Modern Homo sapiens or Homo sapiens originated on Earth about 60-70 thousand years ago. However, our species was preceded by many ancestors that have not survived to this day. Humanity is a single species, October 31 - November 1, 2011, its population reached 7 billion people and continues to grow. However, such a rapid growth in the population of the Earth began quite recently - about a hundred years ago (see graph). For most of its history, the number of people was no more than a million individuals on the entire planet. Where did man come from?
There are several scientific and pseudo-scientific hypotheses of its origin. The dominant hypothesis, which in fact is already a theory of the origin of our species, is the one that claims that humanity arose in equatorial Africa about 2 million years ago. At this time, the genus Man (Homo) stands out in the animal kingdom, one of the species of which is modern people. The facts confirming this theory, first of all, include paleontological finds in this territory. On no other continent of the world, except Africa, are the remains of all the ancestral forms of modern humans found. In contrast to this, it can be said that the fossilized bones of other species of the genus Man have been found not only in Africa, but also in Eurasia. However, this hardly indicates the existence of several centers of the emergence of mankind - rather, several waves of settlement on the planet of various species, of which, in the end, only ours survived. The closest form of man to our ancestors is the Neanderthal man. Our two species split from a common ancestral form about 500,000 years ago. Until now, scientists do not know for sure whether the Neanderthal is an independent species or is it a subspecies of Homo sapiens. However, it is known for certain that Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons (the ancestors of modern humans) lived on Earth at the same time, perhaps even their tribes interacted with each other, but Neanderthals died out several tens of thousands of years ago, and Cro-Magnons remained the only human species on the planet .
It is assumed that 74,000 years ago on Earth there was a strong eruption of the Toba volcano - in Indonesia. It has become very cold on Earth for several decades. This event led to the extinction of a large number of animal species and greatly reduced the human population, but may have been the impetus for its development. Having survived this catastrophe, humanity began to spread throughout the planet. 60,000 years ago, modern man migrated to Asia, and from there to Australia. Settled Europe 40,000 years ago. By 35,000 BC it reached the Bering Strait and migrated to North America, finally reaching the southern tip of South America 15,000 years ago.
The spread of people across the planet led to the emergence of numerous human populations that were already too distant from each other to interact with each other. Natural selection and variability led to the emergence of three large human races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid (often a fourth, the Australoid race, is also considered here).
Lecture text.
The first event that historical science studies is the appearance of man himself. The question immediately arises: what is a person? The answer to this question is given by different sciences, such as biology. Science proceeds from the fact that man appeared as a result of evolution from the animal kingdom.
Biologists since the time of the famous Swedish scientist of the XVIII century. Carl Linnaeus refers man, including his now extinct early species, to the order of higher mammals - primates. Together with humans, the order of primates includes modern and extinct monkeys. Man has certain anatomical characteristics that distinguish him from other primates, in particular great apes. However, it is not at all easy to distinguish the remains of early human species from the remains of the great apes living at the same time by anatomical features. Therefore, there are disputes between scientists about the origin of man, and approaches to solving this issue are constantly being refined as new archaeological finds appear.
Archeology is of paramount importance for the study of the primitive period, as it allows scientists to get at their disposal objects made by the ancient inhabitants of our planet. It is the ability to manufacture such objects that should be considered the main feature that distinguishes humans from other primates.
It is no coincidence that archaeologists divide history into stone, bronze and iron age. The Stone Age, according to the features of the tools of labor of an ancient person, is divided into ancient (Paleolithic), middle (Mesolithic) and new (Neolithic). In turn, the Paleolithic is divided into early (lower) and late (upper). The Early Paleolithic consists of periods - Olduvai, Acheulean, Mousterian.
In addition to tools, excavations of dwellings and places of settlement of people, as well as their burials, are of the utmost importance.
On the origin of man anthropogenesis - there are several theories. Great fame in our country labor theory, formulated in the 19th century. F. Engels. According to this theory, labor activity, which human ancestors had to resort to, led to a change in their appearance, which was fixed in the course of natural selection, and the need for communication in the labor process contributed to the emergence of language and thinking. Labor theory is based on the teachings of Charles Darwin on natural selection.
