27. Articulatory characteristics of speech sounds. The concept of additional articulation.
When pronouncing the sound of speech, the organs of speech occupy a certain position, carry out certain movements. The work of all pronunciation organs of speech, the totality of movements of active organs that are necessary for the formation of a separate sound, is called articulation of speech sound . We can talk, for example, about the articulation of the Russian vowel [ы], the French nasal vowel [o], the Polish continuous (affricative) consonant, etc.
The articulation of speech sound is a complex phenomenon. There are three phases in articulation:
exposure and
Access (or excursion) - this is the initial phase of the articulation of a speech sound, in which the organs of speech are brought into the position necessary for pronouncing this sound. For example, at the beginning of the articulation of the vowel [y], the lips open, round and protrude forward; in the initial phase of the articulation of the consonant [v], the lower lip approaches the upper teeth, etc.
Excerpt - the main phase of the articulation of the sound of speech - is to stop (or slow down) the movement of the organs of speech. At this moment of pronouncing the sound, the jet of exhaled air overcomes the barrier formed by the pronunciation organs, as a result of which the sound arises.
Indentation (or metastasis) - this is the last phase of the articulation of the sound of speech. At the moment of sound formation, the speech organs are brought to their original position or take the position necessary to pronounce the next sound.
If an attack is “the exit to the work of the organs of speech”, then the excerpt can be considered as their main work on the design of this sound, its acoustic properties, and the indentation - as “the departure of the speech organs from work”.
The set of articulations of the sounds of a particular language is calledarticulation base givenlanguage . The sound systems of different languages differ both quantitatively and qualitatively. Consequently, the articulatory bases of languages also differ. "The structure of the organs of speech in all people is the same, but these organs work in the process of speech in different ways."
Mastering individual articulations (and hence the articulation base) of a non-native language often causes significant difficulties. Thus, people whose native language is Russian experience difficulties in mastering the articulations of the nasal vowels of French, Polish and other languages, the so-called European, or medium (in terms of hardness/softness), consonant [l], soft consonants [z] and [ s], etc.
Many foreigners have difficulty pronouncing or not being able to pronounce the Russian vowel [ы] at all. For example, in the speech of a Frenchman, the Russian word fast usually sounds like bistro(hence the French name of a small cafe, which returned to the Russian language in a French-transformed form).
Vowels and consonants. If a stream of air passes freely through the nasal or oral cavity, without encountering any obstacles on its way, then it is pronounced vowel. If the air stream is forced to overcome this or that obstacle in one way or another, then it is pronounced consonant. Vowels are made up of pure tone; overcoming an obstacle always creates noise, so consonants are noisy sounds.
Voiceless, voiced and sonorant consonants. If a consonant consists of one noise, then it is voiceless consonant; these are the Russian consonants [p, f, x, c, h, sh, t], etc. If the consonant sound consists of noise and tone, but the noise prevails, then this media; such are the Russian consonants [b, c, g, g, e, z], etc. If, on the contrary, the tone prevails over the noise, then this sonorant consonant sound; these are the Russian sonorants [l, m, n, r].
Additional articulation , unlike the main one, does not change the characteristic noise of the consonant, which is determined primarily by the place, character and method of overcoming the obstacle. One of the most common types of additional articulation in Russian is palatalization.
Palatalization (middle language, softening, middle language rapprochement). In addition to the main articulation of consonants, the rise of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate (or iot articulation), which sharply increases the characteristic tone and noise.
In the history of the Proto-Slavic language, there were two palatalizations of the back-lingual [ g, k, x] - the first ("hissing") and the second ("whistling"). The first was the transition of these back vowels before the front vowels into hissing [ f, h, sh], and the second - into whistling [ h, c, s]. Hence the morphonological alternations that have survived to this day in the Russian language: leg - leg, hand - hand, ear - ears and disappeared: leg - nose, hand - hand etc.
Classification of sounds is carried out according to different criteria. Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. In this case, complexes are formed - vowels form syllables - consonants - no. FEATURES DIFFERENTIING VOICES ABOUT CONSONANTS1. The main difference between vowels and consonants is their role in syllable formation. A vowel always forms the top of a syllable, is a sonant, a consonant accompanies a sonant, is a consonant. 2. The articulatory difference between vowels and consonants consists in the different intensity of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of education. 3. In the formation of vowels, the voice prevails over the noise, while in the formation of the majority of consonants, the ratio is opposite: the noise dominates the voice. The presence of two types of speech sounds, differing in articulation, makes it necessary to classify vowels separately from the classification of consonants.
All vowels are sonorous and fricative, so the work of the vocal cords and the method of articulation cannot be the basis for dividing vowels. The classification is based on the row and rise of the tongue, the work of the lips.
The row is determined by the part of the language that rises when a given vowel is formed. There are 3 rows of Ch. - lane, back, cf. The rise was determined by the degree of elevation of the tongue during the formation of ch. Diff. 3 lifts - top, middle, bottom. Ch. upper lift-narrow, medium-medium, lower-wide. According to the participation of the lips - labialization and non-labialization.
