Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod

Resume: This article is devoted to the study of the concept sphere of Charlotte Bronte's "Jane Eyre" literary text. The author examines the markers of temporality and analyzes the distribution of core nominees based on the results of a cognitive hermeneutical analysis of the original text. Graphs were drawn up, where the frequency distribution of temporality markers is clearly traced. The result of the dominance of single-core chronemes is presented and described.
Keywords: markers of temporality, concept sphere of a literary text, chronemes, cognitive-hermeneutical analysis, Jane Eyre

Frequency of the temporal markers in the fiction functional-semantic field

Buzina Evgenia Igorevna
Belgorod National Research University, Belgorod

Abstract: This article deals with the research of fiction conceptsphere of "Jane Eyre" written by Charlotte Bronte. The author considers the identification of temporal markers in details based on the cognitive-hermeneutic analysis of the original text. Schedules were made with the distribution of frequency. The result of the dominance of mononuclear chronemes was presented and described.
Keywords: temporal markers, fiction conceptsphere of the text, chronemes, cognitive-hermeneutic analysis, Jane Eyre

The study of time has always attracted scientists from various fields. Linguistics, in turn, refers this topic as one of the most relevant at the present time. The developments of the last decades have created the basis for solving many of the questions raised by the modern linguistic paradigm.

Temporal parameters are expressed using various categories of temporality. And the temporality of the work can be verbalized with the help of basic markers such as chronemes and grammatical-temporal forms of the language that represent time.

In this article, the main attention will be paid to such a marker of temporality as chronemes. In order to reveal the essence of this concept, we will use the definition of E.A. A fire "chroneme is a language unit that verbalizes a temporal marker in the narrative contour of the text, representing time as a component of a non-verbal communication code" .

Time is closely connected with space, in turn, a detailed cognitive-comparative analysis of the chronemics of the work, allows you to determine the dynamics of the work, where the longitude of the works is enhanced with the help of prolonged chronemes, or is detailed with the help of point chronemes, the finiteness of the action is most often represented by limiting chronemes, generalizing chronemes manifest the most global temporal intervals of a literary text.

The cognitive-hermeneutical analysis of the architectonics of the temporal space of the text made it possible to study the specifics of the representation of chronemes in the work of one of the most outstanding English writer of the 19th century, Charlotte Bronte "Jane Eyre".

The immortal masterpiece is a gothic novel, expressed in the form of an autobiography of an orphan girl who has endured many trials in her short life. It is divided into four significant temporal stages. This is the story of Jane at the age of ten, about the events related to her real life, as well as memories of the past childhood. In early childhood, both of her parents died in the girl, who took her uncle under his guardianship, who also died soon after, leaving her under the patronage of his wife, who did not like her, Sarah Reid. These years were one of the most difficult times for a child.

The second stage in a very dynamic sequence reveals the events that take place between the ten and eighteen years of Jane. She spent it at the Lowood Orphanage for Girls. This period was for her, on the one hand, exhausting and full of losses of the first real friends, but on the other hand, very informative, which allowed her to reveal her abilities.

The third stage is the basis of the whole work, where temporal markers open in numerous playful facets, allowing you to open the door to the veil of time with its amazingly colorful and bright moments, reflecting the feelings and soul of the whole work. In this part, the girl goes to the Thornfield Hall estate, where she meets Mr. Rodchester, a smart man, but at the same time keeping a large number of dark secrets in his past. The heart of a young girl, which has never indulged in a feeling of love, opens its gates for this self-willed person. The apotheosis of the work is the tragic events in which the secret of Edward Rodchester is revealed, entailing grave consequences in the life of both the main character and her lover. But the final chord is the all-forgiving fidelity of lovers, rewarded by the reunion of tortured souls.

The final stage tells the events that took place over the next ten years, both for Jane herself and in her formed family.

In this work, we will consider only two of the four stages of the work, since already on ninety-two pages of the work, 567 time nominees have been identified, representing the temporal architectonics of the literary text.

Next, we will consider in detail how the distribution of nomenants of time into chapters takes place. The largest number was found in chapters 5 and 10, in both cases 75 units were found. It is important here that chapter 5 marked the arrival at the Lowood school, and 10 the last days of living in this educational institution. The smallest number of chronemes was found in the first chapter.

For a more visual demonstration of the frequency distribution of chronemes by chapters, we will draw up a visual graph, which is a sinusoidal curve.

Figure 1. Representation of chronemes in the first two stages of the life of the main character of the work

The graph data is based on the results of Table 1 below.

Table 1. Representation of chronemes in the first two stages of the work

Since a chroneme can consist of both one language unit and several lexemes, they can be divided into single-core and multi-core nominees.

Single-core nominees are chronemes equal to one lexeme or single-core phrase. Dual-core nominees, respectively, consist of phrases with two cores-temporal lexemes. Multi-core nominees mean a chronem with several cores, moreover, the presence of additional attribute lexemes only indirectly affects the chronem cores themselves.

Cognitive-hermeneutic analysis of the temporal grid of the work "Jane Eyre" allowed us to highlight the following features of temporal architectonics and identify the following core nominees.

Table 2. Nuclear analysis of chronemes in the architectonics of the work "Jane Eyre»

For the greatest visual clarity of the dominance of 1- and 2-nuclear chronemes, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with Figure 2, which shows a decreasing curve. From this graph, we can make an obvious conclusion that 1-core chronemes are the foundation of the temporal grid of the work. 2-core chronemes are quite frequent in this work and occupy almost a third of the entire text. The use of 3-nuclear chronomas is also regular, the rest are significantly inferior in frequency. In addition, we did not find 6-core chronemes, although chronemes that contain 5 and 7 cores are present in these chapters of the work.