Modern genetics holds a slightly different opinion about the reasons for the evolution of living beings. Genetics denies the possibility of fixing the qualities acquired in the course of life activity in the body, if their appearance is not associated with mutations. Currently, there are different versions of the causes of anthropogenesis. Scientists noticed that the region where anthropogenesis took place (East Africa) is a zone of increased radioactivity.
An increased level of radiation is the strongest mutagenic factor. Perhaps it was exposure to radiation that caused anatomical changes, which ultimately led to the appearance of man.
At present, we can talk about the following scheme of anthropogenesis. The remains of the common ancestors of monkeys and humans, found in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, are 30 - 40 million years old. In East and South Africa, the remains of the most probable human ancestor were found - australopithecine(age 4 - 5.5 million years). Australopithecus, most likely, could not make stone tools, but in their appearance they resembled the first creature that created such tools. Australopithecus also lived in the savannas, moved on its hind limbs and had little hair. The skull of Australopithecus was larger than that of any modern great ape.
The oldest man-made stone tools (about 2.6 million years old) were found by archaeologists in the area of Kada Gona in Ethiopia. Almost equally ancient artifacts have been found in a number of other regions of East Africa (in particular, in the Olduvai Gorge (Oldowai) in Tanzania). In the same places, fragments of the remains of their creators were also excavated. This most ancient species of man is named by scientists skillful person ( Homo habilis ). A skilled man outwardly did not differ much from Australopithecus (although his brain volume was somewhat larger), but he can no longer be considered an animal. A skilled man lived only in East Africa.
According to archaeological periodization, the time of the existence of a skilled person corresponds to the Olduvai period. The most characteristic implements of Homo habilis are pebbles (hoppers and choppers) chipped on one or both sides.
From the moment of its appearance, the main occupation of man has been hunting, including hunting for rather large animals (fossil elephants). Even the "dwellings" of Homo habilis were found in the form of a fence of large stone blocks, folded in a circle. From above, they may have been covered with branches and skins.
There is no consensus among scientists about the relationship between Australopithecus and Homo habilis. Some consider them two successive steps, others believe that Australopithecus was a dead end branch. It is known that these two species coexisted for some period.
Among scholars there is no consensus on the issue of continuity between Nomo Habilis and Noto egectus (upright man). The oldest find of the remains of Homo egectus near Lake Turkan in Kenya dates back to 17 million years ago. For some time, Homo erectus coexisted with Homo habilis. In appearance, Nomo egestus was even more different from a monkey: its growth was close to the growth of a modern person, the volume of the brain was quite large.
According to archaeological periodization, the time of the existence of a walking man corresponds to the Acheulean period.
Homo egectus was destined to be the first human species to leave Africa. The oldest finds of the remains of this species in Europe and Asia are dated to approximately 1 million years ago. Even at the end of the XIX century. E. Dubois found on the island of Java the skull of a creature he called Pithecanthropus (monkey-man). At the beginning of the XX century. in the Zhoukoudian cave near Beijing, similar skulls of Sinanthropes (Chinese people) were unearthed. Several fragments of the remains of Nomo egestus (the most ancient find is a jaw from Heidelberg in Germany, 600 thousand years old) and many of its products, including traces of dwellings, have been discovered in a number of regions of Europe.
Nomo egestus died out about 300 thousand years ago. He was replaced Noto sieps. According to modern ideas, there were originally two subspecies of Homo sapiens. The development of one of them led to the appearance of about 130 thousand years ago Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens neanderthaliensis). Neanderthals populated all of Europe and much of Asia. At the same time, there was another subspecies, which is still little studied. It may have originated in Africa. It is the second subspecies that some researchers consider the ancestor modern man- Noto sapies. Homo sarins finally formed 40 - 35 thousand years ago. This scheme of the origin of modern man is not shared by all scientists. A number of researchers do not classify the Neanderthal as Homo sapiens. There are also adherents to the previously prevailing point of view that Homo sariens originated from the Neanderthal as a result of its evolution.