Russian vakalizm. lang., consisting of 6 phonemes, is very simple and opposes, for example, the vocalism of French and English. languages that have tense and labial front vowels, long vowels, and diphthongs.
Vowels are divided into nasal and pure. In modern Russian lang. There are no nasal vowels. Nasal ones differ from non-nasal ones in that when they are pronounced, the air flow coming from the larynx enters the nasal cavity, where additional vibrations are created, giving the sound a "nasal" sound. The articulation of nasal vowels occurs when the palatine curtain is raised and the back of the tongue is lowered, so that the air stream simultaneously enters the mouth and nose. In some languages, vowels are divided according to how long they sound. Long and short vowels are found in Russian speech in different phonetic conditions. The vowel system of many languages distinguishes between vowel length, forming pairs of vowels by duration. In addition, in the languages of the world there are diphthongs - vowels with complex articulation, pronounced in one syllable and acting as one phoneme. Diphthongs are divided into descending and ascending.
class. acc. more complex than vowels, because there are more consonants in the languages of the world. The basis of the classification acc. 4 main articles serve. signs: 1) method of articulation; 2) active organ; 3) place of articulation; 4) voice work. ligaments. Way of articulation agree. called the nature of overcoming an obstacle and the passage of an air stream while creating the noise necessary for the formation of a consonant. Diff. 2 main ways of articulation according to - bow and slot (link and slot according to the article). Connecting acc. image by exploding an air jet of an obstacle ([n], [b], etc.). Slotted acc. formed by the friction of an air jet against the walls of the passage created by the convergence of the organs of speech (fricative acc.). Along with pure locking and slotted acc. there are complex accords: sonorous; affricates; aspirates. Sonorants are nasal [m], [n] also [l] and trembling [r]. When pronouncing the nasal consonant, the bow is not broken.
The formation of affricates and aspirates associated with the duration of the consonant and its complement. articulation. Double acc. arise at the junction of morphemes and in the roots of borrowings. words. The duration of the consonant is associated with the formation of affricates, the articulation of which begins with a bow, and then there is a slot overcoming the bow. Aspirates have a complex articulation, starting with a bow. But the 2nd component is formed by the friction of air on the ligaments when passing through the gap. This friction creates a gap. According to the active organ acc. divided into labial, lingual and lingual. Lip acc. there are labial-labial, lip-tooth, and slotted (f, c). Linguistic acc. there are anterior, middle, posterior lingual. Front language acc. in place article. are dental and anterior. The teeth are called whistling, and the palatine ones are hissing. Anterior tongue acc. image by all means article. Depending on the position of the tip of the tongue, the anterior tongue. divided into dorosal, apical and cacuminal. Middle language acc. arr-Xia convergence average. parts of tongue with palatum (j). posterior tongue acc. divided into uvular, pharyngeal and laryngeal.
The work of the vocal cords is a mandatory sign according to. On this basis, acc. divided into noisy, sonorous. Method art., active organ, place art., work goal. ligaments are the main article. signs. Additional options available: labialization, palatalization, velarization.
Question #23
Phonetic articulation of speech
Speech is a stream of sounds and seems to be continuous. The stream can be divided into separate parts. Membership may be different. If this division is based on grammatical arrangement, then we are talking about division into sentences, words and morphemes. During phonetic division, units are distinguished: text, phrase, speech tact or syntagma, phonetic word, syllable and sound.
The text is only the initial value of the phonetic articulation of speech, because speech is not phonetic, but communicative in nature. The text also has phonetic characteristics: limitation by pauses. Pause at the beginning and end of the text. Phrases are distinguished from the text by intonation. A phrase is a piece of text that has a logical emphasis. (ll - pause). A phrase is a phonetic unit, a sentence is a grammatical one. A complex sentence has one phonetic phrase.
Phrases are divided into speech measures or syntagmas. Syntagmas stand out intonationally, but at the border of the syntagma, an unfinished intonation is heard.
The division of the speech stream into syntagmas is always conditioned by the meaning, so options are possible.
We must learn to work and rest.
The phonetic word is characterized by stress. Phonetic stress is a complex of sounds or a segment of a sound chain. There may be no pauses between words. In this case, the phonetic word can correspond to the first lexical word or several words.
A syllable is a push of speech exhalation. Sound is the smallest element of speech flow.
Question #24
Phonetic processes
The most typical cases of interaction of sounds in a speech stream are accommodation, assimilation and dissimilation. These are the basic phonetic processes.
Accommodations (devices) occur between consonants and vowels, usually standing side by side. In this case, so-called glides may occur, for example, if you carefully listen to the pronunciation of the word will, you can hear a very short y between in and o.