Figure 2. Graphical analysis of chronemes in the architectonics of the work "Jane Eyre»

Consider the use of chronemes in the work of Charlotte Brontë using examples. Mononuclear chronemes with one lexeme are represented by the following words in the text: now, immediately, soon, twilight, again, always, sometimes, etc. Next, we give an example of the use of a single-core chronem expressed in a phrase, consisting of a nuclear temporal lexeme and its attributes: memorable evening, that evening, temporary suppression, a pleasant evening, etc.

Turning to multinuclear chronems, we must point out that a chronem is a linguistic unit, which in turn can be represented both by a single word and by consecutive words. The most frequent multi-core chronemes are 2- and 3-core ones. 2-core chronems: at the end of that time, for nearly an hour, a pleasant autumn day, during the night during the night, etc. Let's also consider some examples of 3-core chronemes: sometimes on a sunny day, only a day or two since, the moment Miss Scatcherd withdrew after afternoon school, etc.

Next, let's touch on the 4-core chronemes of the novel: from morning till night, just in time, it was nine o'clock, During January, February, and part of March. 5-core: for one day, nearly seven years ago, November, December, and half of January passed away. And the lowest frequency multinuclear chronem: not two or three times in the week, nor once or twice in the day, but continuously.

Thus, the cognitive-hermeneutical analysis of the work "Jane Eyre" allows us to single out a separate structure of cognitive temporal models of the work, determine the frequency of use of such temporal markers as chronemes, and identify the prevailing ones, establish the percentage of temporality markers in the studied architectonics of the concept sphere and further display the resulting graphical model.

Bibliography

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5. Sadokhin A.P. Intercultural communication: textbook. – M.: Alfa-M; INFRA-M, 2004. - 288 p.
6. Sinkevich D.A. The category of temporality in linguo-philosophical coverage / Bulletin of the Chelyabinsk State University. - 2009. - No. 7 (188). Philology. Art criticism. Issue. 41. - S. 148 - 152.
7. Bronte Ch. Jane Eyre / Ch. Bronte - L.: Collins Classics, 2010. - 462 p.

BBK 81.2Fr-2

E. N. Toropova Astrakhan State Technical University

FUNCTIONAL-SEMANTIC FIELD OF TEMPORALITY IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE

The term field was, as is known, first introduced in semasiology (G. Ibsen, J. Trier, L. Weisgerber, W. Portzig). The reasons stimulating the appeal of linguists to the category of the semantic field should be associated with the main direction of linguistics of the 20th century. - study of language as a system. Consideration of the language system required the use of different approaches. The category of the semantic field, integrating all types of relations possible in the language between units of the language and establishing the hierarchical relations of the latter, is itself a systemic formation. Obviously noted by many researchers, the direct influence on the emergence and development of field theory in linguistics is the work of W. von Humboldt, his teachings about the internal form of language, through the prism of which native speakers systematically perceive the world.

The concept of a field is interpreted by different authors in different ways, depending on the problems under consideration. So, A. V. Bondarko, studying the Russian verb, and E. V. Gulyga and E. I. Shendels - the grammatical structure of the German language, come to the conclusion that the study of grammar is impossible without analyzing the use of grammatical forms in speech, where grammatical forms interact with each other and with the vocabulary that fills them. Depending on the environment, the meanings and functions of one form or another change, the meaning of a particular word that appears in a given grammatical form is significantly modified.

When constructing a grammatical-lexical field, characterized by a number of mandatory features, E. V. Gulyga and E. I. Shendels take into account the following fact. A variety of means of grammatical and lexical levels, designed to express and name common meanings, are interconnected not by random relationships, but by relationships that make it possible to establish certain patterns. The totality of interacting means forms a system interpreted as a field. The field has an inhomogeneous, as a rule, complex structure.

In French linguistics, the concept of field was not considered, in this regard, we consider the consideration of this problem to be very relevant. As an object of study, we singled out the functional-semantic field (FSP) of temporality, since it is time that is the main characteristic of any process.

So, by temporality we understand the functional-semantic field, which is based on the grammatical category of time, as well as the lexical-grammatical and grammatical-contextual means of the French language used to express its contextual variants.

In French, the field of temporality is monocentric. The core of the functional-semantic field of temporality is represented by the grammatical category of time. The nuclear category of time is characterized by a large number of paradigms of tense verb forms. This multiplicity of the French tense system makes it obvious that the category of tense is the dominant category of the verb in French. Each of the tense verb forms carries in its meaning and formal expression a relation to a single starting point - a grammatical reference point represented by the moment of speech or another moment relative to which the action is located.

In the linguistic literature we find various characteristics of temporal relations. Some linguists recognize the existence of a single category of time, others differentiate between the category of time and the category of time correlation.

A. Klum, for example, distinguishes the present, past and future on the basis of two oppositions: tenses are located relative to the moment of speech or another point (allocentric position) that refers to the past. When localizing an action relative to a reference point located in the future, the linguist identifies two additional points: the future in the present and the future in the past, in relation to which the action is located only in terms of precedence. In the first position are the forms: passe compose, present, futur simple, i.e. these are temporary forms oriented at the moment of speech. In the allocentric position: plus-que-parfait (passe anterieur), futur dans le passe. These forms are located relative to the moment of speech, expressed imparfait or passe simple. In contrasting simple/imparfait, A. Klum sees the opposition of short-term/long-term action, i.e., the opposition of the aspect.

L. Tenier, A. Martinet believe that the category of French time is characterized by opposition - relative / absolute time. They distinguish three absolute times: present, passe simple, futur simple. Relative times, or the category of "vision" include: im-parfait, plus-que-parfait, passe simple, conditionnel.