How and why did people settle on the continents? Where is currently the most densely populated? How do various types of economic activity of the population affect natural complexes?
The question of the origin of mankind is one of the most difficult. Where the first humans originated is not yet clear. Most scientists believe that the birthplace of mankind is Africa and Southwestern Eurasia. In this territory, our distant ancestors turned from pre-humans into real people. It was here that the long journey from animal to man began, which took more than 3 million years.
Gradually, people settled on all the continents of the Earth, with the exception of Antarctica. It is assumed that at first people mastered the territories of Eurasia and Africa, convenient for life, and then other continents. From the map (Fig. 40) you can determine where land "bridges" once existed between the continents, along which ancient hunters and gatherers penetrated from one continent to another.
Rice. 40. Proposed ways of human settlement main areas of settlement.Humanity is distributed unevenly on the planet. Most people settled in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres and much less in the Western and Southern. Temporary residents appeared in Antarctica only in the 20th century. Most people live on the coast of the World Ocean, its seas or near them, on the plains within the temperate, subtropical and subequatorial climatic zones.
There are four most densely populated territories on Earth - South and East Asia, Western Europe and the eastern part of North America. This can be explained by favorable natural conditions, the age of settlement. Ancient tribes moved from one place to another in search of better living conditions. The settlement of new lands accelerated the development of animal husbandry and agriculture. Thus, in South and East Asia, people have long been engaged in agriculture on irrigated lands and harvest several crops a year. Western Europe and the east of North America are territories with a developed industry, the urban population predominates here.
Humanity is nations. Since ancient times, humanity has been made up of peoples. Each of us is not only an earthling, but also a particle of this or that people, the bearer of a certain culture, which is expressed in speech, behavior, traditions. All these traits are called ethnic, "ethnos" Greek for "people".
How many peoples on earth? It has not yet been possible to count them all. It is known that there are thousands of them - large and small, and that they speak thousands of languages. Language is one of the most important features of a people. It is impossible to establish the total number of languages of the peoples of the world, there are about 4-6 thousand of them. As a rule, each nation speaks its own language. However, it also happens that several peoples speak the same language. So, English is spoken not only by the British, but also by Australians, Anglo-Canadians, US Americans and some other peoples. Spanish is the native language for most of the peoples of South America, as well as Mexico and other countries of Central America.
Language is not the only sign of a people. Peoples living in different natural conditions also differ in other features: traditional dwellings (piled and floating buildings, huts, tower houses made of stone, yurts, plagues, etc.), tools, clothing and footwear, composition and method of cooking. Now the clothes of different peoples are becoming the same type, losing their ethnic character. However, the national costume is preserved among many peoples as festive clothing. Differences between peoples are manifested in customs and rituals, in folk art. For example, folk musical culture differs significantly, and certain types of art exist only among certain peoples (bone carving among the Eskimos, birch bark processing among the inhabitants of the North, etc.). Peoples also differ in their religious beliefs.
The main types of economic activities of people and their impact on natural complexes. The nature of the Earth is the environment of human life and activity. And he, with his way of life and activity, invades nature, violating its laws. At the same time, different types of economic activity affect natural complexes differently.
Agriculture changes the natural complexes especially strongly.
Significant areas are required for growing crops and raising domestic animals. As a result of plowing the land, the area under natural vegetation is reduced. The soil is losing its fertility. Artificial irrigation helps the farmer to get high yields, but in dry areas it often leads to soil salinization and reduced yields. Domestic animals also change the vegetation cover and soils: they trample down the vegetation, compact the soil. In arid climates, pastures can turn into desert areas.
Under the influence of human economic activity, forest complexes experience great changes. As a result of uncontrolled logging, the area under forests around the globe has significantly decreased. In the tropical and equatorial zones, forests are still being burned out, making room for fields and pastures.
The rapid growth of industry has a detrimental effect on nature, polluting the air, water and soil. Gaseous substances enter the atmosphere, while solid and liquid substances enter the soil and water. During the development of minerals, especially in an open pit, a lot of waste and dust arise on the surface, deep large quarries are formed.