Assimilation is an articulatory and acoustic convergence (similarity) of sounds (consonants with consonants, vowels with vowels). When we write otdat, but pronounce addat, then the subsequent sound d, likening to itself the previous t, creates assimilation. Assimilation can be complete, when one of the sounds completely likens itself to another (addat), or partial, when one of the sounds only partially brings the other closer to itself, but does not completely merge with it. In Russian, the word spoon is pronounced like a loshka, since the deaf consonant k, acting on the voiced w that precedes it, turns this latter into a deaf sh. Here, not a complete, but only a partial assimilation of sounds is formed, that is, not their complete assimilation to each other, but only a partial rapprochement (the sounds k and sh are different, but at the same time are connected with each other by a common sign of deafness). Consequently, according to the degree of assimilation, assimilation can be complete and partial.
Assimilation can be progressive or regressive. Progressive assimilation occurs when the preceding sound affects the next. Regressive assimilation occurs when the subsequent sound affects the previous sound. In the above examples of "add" and "loshka" we are dealing with regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation is much less common than regressive assimilation. So, the German noun Zimmer was formed from the old word Zimber: the previous m likened the following b to itself, forming two identical sounds.
A peculiar kind of progressive assimilation is presented in the Turkic languages. This is the so-called vowel harmony (vowel harmony). Synharmonism leads to the assimilation of vowels throughout the word. Here are a few examples from the Oirot language: karagai (pine), where the first vowel a determines the presence of all other vowels a, egemen (woman) - the first vowel e determines the appearance of subsequent e. As you can see, not only neighboring sounds are assimilated, but also those which are separated from each other in the word by other sounds. That is, we are dealing with non-contiguous assimilation.
The causes of assimilation are explained by the interaction of sounds in the speech stream.
Dissimilation is a case of dissimilarity of sounds. Again, as in the case of assimilation, we are talking about the interaction of consonants with consonants, and vowels with vowels. When in some Russian dialects lessora is spoken instead of spring, then two identical non-adjacent sounds r are distinguished here, forming l and r. The subsequent p, as it were, repels the previous one from itself, as a result, non-adjacent regressive dissimilation is obtained. When in colloquial speech one can sometimes hear a tranvay instead of a tram, then dissimilation occurs here, but adjacent: two labial-labial sounds (m v) are dissimilar, forming anterior lingual n and labial-labial v. Consequently, both completely identical sounds (for example, p and p in the example of a spring) and similar in articulation, but still unequal sounds (for example, m in the word tram) can be dissimilated.
Like assimilation, dissimilation is distinguished progressive and regressive, adjacent and non-adjacent. Dissimilation is sometimes reflected in the literary language, in the written form of speech.
The modification of sounds in the speech chain (speech stream) is called phonetic (sound) processes. Changes in sounds are combinatorial (the interaction of the beginning and end of the articulation of neighboring sounds) and positional (the position of the sound in the word). Combinatorial phonetic processes cover mainly consonants. The main combinatorial processes are: 1) ASSIMILATION - occurs as a result of the interaction of recursion and excursion of neighboring consonants, the overlap of excursions and recursion neighbor acc. Assimilation - assimilation of neighboring sounds in some component of articulation; most often, the likening of consonants in terms of sonority-deafness and hardness-softness and in the place of formation. Ass-I can be complete (both sounds become exactly the same. Note: "silent") or partial (similarity in only one component of articulation. Note: "shop"). In the direction of assimilation, ass-i happens: progressive (direct. The recursion of the previous consonant is superimposed on the excursion of the next one. Note: hands) and regressive (reverse. The recursion of the previous consonant is superimposed on the excursion of the previous one.) Ass-i of vowels often occurs in non-normative speech and dialects ( hooligan-hooligan) 2) DISSIMILATION is the opposite of assimilation (much less common): it consists in dissimilating the articulation of neighboring consonants. Note: "lead / lead" - [s] arose as a result of dissimilation [d]. Note: "doctor-dokhtor" 3) ACCOMMODATION is the interaction of neighboring vowels and consonants. (in Russian, for example, after soft consonants, the vowels become more front. Note: hatch, row). 4) SINGHARMONISM - harmony of consonants (reminiscent of vowel ass): diaeresis (jumps) - loss of sound in a complex sound combination (honest-honest), epenthesis (or prosthesis) - insertion of sound in certain combinations (temper-ndrav (gvor)) .
Question number 25.