J. Damuret and Ed. Pichon believe that the present tense is located at the center of the indicative mood system, in relation to which it is advisable to distinguish three categories: 1) temporal correlation (temporainete); 2) relevance (actualite); 3) narrative (enarration).

V. G. Gak, unlike other linguists, recognizes the presence of the following categories in the indicative system: absolute time, represented by three time plans: present / past / future, temporal correlation, represented by three oppositions: precedence, following, simultaneity, limited / unlimited the time of the action in the past, which is represented by point and linear times, the actuality/irrelevance of the action, represented by the opposition passe simple/passe compose. It should be noted that these temporary forms are also opposed in the classification of E. Benveniste, in the theory of G. Weinrich they are defined as conversation time - passe compose and story time - passe simple.

Many linguists, among them G. Guillaume, P. Imbs, J. Fourquet, N. M. Referovskaya, L. P. Pitskova and others, believe that grammatical tense is represented by three terms: present (present), past ( imparfait, passe simple/passe compose, plus-que-parfait) and the future (futur simple).

According to the chronogenetic concept of G. Guillaume, for example, the action develops in time, represented by the author using the axis - chronogenesis. The forms of the indicative are at the end point of chronogenesis and denote a real action. In the indicative, the author distinguishes three planes: the present, the past and the future. The present form reflects real time, which includes both a particle of the onset, outgoing time, represented by a chronotope with the value of decadence, and a particle of the time that has not arrived, the coming time, i.e., the chronotope with the value of incident. In terms of past and future meaning, incidents and decadences are expressed in different forms. Futur and passe simple are incident forms, while imparfait and conditionnel are decadent. G. Guillaume identifies 4 semantic fields that determine the choice of mood of the verb. These are fields of possibility, conjecture, certainty, reality. The first field requires the subjunctive, the last three require the indicative.

L.P. Pitskova does not attribute futur simple and -rait forms to the indicative mood, separating these temporary forms into a separate mood - suppositive. She believes that the -rait forms are nothing more than conditionnel. Therefore, the indicative is represented by the form opposition to -ait, -a, -it, -ut/forms with zero inflection. Such a representation is based on grammatical formants: the absence of r and the presence or absence of inflection.

P. Imbs singles out a three-term opposition in the indicative, since the inflection of passe simple and futur simple coincide, as well as the endings of imparfait and forms on -rait.

We believe that the grammatical category of time is peculiar only to the indicative system and is based on the opposition of passe simple (imparfait)/present/futur simple (futur dans le passe). We consider conditionnel not as a temporary form, but as a separate mood of the verb, which has the meaning of the presupposition of the action, i.e., the modal meaning. Futur dans le passe is an analogue of futur simple, that is, a real future action, however, not in relation to the moment of speech as futur simple, but in relation to some moment of the past. L. P. Pitskova believes that futur simple does not express a real action, but is considered from the speaker's point of view as a categorical future, referring to the semantic fields of G. Guillaume to confirm this idea.

However, let us recall that G. Guillaume, with the exception of the first field of doubt, refers the remaining three semantic fields to the indicative mood, i.e., the mood of real times. The action of futur simple is real, it is categorical, unequivocally accomplished in the future. It is not localized, just as it is not localized by the passe simple, but is located in a zone "strictly symmetrical to the past, free from any hypothetical modality."

present/futur simple (futur dans le passe) and is based on formal criteria: -a, -it, -ut, -ait/zero inflection, absence/presence of r.

The invariance of the temporal meaning (the obligatory presence of the seme of time);

Ability to independently implement temporary localization;

Mandatory to express the temporal characteristics of the action. In French, only

personal forms of the verb, basic and relevant meanings, identified on the basis of an analysis of the studies of various linguists (table).

Temporal form Invariant semantic feature Relevant semantic features

Present Coincidence, identification of the action with the moment of speech Localization of the action in time; mismatch with the moment of speech (present historique and present prothetique); timelessness; unlimitedness; relevance; singularity of action; multiplicity

Imparfait Continuous action in the past Duration of repeated action; multiplicity; localization in time (with the help of context); non-localization in time; perspective; inconsistency with reality; incompleteness; presumptiveness; coincidence with the moment of speech; mismatch with the moment of speech; includes a simultaneous completed action (provided the latter is expressed using passe simple or passe compose)

Passe simple Past action out of its connection with the present Precedence of the moment of speech; indivisibility; point; limited time; completeness

Passe compose Past action relevant to the moment of speech Preceding the moment of speech; relevance; contact with the moment of speech; limitation; completeness

Plus-que-parfait Precedence of the moment in the past Precedence of the moment of speech; duration; restraint; singularity; localization

Futur simple Future action, out of connection with the present Unlimited; relevance to the moment of speech; perfection

However, the idea of ​​time is expressed not only through the core element of the functional-semantic field of the temporality of tense verb forms, but also through other lexical and grammatical means.

So, the FSP of temporality in French is a monocentric formation, the core of which is represented by the grammatical category of time, namely the opposition passe simple (imparfait) / present/futur simple (futur dans le passe). The periphery of the functional-semantic field of temporality is represented by:

1) lexical units located in three directions relative to the core:

Simultaneity: aujourd "hui, maintenant, a notre epoque, en ce moment, actuellement;

Precedence: hier, autrefois, jadis, auparavant, il y a longtemps, il y a 2 ans, la veille, en 2002;

Following: demain, bientot, des que, apres, a l "avenir;

2) temporary unions and prepositions like: des, a la suite de, apres;

3) syntactic constructions - subordinate clauses;

4) verbal paraphrases: se mettre a faire, aller faire, venire de faire, etre en train de faire, etc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Desnitskaya A. V. Comparative linguistics and history of languages. - M.: URSS, 2004. - S. 23-36.