Cities need more and more new land for the construction of residential buildings, roads, industrial enterprises. Environmental pollution adversely affects human health.
Thus, in a significant part of the globe, the economic activity of people has changed natural complexes to one degree or another.
Human economic activity is clearly reflected on thematic geographical maps. Using their conventional signs, you can determine: a) places of mining; b) features of land use in agriculture, etc.
From many other planets - the presence of intelligent beings on it - people. Where and when did the first man appear? People have been searching for an answer to this question for a very long time.
Human settlement of the Earth
In the resettlement of people on the planet, two stages are distinguished. Approximately 2 million years ago, ancient people began to penetrate from other areas and to other continents. This stage of the development of the Earth ended approximately 500 thousand years ago. Subsequently, the ancient people died out.
Modern man ("homo sapiens") appeared only about 200 thousand years ago. It was from here that the second stage of human settlement began. First of all, concern for food made them go to new unexplored lands. With an increase in the number of people, the territories on which hunting was carried out expanded, and edible plants were collected. Strong climate change also contributed to the resettlement of people. The level of 15-16 thousand years ago was 130 m lower than the modern level, so there were "land bridges" between individual continents and islands. The transition to a settled way of life occurred 11 thousand years ago. This contributed to the development of ancient civilizations. Many monuments of their culture have survived to this day.
Races
The long existence of people in various natural conditions has led to the emergence of races - large groups of people with common, inherited, external signs. According to external signs, all of humanity is divided into four large geographical races.
Negroid race formed in hot regions of the Earth. Dark, almost black, skin, coarse curly or wavy black hair, characteristic of these people, protect against sunburn and overheating of the body. Brown eyes. A wide, flat nose and thick lips help regulate body temperature.
australoid race according to the external signs of its representatives, it is close to Negroid.
Mongoloid adapted to life in the steppes and semi-deserts, where summer temperatures are high, strong winds and dust storms are frequent. The yellow color of the skin protects against excessive exposure to sunlight. The narrow slit of the eyes saves them from wind and dust. Mongoloids have straight, coarse hair, a large flattened face, prominent cheekbones, and a slightly protruding nose.
Caucasian race divided into northern and southern branches. Southern Caucasians have swarthy skin, brown eyes, and dark hair. The northern ones have white skin, light and soft hair, blue or gray eyes.
Mixed races. Over time, the proportion of people on Earth is growing, in the form of which there are signs of different races. They form mixed races, the emergence of which is associated with the migration of people. These include mestizos - the descendants of Europeans and Indians; mulattos - descendants of Europeans and peoples of the Negroid race; sambo - descendants of Indians and peoples of the Negroid race; Malgash - descendants of the peoples of the Negroid and Mongoloid races.
From all these data on anthropology, archeology and DNA, it now follows that about 150 thousand years ago there lived a “mitochondrial Eve”, who was the “mother” of all living people. This woman lived in Northeast Africa in a small tribe of ancient people. Further, it seems that 80-100 thousand years ago there was the first migration of people from Africa to the Middle East, and after that the second, more extensive migration from Africa, which led to the formation of all the human races that we have today. This migration is shown in Fig. 7.4, and most likely began somewhere 50-60 thousand years ago. The date about 50,000 years ago is important because at this time, it seems, in places occupied by people, there was an explosion of creative activity. Instead of just primitive stone tools, archaeologists are beginning to find cave paintings, beads, sculptures, and signs of animistic or shamanic beliefs.
Let us now follow Fig. 7.4 behind the migrations of people around the world. But before we get started, there are two things to note.
1) Based on the results of DNA studies of thousands of people in different population groups around the world, it has been irrefutably shown that all of humanity belongs to the same species, Homo sapiens. Neanderthals and other varieties Homo belong to other species. These discoveries are consistent with what the Bible says about the unity of the human race: “From one blood He made the whole human race to dwell on all the face of the earth” (Acts 17:26). The Greek word ἁίμα (blood) implies a single relationship.