Syllabus and syllable division
A syllable is a part of a measure, consisting of one or more sounds, while not all sounds can form a syllable, i.e. be syllabic. For this, instantaneous sounds are not suitable in the composition of words, i.e. plosives and affricates. When studying syllable and syllable division, the concepts of (1) open/closed and (2) long/short syllables are important.1. open A syllable is one that ends with a syllable-forming sound. e.g. all syllables mother closed- one that ends with a non-syllabic sound, for example mother, give. There are languages (English) that make extensive use of open and closed syllables and, on the other hand, languages that only allow open syllables. 2. For some languages, for example, for ancient Greek and Latin, for Arabic, it is essential to distinguish between long and short syllables. To long syllables include open syllables with a long vowel at the top, as well as all closed syllables. Brief are only those open syllables whose top is a short vowel. Thus, the stressed syllable can be pronounced with greater intensity - the so-called dynamic, or power, stress. It can be lengthened - quantitative, or quantitative, stress. It can be distinguished by an increase or decrease in tone - musical, or tonic, stress. In a number of languages, there is also a qualitative stress - a special quality of the sounds that make up the stressed syllable. Word stress can be free or related .one. Stress is called free in those languages in which it can stand on any (initial, middle, final) syllables of the accent word, as we see in Russian. Free stress can be motionless in the formation of word forms and derivative words or mobile. We have a fixed stress, for example, in the word peas: cf. peas, peas, peas etc. A fixed stress in a certain way characterizes not only a given word form, but also a given root morpheme. We have a moving stress in the word beard: cf. beard, beard. but beard, beard... The mobility of stress is observed in languages with free stress, where stress in one way or another characterizes certain non-root morphemes, certain grammatical forms and word-formation types. Sometimes there is more than one stress in one word. Usually in these cases, the stresses are unequal. A certain gradation is observed between them: the main thing stress is opposed to one or more secondary weaker. Thus, the unity of the accent word, created by the main stress, is not violated. The concept of "phrasal intonation" (or simply "intonation") covers all phenomena observed within the framework of syntactic units - phrases and sentences (including a one-word sentence). The most important component of intonation is melodic, i.e. the movement of the fundamental tone of the voice (rising and "falling"), creating the tonal contour of the utterance and its parts and thus connecting and articulating our speech.Melody and especially the second important component of intonation - intensity are used to emphasize certain parts of a sentence. Thus, the concept of intonation includes phrasal stress The third component of intonation is rate of speech, its deceleration and acceleration.
Question #26
stress and intonation
ACCENT is the emphasis by voice, longitude and strength of any sound. This is achieved in different languages by different means: 1. By the strength or intensity of articulation - this is a dynamic stress (power or expiratory): in Chinese, Dungan, Korean, Japanese. 2. Longitude of pronunciation is a quantitative beat. (quantitative, longitudinal): rare: modern modern Greek. There are languages in which these phenomena are connected together. Such is the Russian language, where the ud.syllable is always the strongest and the longest, and besides, only on ud.syllables can the tone move. 3. The movement of the voice tone (ascending, descending or combinatorial) against the background of a neutral tone of other syllables is a tone oud, (melodic, musical): in Czech, where the oud syllable is always the first in strength, but it is usually short, and the trace .behind it, an unud. syllable may have a longitude. If a vowel stands out in a syllable, this is a syllabic oud. (in Serbian, Swedish, Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese). If a syllable is highlighted in a word, this is a verbal oud. (in Russian). verbal ud. it can be constant if in all words of the language it falls on the same syllable (in Czech, on the first syllable, in French, on the last, in Polish, on the penultimate one). In Russian random (free) ud. it is not fixed and can fall on any syllable of a word and on any morpheme: prefix, root, suffix, ending. Ud.may perform a semantic function. So, according to the place of stress, they differ: 1. different words in all their forms: castle, castle and castle. 2. some forms of different words: food-food, squirrel-squirrel, I wear-wear. 3. different forms of one word: legs-legs, hair-hair. The place of stress differs in word variants: 1. commonly used. and prof: extraction-extraction. 2. Lit and dialect: cold-cold, wild-wild. 3.Litth and colloquial: quarterAl-quarter, kilometer-kilometer. 4. neutral and colloquial: sentence-sentence, busy-busy. 5. Lit-th and folk poetic: maiden-maiden, honest-honest. 6. Modern and outdated: cemetery-cemetery, music-music. There are doublets when the difference in the place of hits is not significant: barge-barge, spinning-circling, flooded-flooded. When forming gram forms of the word, ud. can remain in the same place. Such a beat is called motionless. In Russian, 96% of words have a fixed beat (book, do). In words with mobile stress, the beat is transferred from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another (tree-trees, spike-ears, Lake, take off, take off). Unstressed words are possible in the speech stream. If such a word adjoins the next stressed one, it is called proclitika (through-through), if it adjoins the previous stressed one, it is called enclitika (would do). Phonetic words are combined within a phase, which gives a common intonation. Under intonation is understood as a set of means of organizing sounding speech. I. consists of: methods of voice, stress, pauses, tempo of speech, timbre of voice, rhythm of speech. Rhythm is determined by the alternation of stresses. Rhythm is organized in a certain way (usually in poetic speech). Functions of intonation: 1. with its help, speech is divided into intonation-semantic segments. 2. I. draws up various syntactic constructions and types of sentences. Expression of thought, will and feelings of a person participate in int-and. Types and: exclaim, surprise, vocative, affirmative, convince (teach), positive, pleading, invitational, persuasive, command, compare, intonation of interruptions or connections, list, indifferent (indifferent).