2. Gulyga E. V., Shendels E. I. Grammar-lexical fields in the modern German language. - M.: Higher. school, 1969. - S. 5, 8-9.

3. Bondarko A. V. Theory of functional grammar. Temporality. Modality. - L.: Nauka, 1990. - S. 6.

4. Gak VG Theoretical grammar of the French language. - M.: Dobrosvet, 2004. - 860 p.

5. Guillaume G. Principles of theoretical linguistics. - M.: URSS. - S. 186-188.

6. Referovskaia E. A., Vassilieva A. K. Essai de grammaire francaise. - M.: Higher. school, 1983. - R. 258-283.

7. Pitskova L.P. The systemic meaning of morphological form in the aspect of syntagmatics and paradigmatics (on the material of aspect and perfection of a French verb). - M .: People's teacher, 2002. - S. 76.

Received 06/13/2006

FUNCTIONAL-SEMANTIC FIELD OF TEMPORALITY IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE

In the core of investigation there is the Russian linguists" point of view, which develops the theory of functional-semantics field (FSF), including the group of grammatical, lexical and combined means of time expression. In the basis of temporal field there is the notion of time, mainly the action localization relative to the moment of speech.

The core of the field is represented by grammatical category of time, which is based on the opposition passe simple(imparfait)/present/futur simple(futur dans le passe). The periphery of the field is based on: lexical units, temporal conjunctions and prepositions, syntactical construction - subordinate clauses and verbal periphrasis.

The functional-semantic field (FSP) of temporality is the center of the whole range of predicative categories that convey the relation of the content of the statement to reality, established from the point of view of the speaker. Temporality is understood by supporters of the functional-semantic direction in linguistics as "a semantic category that reflects the perception and comprehension by a person of time of designated situations and their elements in relation to the moment of speech of the speaker or another reference point"! .

FSP of temporality, according to Academician A.V. Bondarko, is a field that is based on the somatic category of temporality and includes a group of grammatical, lexical and combined (lexical-grammatical, grammatical-contextual, etc.) different level means of expression.

The FSP of temporality belongs to the category of monocentric fields, since the verbal category of tense and the tense forms of the verb are the core of the functional-semantic category of temporality. The starting point of reference for temporal relations is the moment of speech or some other moment. Each form of the verb tense contains in its categorical meaning a certain relation to this reference point, cf.: said- I say- I'll speak. Each of these verb forms expresses a certain relationship to the temporal center (precedence -

21 Zolotova G.A. etc. Decree. op. S. 121.

The theory of functional grammar. Temporality, Modality / Ed. Bondarko A. V. M., 1990 S. 5.

simultaneity - following) Depending on whether the moment of speech or some other moment acts as a temporal deictic center, absolute and relative time are distinguished. Absolute time is oriented at the moment of speech: "They talked mainly through facial expressions and fingers" (I. Shelest); relative - at the moment of another action: "I knew that he worked at the factory." The value of absolute time is at the center of varieties of temporal relations.

In the category of temporality, in addition to time itself, a number of adjacent blocks can be distinguished. So, functional grammar singles out the sign "relevance/irrelevance of orientation at the moment of speech". "The situationally actualized type of speech is distinguished by a direct connection between the content of the statement and the situation of speech. Situationally actualized speech is characteristic of direct communication between the speaker and the listener. Various lexical concretizers, such as now, long ago, now, at that moment etc., as well as speech correlation of different time plans. Compare: "The tsar then shot some at his palace in St. Petersburg, and now he is taking others to Manchuria to kill" (S. Sarakov) In the example, the temporal situation includes the plans of the present and the past tense correlated with each other, which is facilitated by the use of adverbial means in the sentence then - now although this construction implements the value of absolute time.

Situationally non-actualized speech appears in cases where there is no direct connection between the content of the utterance and the speech situation, in particular, with the position of the speaker (writer) at the moment of speech. Compare: "Having passed the bench on which the editor and the poet were placed, the foreigner looked sideways at them, stopped and suddenly sat down on the last bench, a stone's throw from his friends" (M. Bulgakov). The forms of time in this sentence do not express the past tense in its actual, live comparison with the present, but perform the function of correlating the past with the corresponding moment of the narrative plan. Academician A.V. Bondarko refers to the type of situationally non-actualized temporality the use of past and present tenses.

meni in fiction and in various scientific publications 2 , i.e. use in informative speech acts.

Among the finite forms of the verb there are no special forms of relative time: the same verbal forms of time can appear either in absolute or in relative temporal use. Relative time can be expressed by gerunds, but absolute time cannot. The sentence can be represented by a chain of sequential temporal relativity "Nevertheless, following the thread up, I noticed that two young women were smiling at him from the window of the garment factory" (I. Shelest). In this sentence, the tense of the verb smile is defined as simultaneous with respect to the elapsed tense of the predicate. In turn, the time of action of the participle tracing expresses precedence in the past in relation to noticed and only the form of the predicate of the main part of the complex sentence has the meaning of the past with an independent absolute orientation, i.e. the point of reference is the moment of speech.

In the structure of the FSP of temporality, microfields of the past, present and future time are distinguished. Moreover, if traditional grammar notes a close relationship between the category of aspect and time, speaking of aspectual-temporal forms 3 , then functional grammar, in turn, considers the interaction of the functional-semantic categories of temporality, aspectuality and modality. Some linguists, for example, A. G. Lykov, consider the past tense of the perfect and imperfect form as different words with different systems of forms, cf .; read - read - will read(imperfect species), read- I will read(perfect view). The authors of the "Communicative Grammar of the Russian Language" note: "The leading means of organizing and dividing the text are verbs in the established (according to V.V. Vinogradov) aspectual-temporal functions: aoristic and perfective for the perfective form, imperfective-procedural and qualitatively descriptive for the imperfective form " 4 . In the imperfective procedural function, the action

"Theory of functional grammar. 1996. S. 12.

