - legally occupied an intermediate position between the Spartans and the helots. They were personally free, possessed property, but did not enjoy political rights and were under the supervision of special officials - harmosts. They were subject to military duty: they had to participate in battles as heavily armed soldiers. The main occupation of the perieks is trade and craft. In their position, they were close to the Athenian meteki, but unlike the latter, the highest officials of the state could execute them without trial.
Helots- the enslaved inhabitants of Messenia - were the property of the state. They were placed at the disposal of the Spartans, cultivated their land and gave them about half of the crop (the Spartans used slaves from prisoners of war for domestic work). Although in Sparta, as in Athens, the exploitation of slave labor became the basis of social production, collective Spartan slavery was different from classical slavery. Helotia was a specific form of slavery. The helots ran their household practically independently, were not a commodity, like slaves, and freely disposed of the remaining part of their crop. Their economic and social position was close to that of serfs. It is assumed that they had a family and formed some kind of community, which was the collective property of the Spartiate community.
Helots participated in the wars of Sparta as lightly armed warriors. They could buy themselves free, but in other respects they were completely powerless. Every year, the Spartans declared war on the helots, accompanied by massacres. However, the killing of a helot was allowed at any other time.
Government of Sparta
The state system of Sparta was formed as a result of the transformation of military democracy into a state organization that retained some features of the tribal organization of power. This led to the "Lycurgus system", which took shape, as noted, by the 6th century BC. BC. Some historians view it as a coup associated with the end of the conquest of Messenia and the establishment of helotia, which required the consolidation of the Spartiate community by equalizing them economically and politically, turning it into a military camp dominating the masses of the enslaved population.
At the head of the state were two archaetes. In literature, they are often called kings, although even the Athenian basileus, for whom the term king is arbitrary, had more power than the Spartan leaders. The power of the archagetes, in contrast to the power of tribal leaders, became hereditary, which, however, did not make it strong. Every 8 years, divination by the stars was carried out, as a result of which the archagets could be put on trial or removed from office. Sometimes they were displaced even without this procedure.
Initially, the military power of the archagetes was the most complete. The army obeyed them, in campaigns they enjoyed the right of life and death. However, in the future, their military powers were significantly limited.
Council of Elders (Gerusia), like the archagetes, is an authority inherited from the tribal organization. The gerousia consisted of 28 geronts, elected for life by the people's assembly from noble Spartans who had reached the age of 60. The Gerousia included both leaders. Initially, the gerusia considered the issues submitted for discussion by the people's assembly, and thus had the opportunity to direct its activities. Over time, the powers of the Gerousia expanded. In case of disagreement of the elders and leaders with the decision of the people's assembly, they could prevent it by leaving the assembly. Gerusia participated in negotiations with other states, considered criminal cases on state crimes, and conducted lawsuits against archagets.
AT people's assembly All Spartans who reached the age of 30 participated. Initially, the leaders convened the meeting, they also presided over it. Only officials or ambassadors of foreign states could speak in the people's assembly, while the participants in the assembly only heard speeches and voted. The convocation of the people's assembly (except for emergency ones) was carried out once a month. At the meeting, laws were adopted, officials were elected, issues of war and peace, alliance with other states were resolved, questions about the position of the leader were considered, it was determined which of the leaders to lead the army on a campaign, etc.
ephors appeared in Sparta from the 8th century. BC. as a result of acute conflicts between tribal leaders and tribal aristocracy. The latter, which received a large share of military booty and the opportunity to oppress free community members, sought to limit the lifetime power of the leaders to the power of representatives of the aristocracy elected for a certain period. They were five ephors. They were elected from among the "worthy" for one year, they acted as a single collegium, which made decisions by a majority vote. Initially, the ephors were considered, as it were, assistants to the archagets and carried out judicial consideration of cases in property disputes. From the middle of the VI century. BC. the power of the ephors increased markedly. They put the archagetes under their control - they were accompanied on the campaign by two ephors. The ephors received the right to convene the gerousia and the people's assembly and direct their activities. Together with the gerusia, they could prevent the adoption of an objectionable decision by the people's assembly. They took over the leadership of Sparta's external relations and the internal government of the country, monitoring the observance of the established rules by the Spartans, judging them and punishing them, declaring war and peace, control over the activities of other officials (of which there were much fewer in Sparta than in Athens). The activities of the ephors themselves were practically not controlled - they reported only to their successors. The special position of the ephors was also emphasized by their right not to participate in common sessions and to have their own table.
The crisis of the political system of Sparta
The monolithic social structure of the ruling class, which turned into a powerful military organization, contributed to the rapid rise of Sparta among the Greek states. By the 5th century BC. she established her hegemony over almost the entire Peloponnese, heading the Peloponnesian symmachy. Stagnation in socio-economic and political life, spiritual impoverishment - the price of domination over the helots - make Sparta the center of reaction in Greece. At the same time, the victory in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), the huge indemnity received from Athens, sharply stimulated the processes of property differentiation of the Spartans and the development of commodity-money relations. They intensified even more with the resolution at the beginning of the 4th century. BC. donations and bequests of land plots (their sale was still not allowed, but probably took place). The size of the allotments of the nobility is also increasing due to the acquisition of land (from the helots) on the outskirts of the state. The trade ban is no longer enforced.
The former ascetic Spartan way of life is a thing of the past. The mass ruin of ordinary Spartans leads to the loss of their land allotments and, consequently, full rights. The unity of the Spartan community is being destroyed, its military power is falling - the number of full-fledged Spartans is decreasing, mercenaries are appearing. Loss in the IV century. BC. Messenia as a result of the Macedonian conquest of Greece, and with it part of the land and helots, undermined the economic basis of the Spartan state.
Undertaken in the III century. BC. at the request of the ruined Spartans, attempts to restore the old order by redistributing the land, eliminating debts, restoring military power by granting rights to the deprived inhabitants of Sparta failed. The objective laws of development of the slave-owning society led inexorably to the collapse of social and political orders that preserved the collectivist vestiges of the communal system.
Finally weakened, torn apart by internal struggle, Sparta, like all Greek states, in the middle of the 2nd century. BC. falls under the rule of Rome.