Question #27
The concept of a phoneme
Phoneme- a separate sound of speech k.-l. language or dialect, considered in its function, i.e. as a means for distinguishing and material for constructing significant units of the language - words and morphemes, in abstraction from those features of its pronunciation and sounding, which do not cause semantic differences in words and morphemes ; basic phonetic. language unit. The term "F." originated in French linguistic literature in 1874 to denote the sound of speech. The Russian linguist I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, back in 1870, expressed the idea of "the discrepancy between the physical nature of sounds and their meaning in the mechanism of language." At the suggestion of his student N. V. Krushevsky, he designated the new term "F." linguistic "equivalent" physical. sound, i.e., sound considered from the point of view of its essential properties for the language; Phosphorus as a "phonetic" element of language he opposed to material sound as an "anthropophonic" element. Initially, Baudouin de Courtenay and Krushevsky considered phonics as phonetically indivisible parts of morphemes, which are members of traditional (historical) alternations and consist of one sound or a combination of sounds. Subsequently, Baudouin de Courtenay changed the content of F., designating the term "F." the unity of the members of "divergence" (in other words - "variations"), i.e., a live combinatorial (positional) alternation of pronunciation variants of sound that are not directly related to semantic differences between morphemes or words. In 1911, a student of Baudouin de Courtenay, the Russian linguist L. V. Shcherba, clarified his teacher's thought by interpreting F. as the shortest sound distinguishers of words of a given language that can be distinguished from the flow of speech. At the same time, Shcherba distinguished in F., on the one hand, the main shade, the least dependent on combinatorial (positional) conditions and, in particular, pronounced in isolation, and on the other hand, its combinatorial (positional) substitutions. In the "Course of General Linguistics" French. linguist F. de Saussure, F. are considered as mutually opposed sound units forming in each language a system limited by a certain number of elements.
F. in itself does not express k.-l. meanings, but, differing from all other phonics (and thus opposing them), it is able to serve as the only or main feature for distinguishing one significant unit of a language (word or morpheme) from another, and, consequently, the primary element of the sound structure of these units. This is its linguistic function.
Divergences (variations) of F. as elements of the same morphemes as part of different words or word forms lead to the breakdown of F. into F. members - divergents (variants), so that F. is a series of positionally alternating sounds - divergent (variational) row. Divergences are caused by phonetic. position (position) F. in each case . Therefore, divergences are not directly related to the difference in meanings: they only accompany other, directly significant differences in the sound structure of words and their forms (for example, replacing one ending or suffix with another, transferring stress from one syllable to another).
Question #28
The main stages in the development of writing
Writing itself, that is, descriptive writing, is a letter associated with the use of graphic (from the Greek. graphikos - "written", "descriptive") signs (pictures, letters, numbers) for fixing and transmitting sound language.
In the development of descriptive writing, several types have historically changed. Each of these types was determined by what elements of the sound language (whole messages, individual words, syllables or phonemes) served as a unit of written designation.
Usually, four types of writing are consistently established: pictographic, ideographic, syllabic, and alpha-sound (phonemographic). "This division is to a certain extent arbitrary, since none of these types appears in a "pure" form. Each of them includes elements of a different type, thereby forming mixed, transitional types of writing." For example, pictography already contains the rudiments of ideography, while ideographic writing contains numerous elements of syllabic and alphabetic-sound writing. In turn, the alpha-sound writing often combines ideographic signs in texts - numbers, mathematical, physical and chemical formulas, etc. But such a division makes it possible to see the sequence of the main stages in the history of writing, to reveal the originality of the formation of its main types, and thereby to imagine a general picture of the formation and development of descriptive writing.
There are other classifications of types of writing. According to one of them, five varieties are established:
"1) phraseography - the most ancient type of writing, conveying the content of entire messages with symbolic and descriptive signs (phrasegrams) without graphically dividing them into separate words;
2) logography - a subsequent type of writing, the graphic signs of which (logograms) convey individual words;
3) morphemography - a type of writing that arose on the basis of logographic, for the transfer of graphic signs (morphemograms) of the smallest significant parts of a word - morphemes;
4) syllabography, or syllabic writing, the signs of which (syllabograms) denote individual syllables;
5) phonography (phonemography), or sound writing, the graphic signs of which (phonemograms) usually designate phonemes as typical sounds.
In accordance with another classification, the evolution of writing is presented in the form of the following scheme:
1) written language: semasiography, including the most ancient conventional signs, pictography and primitive ideography;
2) writing itself: phonography, which appears in such varieties: a) verbal-syllabic writing, b) syllabic writing, c) alphabetic writing.
However, these classifications have not yet become widespread in the educational literature, where the traditionally established classification is more often used.
Articulation- the coordinated work of the organs of speech, necessary for the pronunciation of sounds. As a result of studying in the articulatory aspect, all organs of speech are divided into:
Active(lips - labium, tongue - anterior part, middle part, back part, small uvula or uvula, vocal cords) Passive(upper teeth, alveoli, hard palate or palatum, soft palate or velum)
The sound is characterized by a set of movements of the entire speech apparatus.