"See: VV Vinogradov. Russian language. The grammatical doctrine of the word M,

1974; Bondarko A.V. Type and tense of the Russian verb. M., 1971.

4 Zolotova GA .. Onipenko N.K., Sidorova M Yu Communicative grammar

action or state appear in their observable extent, not limited by time frames: "There were many of us on the boat. Other sail strained..." A. S. Pushkin). In a qualitatively descriptive function, the speaker, distancing himself in time and space from actions or states, presents them as ordinary occupations, skills, characteristics, cf. let me explain myself and wrote..."; She did not know how to caress ... "(A.S. Pushkin).

The perfect and aorist as functions of perfective meanings differ in that the aorist function is characteristic of verbs of dynamic action, which, successively replacing each other, leading the plot from the plot to the denouement, serve as the main means of organizing the narrative, cf .: "On the raid came out already in the dark, but here got down fog..." (I. Shelest)". The perfective function includes in plot time a state (of a person, object, space) that is the result of a previous action or a limiting state that has passed into a new quality: "We approached the boats on boats. Georgy Molchanov turned out to be on board a seaplane "(I. Shelest). The perfective function is more characteristic of state verbs than action verbs. In the example the fog descends also represented by the perfect value. It is erroneous to interpret the perfective as denoting an action, the result of which is preserved until the moment of speech. Perfective verbs of certain semantic categories can also realize a perfective and aoristic function in the future tense, for example, to denote a state that will occur as a result of a previous action or a developing state, its result: "What sow then and reap."

Perfective verbs in the form of the future tense can perform an imperfective procedural function, speaking accompanied by a particle as, adverbs all of a sudden with expression of intensity and unexpectedness of action; "Marx looked from the wall, looked, ... gaped his mouth and yelled like a scream" (VV. Mayakovsky). The list of ordinary and repetitive actions in the verb forms of the perfect aspect of the future tense can also perform the function of a qualitatively descriptive perfective: "That pug is on time stroke, then at the right time card rub"(A. S. Griboedov) Qualitatively descriptive function

Karuseyu of the first language M.,! 998. S. 401.

The imperfective also appears in the model of a proverb with a generalized personal verb of the perfect form of the future tense, usually with a negative: "The lash of the butt is not you'll get over it."

Sentences and groups of sentences with a predicate in the form of the present tense can act in an imperfective procedural and qualitatively descriptive function, i.e. visually reproduce the observed processes and present a descriptive characteristic of an object, person, its properties: "You, your throne, I I hate..."(A. S. Pushkin): "Our neighbor is an ignoramus, crazy, he is a pharmacist drinks one glass of red wine ... "(A.S. Pushkin). Despite the fact that the present tense does not have a perfect form, the context makes it possible for verbs in the form of the present tense in a visual-figurative reproductive meaning to report a series of sequential actions, i.e. perform an aoristic function: "Wind over the sea walks and a boat adjusts""(A. S. Pushkin). Some groups of verbs, according to the authors of the "Communicative Grammar of the Russian Language", in the present tense form are capable of performing a perfective function: "And fades sweet Tanya youth "(A. S. Pushkin).

In general, the temporal deictic center is not limited to grammatical tense. It is also presented in ratios of other means of expressing temporal meaning. For example, lexical indicators of temporality like yesterday, the day before yesterday, a long time ago, last Friday - now, now, at this time, at this moment - tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, in three weeks etc. represent "a special circumstance of a different subsystem of temporal specifiers, in which, as in the subsystem of verbal forms of time, an orientation to the deictic center associated with reference to now" , i.e., to the time in which speech flows, cf .: "I'm going yesterday down the street" (example of A. V. Bondarko). In this example, the lexical adverbial concretizer of temporal relations performs the function of the main designation of the temporal reference of the situation when using the form of the present tense in the function of the present historical, visual-figurative. The lexical indicator in the formation of the statement is essential "Without lexical means, the full implementation of the functions of expressing time, adequate to the needs of speech communication, would be impossible

5 Theory of Functional Fammataka 1990. P. 10.

possible" 6. Even while performing the function of an additional specification of temporal relations, which are expressed by grammatical forms of time, lexical indicators can "set" a temporal plan that requires a certain choice of a temporal form: "... Yesterday was ball, and tomorrow two "(A.S. Griboedov). The tense form of the verb must correspond to the value of the adverbial temporal indicator.

On the periphery of the temporal™ field there are also analytical forms of passive participles of the type was discussed ~ discussed - will be discussed and forms of full participles: discussed, discussed, discussed(past tense) - discussing, discussing(present tense). The near periphery of the field of temporality, in addition to the previously listed groups, includes syntactic constructions with the meaning of "zero" present tense, correlative with constructions that include forms like was- will:"Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy" (A. A. Blok).

The Russian language is characterized by the expression of proximity/distance with the help of lexical concretizers. Only verbs of the multiple mode verb action type walk, talk, know etc., which are used exclusively in the form of the past tense, are characterized by a sign of prescription, have the meaning of "an old habit": "Here is a wooded hill, over which I often sat motionless and looked at the lake..." (A.S. Pushkin). An indefinitely fixed temporal orientation is presented in sentences like "I will come to you someday". Temporal orientation can also be unfixed "Tursky left for the Western Front" (K. Simonov). The non-fixation of temporal orientation is understood in this case as the absence of various concretizers of temporal meaning. It is customary to talk about circumstantial concretizers, however, at the level of polypropositive monopredicative constructions, this function can be performed by definitions with temporal semantics - actants of a prepositive name: "After all, until this morning, he did not even suspect that she existed on this earth" (V. Bykov); Voloshin looked around, looking for someone else from behind, and saw only one fighter from yesterday replenishment "(V. Bykov); "... Machine-gun traces

"Theory of functional grammar ... S. 55.

sy, fiery sparkling in the dark, flogged the bottoms, whipped the snow just on their forthcoming way from behind a hillock" (V. Bykov). Type definitions upcoming, past are exponents of an indefinitely fixed temporal orientation, and actants of the type yesterday, today perform the function of temporal concretizers, denoting time accurately and definitely.