2) DNA data is not the only basis for plotting migration patterns. Data on DNA are also supported by archeology and linguistics. For example, the age of the remains of people found by archaeologists in Northern Australia is estimated at about 30-40 thousand years, which generally coincides with the date of the beginning of migrations from Africa - about 50-60 thousand years ago. The settlement of people was also traced according to linguistic data. For example, linguists have hypothesized three separate waves of migration to the Americas based on studies of various Indian languages. These three waves, identified on linguistic grounds, have now been confirmed by DNA studies. However, archaeological and linguistic data, by their very nature, can only hint at the past, while DNA genetics, in its importance as a method of tracing the migrations of people in the past, far exceeds them.
Let us now turn to the map of the settlement of people in Fig. 7.4. As Brian Sykes, author of The Seven Daughters of Eve, writes, the DNA development chain leads to the African people of Kung (San Bushmen), some of whose ancestors are thought to have left Northeast Africa about 50 thousand years ago. The Kung people no longer live in this northeastern region of Africa because during the expansion of the agricultural peoples of the Bantu from 1000 BC. to 1000 AD they were forced into the drier regions of South Africa. However, the DNA trace indicates that genetically the Kung are the ancestors of all other human populations. The Kung people use click sounds in their language, and some linguists suggest that such click speech may be a remnant of a very ancient language spoken by the first people.
It is believed that the peoples who left Northeast Africa about 50 thousand years ago crossed the Red Sea and during the last ice age, when the sea level, as you know, was much lower than today, moved along the coasts of Arabia, India and Indonesia . Then the generations of these nomadic peoples moved to Australia and New Guinea about 40 thousand years ago, and about 30 thousand years ago to Tasmania. This correlates with the fact that Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans, and some Indian populations are more similar in appearance and DNA to Africans than to other groups of people. But even at this early stage, migration to Australia seems to have been partly by boat (raft, canoe?), because the coastline then, despite the lower sea level, did not completely link Indonesia to Australia.
Around the same time (about 30-45 thousand years ago), Negroid tribes migrated from the "cradle" in Northeast Africa to the south and west of Africa (Fig. 7.4). The vast Sahara desert prevented most Negroids from moving north, and the area was later occupied by other groups of people.
The "second wave" of humans settled in the Near East about 45,000 years ago, and from there part of it moved west and northwest into Europe, where it reached about 35,000 to 40,000 years ago. There is an opinion that the Basque people in Spain and France may belong to this first group of ancient people, because they are genetically and linguistically different from the populations around them. The Basque language is not related to any other European languages, nor any other.
Another part of the people migrated from the Middle East to China and Mongolia, reaching there about 35-40 thousand years ago. At a later time (about 12 thousand years ago), part of this population moved to Japan (the Ainu), and then, much later, a larger group of the population came to Japan from Korea, displacing the ancient people of the Ainu to the northernmost island. From northeastern Siberia, nomadic Mongolian tribes (such as the modern Chukchi following reindeer migrations) crossed the Bering Strait into North America about 18,000 to 20,000 years ago. These "New World" peoples spread across the Americas, reaching the Amazon about 10,000 years ago and the tip of South America about 8,000 years ago. This migration across the Bering Strait 20,000 years ago occurred during the "last glacial maximum" when sea levels were very low. This first wave of immigrants to America is called by the name of the language group Amerindian migration, and most of the tribal groups of North American Indians, as well as all South American Indians, are descended from this group.
The second wave of Indian migration came from Mongolia to Alaska and Canada about 12 thousand years ago, and from there around 1000 AD. moved to the west of the USA (Arizona, New Mexico). These are the peoples on the day(Navajo and Apache). The Na-Dene peoples speak a language that is not similar to the languages of the earlier Amerindian tribes, except for a few common root words that can be traced back to Mongolia. For example, the Hopi, descended from the ancient Anasassi (Amerindian) people, and the Navajo people (Na-Dene) speak different languages, although they often live very close to each other.
The third and most recent wave of immigration to the Americas was the Aleuts and Eskimos (shaded area in Figure 7.4). However, all these three waves of migration of aboriginal peoples had almost the same