The articulation of sound is a process. There are 3 phases of articulation:
1. Excursion- the organs of speech are preparing for the pronunciation of sound. * when pronouncing voiced consonants, the vocal cords are advanced
2. Excerpt- maintaining the position of the organs of speech for pronouncing a sound.
3. recursion- return of the organs of speech to their previous position or preparation for pronouncing the next sound.
The work of the speech apparatus is due to the anatomical and physical aspect of the study of the sound composition of the language, i.e. from the point of view of the "mechanisms" of the formation and perception of sounds.
From the respiratory apparatus, the air stream under the action of contracting ribs that press on the diaphragm and force it to rise, thereby pressing on the lungs, they contract, the air stream is pushed out and enters the larynx through the trochea and bronchi. The vocal cords are located in the larynx. The vocal cords are muscle fibers that are stretched vertically, horizontally and diagonally, this arrangement allows the vocal cords to influence the characteristics of sounds. The larynx consists of several cartilages, the 1st cricoid, the 2nd thyroid (consists of 2 parts (shields), they are connected at an angle and this junction is directed forward. Muscle films are stretched between them - the vocal cords.) As soon as the air stream leaves the larynx, it enters the cavity throats. From the pharynx, the air stream rushes into the oral resonator. On the border of the oral resonator is the palatine curtain. If it is raised, then the air stream easily passes into the oral cavity, if it is lowered, then into the nasal cavity.
Question 21. Principles of classification of speech sounds. Classification of vowels.
There are 2 types of speech sounds: vowels and consonants
In Russian 41 SGL, 6 GL
The set of vowels forms vocalism
The set of consonants forms consonantism
Vowels and consonants are distinguished: Functionally, articulatory, acoustically.
The main difference is the role in syllable formation. * acc. in syllable formation sonant(from lat. sono-sound sing), vowel. in syllable formation it is a consonant. The articulatory difference between GL and SGL is in the different tension of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of education. Vowel formation: the speech channel is open, the entire pronunciation apparatus is tense, the air stream does not encounter obstacles in its path. Consonant formation: The voltage is localized, at the place where the barrier is formed, a strong air jet overcomes the barriers at the focus of the formation of the SHL, exploding it or passing through the gap. Noises constitute the characteristic of the SHL.
Vowel classification
The basis of classification is the row and rise of the tongue, the work of the lips, nasalization, tension and longitude.
Row determined by the part of the tongue, which rises. => 3 types of GL: front, middle, rear
Climb is determined by the degree of elevation of the tongue during the formation of GL. => 3 lift types:
upper(GL called narrow) , average(middle GL) , lower(wide HL)
Lip involvement GL are divided into labial(labialized, rounded), non-labial
Question 22
1. According to the proportion of noise, tone: SGL are divided into noisy and sonorous.
Sonorants: r, l, m, n, d
2. According to the place of formation of the barrier SGL are divided into labial and lingual.
Labial consonants:
1. labial m, n, p, b
Labiodental in, f
3.interdental acc. th(not in Russian)
Lingual front-lingual consonants - s, t, d / middle lingual th, middle lingual g ', x ' / back lingual - g, k, x.
Front-lingual have classifications depending on which organ the language interacts with -
Dental (h, s)
Alveolar acc.
Palatine acc. (w, w)
3. According to the method of education:
All consonants are divided depending on how they overcome obstacles in the oral cavity. If an obstacle overcome in the oral cavity forms an explosion, then such consonants are explosive.
Smuchno-explosive B, L, K, G, D, T.
Smuchno fricative (affricates)- at the beginning of the oral cavity, a tight closure occurs, but this closure does not abruptly open, but passes into a gap - S, H
Fricative (slotted) acc.- when they are formed, there is no tight bond, but a gap is prepared in advance by our organs into which the air stream penetrates.
Sonorant according to may to be connected M, H
The R sound is a trembling slur.
The sound L is a slur lateral. The air jet flows around the barrier on the sides.
Mitigation – palatalization, softening process
during palatalization, according to, the middle part of the tongue rises to the TV, the sky, hence the shape of the oral resonator changes, this leads to an increase in half a tone of sound.
Velarization (hardening) - the back of the back of the tongue rises to the palatal curtain and hard consonants have a lower timbre. Additional articulation also includes - nosalization, pharyngolization (tension of the walls of the pharynx), laryngolization (narrowing in the larynx)
- always sonorous and always soft accord th
- always deaf and soft h
Always hard and deaf with
Our speech is a continuous change of articulations (articulation - from Latin articulatio, articulare - “articulately pronounce”). One speech posture is replaced by another, and this is achieved by moving the tongue from front to back, from top to bottom, movements of the lips, a small tongue, turning on the vocal cords, etc. , moves in the mouth at the speed of a courier train!
During the movements of the speech organs, the air coming from the lungs, either freely, without barriers, passes through the mouth, or encounters obstacles in its path. The first articulations correspond to vowels, the second to consonants.