The far periphery of the temporal™ field includes gerunds as part of participle constructions, syntactic constructions with a modal meaning implying the temporal relation of the situation or one of its elements to the future: "Let you get out" (A.P. Chekhov); "get up"; "Yes, how can I decide: who will live, who will not live" (F. M. Dostoevsky), as well as constructions with temporary unions and various contextual means of conveying temporal relations that do not have a definite and homogeneous structure, structural characteristics, for example: I remember, in earlier years, then etc. To the far periphery, where the FSP temporal™ in terms of means of expression intersects with the fields of modality and taxis, include lexical adverbial indicators of the type now tomorrow however, this point of view seems to be very controversial, since lexical concretizers often act as semantically and even structurally obligatory components of a construction, without which it does not realize the given value. "Tomorrow there was a war", "Dawn is coming soon". According to academician A.V. Bondarko, such lexical means in each of the types of their functions (the function of additional concretization or the main designation of temporal reference) "have a constant and stable temporal meaning, expressed in a certain (adverbial) syntactic position" .

Lexical concretizers of temporal meaning also characterize the action in terms of duration and repetition. "The duration and completeness of the coverage of the time interval of the action is indicated by adverbs, combinations of nouns with pronouns" 8 . "During the retreat of the Germans, the policemen usually left with them to the west "(V. Bogomolov). Circumstantial indicator usually characterizes the action of the predicative basis

The theory of functional grammar..., p. 54.

8 Fundamentals of constructing a functional grammar of the Russian language for non-Russians. M., 1991. S. 112.

as repetitive. At the same time, the semantics of the lexical concretizer also affects the temporal plan of the folded proposition, i.e. "second" message expressed by an abstract noun with procedural semantics. When using the adverb usually it is impossible to imagine the action of a prepositive name as a one-time, instantaneous one, for example: "When the Germans retreated, policemen usually left with them to the west". Synonymous with the above monopredicative polypropitive sentence is the following complex sentence: "When the Germans retreated, the policemen usually went west with them." The general meaning of these constructions implies the identity of the temporal-aspect plans of the two propositions.

Lexical concretizers of the type quickly, suddenly, instantaneously etc. Adverbs immediately, immediately, at once and others actualize immediate instantaneous following in time. This follow value does not imply a time gap between actions, unlike type instantiators then, then, next day, after that etc.

The values ​​of precedence, simultaneity and following of actions are particular values ​​of the functional-semantic category taxis, temporality closely related to FSK. According to A. V. Bondarko, taxis is "a linguistic category that characterizes the temporal relations between actions (in the broad sense, including any kind of predicates): simultaneity / non-simultaneity, interruption, the ratio of the main and accompanying actions, etc." . Unlike time, taxis characterizes a reported fact in relation to another reported fact, but not the fact of the message itself. In this case, the distinction between the concepts of "taxis" and "relative time" seems important. "The semantics of taxis are the temporal relationships of the components of the polypredicative complex, while the semantics of relative time is the temporal characteristic of the action expressed by this form." Taxis and relative time can be combined: "When he opened as follows the eyes, he had seen, what making noise sea..." (M. Bulgakov). Relative time is presented in this sentence because the main

"Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. M, 1990. S. 503.

naked present tense making noise expresses the meaning of the past action determined in relation to another moment - the moment of action had seen. The taxic value is the ratio of simultaneity of actions within an integral time period (saw - noise). Taxis relations may not be compatible with the value of relative time, cf.: "Margarita raised head to the moon and did thoughtful and poetic face "(M. Bulgakov). Both predicates are connected by relations of simultaneity, or rather, the instantaneous following of one action after another without a temporal gap between them. Both predicates have an independent orientation at the moment of speech, both occur in the past in relation to the moment of speech , therefore, the taxis is presented here in a construction with the absolute, and not the relative use of temporary forms.

Thus, in the sentence can be implemented: taxis, but not relative time; relative time, but not taxis; taxis and relative time. FSP taxis belongs to the category of polycentric fields, since, unlike temporality, it is not based on a specific grammatical category. "The core of the semantics of taxis is the meaning of simultaneity/diversity (precedence - follow-

niya) associated with the aspectual characteristics of the elements of the polypredicative complex expressed in the statement. Taxis relations can be realized as the relation of actions to one period of time with the difference of simultaneity/non-simultaneity being not actualized, as a connection of actions in time in combination with the meaning of conditionality.

The range of syntactic constructions in which taxis relations are established is significantly expanded due to polypredicative polypropitive structures, which include not only constructions with participles and gerunds, but also non-elementary simple sentences with infinitives, names of actions, states, qualities. One of the main means of expressing taxis relations in polypropositive simple sentences are prepositional-case combinations, so they can convey a folded proposition: "Usually Sotnikov had difficulty overcoming some frighteningly squeamish feeling in himself at the sight of this sad haven"(V. Bykov).

111 Theory of functional grammar ... S. 235.

The taxis meaning of the simultaneity of actions can be complicated by conditionality relations: "During excavations near the back wall of the barn, a hiding place was discovered" (V. Bogomolov). The action of the predicative basis of the sentence takes place against the background of a long action indicated by the deverbative: "When carried out excavations, at the back wall of the barn discovered(has been discovered) cache".