That is why the well-known linguist V. A. Bogoroditsky suggested calling vowels mouth openers, and consonants - mouth openers.
There is another important difference between vowels and consonants: for consonants, you can always specify exactly at what position of the tongue, lips and other speech organs a sound is formed, in other words, consonants have well-defined "articulatory addresses". For vowels, this is much more difficult to do.
So, vowels are fundamentally different from consonants in their characteristics. Therefore, the articulatory classification of vowels should be based on other grounds than the articulatory classification of consonants.
The classification of vowels is based on the position of the most important organ of speech - language.
We know that the oral cavity in the formation of speech sounds plays the role of a resonator. The tongue divides this resonator into two parts. Moving forward - backward, up - down, the tongue changes the shape and volume of the two parts of the speech resonator, which creates different acoustic effects perceived by human hearing as different vowels.
To describe various vowels, two characteristics are introduced - row and rise.
Horizontal shifts of the tongue correspond to the concept of a series of vowels, vertical shifts of the tongue are associated with the concept of the rise of vowels. Therefore, each vowel can be assigned to one of the three rises - upper, middle or lower, and simultaneously to one of the three rows - front, middle or back. The simplest articulatory classification of vowels can be seen in the following table:
| Climb | Row | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| front | average | rear | |
| upper | and | s | at |
| average | uh | b | about |
| lower | - | a | - |
This table reflects the actual state of affairs only in a general form, since both with horizontal and vertical movements the tongue does not make sharp jumps, the movement occurs smoothly, therefore finer gradations of the position of vowels are possible both along the row and along the rise.
Even in the well-known Russian language, there are such shades of vowels that there is no place for in our simplified scheme. Where, for example, should the stressed vowel from the word "five" be placed? Or an unstressed vowel from the word "pyatak"? The phonetician will say that the first vowel is ä - should be assigned to the front-mid row and mid-low rise, and the second vowel - and e - to the same front-middle row, but upper-middle rise. And these are not the most difficult cases!
That is why L. V. Shcherba proposed to distinguish six degrees of elevation in the vowel table. However, such a table is still schematic, there are more detailed tables.
Therefore, having said about the vowel, to which series and rise it belongs, we will give its main articulatory characteristic. Basic, but not complete. After all, lips are also involved in the articulation of some vowels, and the nasal resonator is also included in the formation of some vowels.
In Russian, as in many others, back vowels are both rounded (labialized). In some languages, such as German, rounded and unrounded front vowels are distinguished ( i - ü , e - ö ).
French is a classic example of the opposition between oral and nasal vowels.
Quite different bases are important for the articulatory characteristics of consonants. For their classification, 4 features should be taken into account: 1) the method of formation, 2) the place of formation, 3) the participation of the vocal cords and 4) hardness - softness of the consonant.
Consonants are mouth-contractors, and an obstruction in the oral cavity is certainly involved in their formation. The shape of the obstruction can be different: the tongue can completely block the exit of air from the mouth, forming a bridge with the teeth or with the palate, or it can create a blockage, leaving only a narrow gap for the exit of air. Therefore, all consonants are divided according to the method of formation into stops (for example: p, t, g) and slotted (for example: h, x, f). There are also intermediate sounds that combine features of both stop and fricative sounds. These are affricates ( h, c).
So, the method of formation is the first sign in the articulation characteristic of consonants.
The second important feature is the place where the noise barrier is formed.
The barrier is formed each time by two organs - an active speech organ (tongue, lower lip) and a passive one (upper lip, palate, teeth), which the active organ touches during articulation.
According to the active speech organ, consonants can be labial and lingual (anterior, middle and posterior lingual), according to the passive - labial, dental, palatine (anterior, middle and posterior palatine). The third sign is the division of consonants into voiced ones (for example: g, f, b) and deaf ( k, w, p). They can be formed with or without participation of the voice.
And finally, fourthly, consonants can be hard and soft.
When pronouncing soft consonants, the tongue shifts to the anterior part of the oral cavity, while simultaneously rising towards the hard palate; when hard consonants are formed, the entire mass of the tongue moves back somewhat, rising towards the soft palate. Consonant differences in hardness - softness are significant for the Russian language, most Slavic and some others. In many languages, for example, in German, English, French, consonants do not differ in hardness - softness. They are not at all like our soft consonants and are somewhat different from hard ones.
Articulatory phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics studies the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation (speech apparatus) and the mechanisms of speech production. Articulatory characteristic allows you to consider the sound from the position of the speaker. Sound, from the point of view of articulation, is a certain sound unity, which consists of an attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion). An attack of articulation consists in the fact that the organs of speech move from a calm state to a position necessary for pronouncing a given sound. Exposure is the preservation of the position necessary to pronounce a sound. The indentation of articulation consists in the translation of the organs of speech into a calm state. Articulatory characteristics are based on the work of the pronunciation organs, primarily the active organs of speech (tongue, lips).
Speech apparatus, i.e. a set of organs of speech, which include: lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm should be understood conditionally.
The entire speech apparatus of linguistics, i.e. From the point of view of the formation of speech sounds, speech can be divided into three parts:
Anything below the throat
Anything above the throat
The space in which articulation can take place from the vocal cords to the lips is called the vocal tract. Knowledge of articulation makes it possible to classify the sounds of the Russian language.
Articulatory differences are due to the division of the sounds of the Russian language into vowels and consonants. When vowels are formed, a weak air stream passes freely, without encountering obstacles. When consonants are formed, a stronger air stream encounters obstacles in its path.
Articulatory phonetics studies the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation (speech apparatus) and the mechanisms of speech production. The articulatory characteristic allows you to consider the sound from the position of the speaker. Sound (from the point of view of articulation) is a certain sound unity, which consists of an attack (excursion) and an indentation (recursion). Articulatory characteristics are based on the work of the pronunciation organs, primarily active organs.
The term "speech apparatus", i.e. the totality of speech organs, which include lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm, should be understood conditionally. Therefore, the entire speech apparatus linguistically (i.e., in terms of the formation of sounds in speech) can be divided into three parts:
1. everything below the larynx (respiratory apparatus necessary for the formation of speech sounds);
2. larynx (airflow transformation);
3. everything above the larynx (in which articulation is carried out).
The space in which articulation can take place from the vocal cords to the lips is called the vocal tract.
The value of articulation makes it possible to classify the sounds of the Russian language. Articulatory differences are due to the division of the sounds of the Russian language into vowels and consonants. When vowels are formed, a weak air stream passes freely, without encountering obstacles. In the formation of consonants, a stronger air stream meets obstacles.
In russian language vowels classified according to 3 criteria:
1. by row- determined by the movement of the tongue horizontally:
vowels front row - and, uh
vowels middle row - s, a
2.uplift- vertical movement of the tongue:
· lower lifting - a
· middle lifting - uh oh
· top lifting - and, s, u
3. by the presence or absence of labialization, those. by stretching or rounding the lips:
· labialized – OU
· non-labialized – other
Consonants sounds are characterized by 4 main features:
[r] [l] [m] [n] [j]
[p, ] [l, ] [m, ] [n, ]
· noisy
- voiced [b] [c] [d] [e] [h] [g] [d]
[b, ] [c, ] [g, ] [e, ] [h, ]
- deaf [n] [t] [k] [s] [x] [c] [h]
[p, ] [t, ] [k, ] [s, ]
2. at the place of education:
Consonants:
· labial
Ø labial [b] [n] [m]
[b, ] [n, ] [m, ]
Ø labiodental [c] [f]
[v, ] [f, ]
· lingual
Ø anterior lingual:
dental [d] [t] [s] [s] [l] [n] [c]
[d, ] [t, ] [s, ] [s, ] [l, ] [n, ] [c, ]
Palatal [w] [w] [r] [h]
[w, ] [w, ] [p, ] [h, ]
Ø Middle language [j]
Ø rear lingual [g] [k] [x]
[r, ] [k, ] [x, ]
3. according to the method of education - due to the nature of the obstacle that occurs in the path of the air stream (complete closure of the speech organs or gap)
· stop (explosive) [b] [p] [d] [t] [g] [k]
[b, ] [p, ] [d, ] [t, ] [g, ] [k, ]
In the formation of stop consonants, the pronunciation organs are first completely closed, and then the air stream sharply opens them.
· affricates [c] [h]
Consonant sounds, which are formed by closing the organs of speech, between which there is a gap and the air, passing through this gap, seems to explode.
· trembling (vibrants)[R]
They are formed with the help of a trembling tip of the tongue, which vibrates when the air jet exits.
· closure-through
Ø side [l]
Ø nasal [m] [n]
[m, ] [n, ]
They are formed as a result of the fact that the air stream finds another way out due to the closure of the organs.
· slotted (fricative) [f] [v] [s] [s] [g] [w] [x] [j]
[f, ] [v, ] [z, ] [s, ] [g, ] [w, ] [x, ]
During the formation of fricative consonants, the active organ approaches the passive, forming a gap through which the air stream passes, the gap is formed as a result of friction.
4. in relation to palatalization
One of the characteristic features of Russian consonants is a sign of hardness / softness. When pronouncing soft consonants, in addition to the main articulation, an additional articulation of palatalization (j-th pal.) is used. Hard consonants are characterized by a special articulation of hardness (velarization).
Consonants form pairs of hardness/softness.
[b] [c] [g] [e] [h] [k] [l] [m] [n] [p] [r] [s] [t] [x]
[b, ] [c, ] [g, ] [d, ] [h, ] [k, ] [l, ] [m, ] [n, ] [p, ] [p, ] [s, ] [t , ] [X, ]
Unpaired soft: [j] [h, ] [w, ]
Unpaired solids: [w] [w] [c]