In a polypropositive simple sentence, taxis can be expressed using derivative prepositions formed from nouns with temporal semantics like moment, time, minute etc., for example: "The good-natured paramedic visited the poet during a thunderstorm"(M. Bulgakov). compound preposition during is an indicator of the simultaneity of the actions of the folded proposition and the main action. Constructions of this kind are monotemporal, the nature of taxis relations in them does not depend on the temporal plan of the predicate: "A good-natured paramedic will visit the poet during a thunderstorm." When the temporal plan of the utterance changes, the temporal relationship between the actions does not change. In addition to derivative prepositions, non-derivative prepositions serve as markers of certain taxic relations: "After returning from Stalingrad they sent him a script for a film novel." (K. Simonov); "Ryndin before most sending handed Lopatin two lemon grenades "(K. Simonov); "A before injury didn’t you bother to think?" (V. Bykov). However, a number of non-derivative prepositions with an initial spatial meaning do not have a taxis meaning assigned to them. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the semantics of the predicate and the noun itself when establishing taxis relations between actions: "The senior policeman reported on arrival"(V, Bykov). The action of the folded proposition in this sentence precedes the action of the predicative stem. The action of the folded proposition, due to the peculiarities of the lexical meaning of the predicate, is presented as an intended one, located in the relationship of following the main action: "Danilov dreamed about meeting with her "(V. Orlov).

Among the actants of the prepositive name, a group of definitions with temporal semantics stands out, which indicate the location of the action of the folded proposition on the time axis: "He rejoiced at his pre-war passion for machine-gun fire "(V. Bykov). When the statement is related to

in the past plan, the action of the folded proposition is presented as preceding the relation to the main action of the poly-propositive simple sentence, as indicated by the definition pre-war cf.: "He rejoiced that before the war was fond of machine-gun fire."

It can be concluded that FSP temporal™ and taxis are multi-layer structures of multi-level means of expressing functional-semantic categories.

FUNCTIONAL-SEMANTIC FIELDS

SEMANTIC CATEGORIES OF GRAMMAR

The semantic categories of grammar in their relationships constitute the basis for the systemic division of linguistic meanings and semantic functions (Fp and Fr) into intersecting and interacting "content areas". The semantic categories studied in grammar, as noted above, are the main invariant categorical features (semantic constants) that appear in one or another version in linguistic meanings and functions. Semantic categories are characterized by a dominant (“top”) position in relation to the multi-stage subsystems of meaningful variation they head. Compare, for example, the top position of the semantic category of duration in relation to definite/indefinite, limited/unlimited, continuous/discontinuous duration, etc. The invariance of a number of semantic categories is not absolute, but relative. Some categories, despite their high degree of generalization, can still be subsumed under a more general concept. Thus, aspectuality together with temporal localization, temporality and taxis form that complex of semantic categories that represent different aspects of a more general (maximally wide) concept of time. The semantic categories of activity / passivity, recurrence, reciprocity, transitivity / intransitivity can be considered as elements of a wider sphere of pledge. The categories of cause, purpose, condition, concession, and effect are known to be combined in the realm of conditioning. There is a difference between broad generalizing concepts such as aspectuality, pledge, conditionality and semantic categories of a lesser degree of generalization (having certain varieties and variants, but not covering independent semantic categories). Perhaps this difference could be reflected in the terminology. At the same time, it remains expedient to apply the generalizing concept of a semantic category to all these unities. Aspectuality remains a semantic category despite the fact that it includes the categories of limitativity, duration, multiplicity, phaseness, etc. Therefore, for the time being, we leave the term semantic category as a single one and, at the same time, as allowing different degrees (ranks) of generalization. In other words, it is assumed that semantic categories can be more general and more specific. Systemic relationships and types of semantic categories in their linguistic expression is a problem that involves not a “one-time” and final “solution”, but a constant deepening, highlighting and understanding of new aspects (cf. general theoretical and typological works [General linguistics 1970; Katznelson 1972; 1986; Bulygina 1980; 1982; Stepanov Yu.S. 1981; 1985; Panfilov 1982; Serebrennikov 1983; Universals and Typological Studies 1974; Typology of Passive Constructions 1974; Problems of Linguistic Typology 1977; Kholodovich 1979; Voice constructions in languages ​​of different structure 1981; Typology of resultant constructions 1983; Categories of being and possession 1977; The category of certainty-uncertainty in the Slavic and Balkan languages ​​1979; The category of possessiveness in Slavic and Balkan languages ​​1983; Seliverstova 1982a; b]). In a number of cases, the question arises as to whether we are dealing with one of the particular categories within the framework of a more general one, or should we be talking about one of the main semantic categories (“highest rank” categories). So, among the aspectual categories, the category of relation (relationality) can be distinguished. However, apparently, “aspective relationality” is only one of the manifestations of a more general semantic category of relationality, covering various areas of grammatical semantics. This refers, in particular, to relations in the field of syntax, for example, connecting, adversative, alternative and other relations expressed by the relational means of a complex sentence. The complexity of the issue of relationality as a semantic category, among other things, lies in the fact that it is necessary to single out the semantic area of ​​the "relation proper" narrower than the relation in the broad sense that covers most of the semantic categories studied in grammar (cf. temporal, spatial relationships, etc.). It is very difficult to single out this specific sphere of relationality, which would correspond, but not coincide with the "relationships in general" studied by grammatical science. However, such a question must be asked. Semantic categories of grammar are distinguished on the basis of their regular representation (in one form or another) in the content of statements, in the meanings of language units and their various combinations. Although such semantic categories as time (temporality), space (locativity), quality, quantity, possessiveness, condition, cause, etc., have long been distinguished by scientific knowledge, the constant possibility of a specific isolation of these and other categories as a result of the linguistic analysis of statements does not loses heuristic value. Concrete statements exist, of course, not to express semantic categories. They are aimed at conveying speech meaning. However, the expression of specific meanings is regulated by certain constants of semantic categories that appear in various variants. Thus, the meaning of the statement I want to go home includes such semantic categories as modality (in one of the variants of the expression of will), temporality (in this case, in the variant of the actual present, to which the expression of will refers, in combination with the implicit temporal perspective of the future, related to the content of the desire to be at home), aspectuality (in the variant of the state “to feel desire”), specific temporal localization, personality (in the variant of referring the will to the speaker), pledge (in the variant of activity), locativity (in the variant of the direction and final point of the intended movement). Partly, in the analysis of aspectuality, temporal localization and taxis; As is well known, temporality is closely related to objective modality; on this basis, we attributed it to the second complex of the analyzed FSP and will be considered in the next monograph of this series); b) temporality, modality, beingness; c) a complex of fields that connect predicativity with subjectivity and objectivity: personality, pledge (activity / passivity, recurrence, reciprocity, transitivity / intransitivity); 2) FSP with a subject-object (predicate-subject and predicate-object) core: subjectivity, objectivity; communicative perspective of the utterance (considered in connection with subject-predicate relations); this grouping, according to some features, is adjacent to certainty / uncertainty, characterized by a wide range of connections with fields related to other groupings (in particular, connections with temporal localization / non-localization and quality are significant); 3) FSP with a qualitative-quantitative core: quality, quantity, comparability; this grouping is adjoined by possessiveness, which tends, on the one hand, to attributive relations (and from this point of view, partly associated with the qualitative characterization of substances), and on the other hand, to predicative relations; 4) FSP with adverbial core: locativity; a complex of conditioning fields (fields of cause, purpose, conditions, concessions, consequences); the semantics of conditionality is connected with locativity on the basis of the circumstantial characteristic of the predicate, but on other grounds, conditionality, which deeply affects the sphere of interpredicate relations (and thus associated with taxis), and the spatial characteristic of the statement (primarily the predicate) are different semantic spheres. In the above representation of the FSP system, in particular, in the division of the FSP into these groupings, the known types of linguistic categorization that have a grammatical character (in the broad sense, including the phenomena of lexico-grammatical interaction) are reflected. This means, first of all, the connection with the semantic (and partly formal-syntactic) structure of the sentence. Further, in the same FSP groupings, a connection with the semantics of the parts of speech and their grammatical categories is partly traced. The second grouping is, however, only partly connected with substantive semantics in its relation to verbal semantics. The third grouping is characterized by the significant role of the links of its constituent fields with the semantics of the attribute, but at the same time, links with verbal and substantive categories are also preserved. Finally, the fourth grouping is correlated with adverbial semantics, although it goes far beyond its limits, since we are talking about interpredicate relations in the sphere of conditionality. The connections of the systemic division of the FSP with the semantic structure of the sentence and with the semantics of parts of speech and their grammatical categories, as shown above, do not have the character of complete and consistent parallelism, however, general trends and significant intersections in these divisions are obvious. No wonder. The semantic categories underlying the FSP are rooted both in the semantic structure of the sentence-statement, and in the semantics of parts of speech and their categories associated with this structure (oriented to certain functions in the semantic structure of the sentence-statement). In fact, all these areas of division of the division of the semantic structure of the sentence and division in the semantics of the parts of speech and their categories are different aspects of the system of mental-linguistic categorization, reflecting the division and connections of the phenomena of the extralinguistic world in human perception and focused on the systemic organization of the meanings transmitted in speech. Are all functional units that really exist as systemic complexes of functions and complexes of means for their implementation in a particular language, in particular Russian, taken into account in the scheme presented above? Obviously not all. For example, in this scheme there is no unity that could be called the "field of politeness (respectivity)". Wed in Russian, the opposition of the type you think you think (when referring to one person, and not to many people) along with a number of peripheral means in the areas of modality and personality, related to the pragmatic functions of politeness. We have singled out the “field of respectability”, since this sphere of functions and means, in its pragmatic content, occupies a special position and cannot be considered on a par with the above-mentioned FSP. One could single out a special FSP of animation / inanimateness. At the same time, it is possible to include the semantics of animateness / inanimateness into the sphere of predicate-subject and predicate-object relations (the latter possibility is realized when characterizing the corresponding grouping of FSP). Let us emphasize once again that in the considered system of FSP we tried to reflect the main functional unities related to the sphere of grammar. Is it possible to calculate the FSP in this language? It is difficult to talk about the exact number of FSP (that there are, say, 35 or 39). It is important, however, that, in principle, the FSP system should cover all the main semantic categories that are subject to grammar. With the approach that is implemented in this work, we are talking about a system that includes about three dozen FSPs. With possible differences in the interpretation of functional units, there may be discrepancies in the direction of some reduction or increase in this number, but still the composition of the identified categorical units does not change significantly. Thus, the relativity of the ongoing systematization of FSP cannot be exaggerated. This idea of ​​the FSP system, perhaps, allows for some additions, but still covers the main functional unities. FSP groupings with components similar to those indicated above exist in different languages. At the same time, languages ​​differ from each other in terms of the belonging of fields to different structural types, partly in the significance of individual fields in the overall system, their configurations, as well as the features of mutual relations. The totality of the FSP as a whole can be studied only by relying on the units and categories of one particular language. If the question is raised about the comparative aspect of studying the complex of basic FSPs, then it is advisable to single out two stages of analysis: 1) description of FSP groupings in the language chosen for the study, for example, in Russian; 2) attraction of the data of those languages ​​in which the contrasting material is presented (a different structural type of FSP, etc.). The second stage provides a kind of contrastive "background" in relation to the systemic dominant of the description.