Germany- state in Central Europe. In the course of history, it experienced periods of strong fragmentation and repeatedly changed its borders. Therefore, the history of Germany is inseparable from the history of its closest neighbors, primarily Austria, Switzerland, Poland, the Czech Republic, Italy and France.

Antiquity

[b] Antiquity

Germans in antiquity

Main article: Germany (ancient)

The Germanic tribes lived on the territory of Central Europe as early as the first millennium BC, a rather detailed description of their structure and way of life is given by Tacitus at the end of the 1st century. Linguistic studies suggest that the separation of the Germanic peoples from the Balto-Slavs occurred around the 8th-6th centuries BC. The Germans were divided into several groups - between the Rhine, Main and Weser lived Batavs, Brukters, Hamavs, Hatts and Ubii; on the coast of the North Sea - Hawks, Angles, Varins, Frisians; from the middle and upper Elbe to the Oder - Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and Semnons; between the Oder and the Vistula - the Vandals, Burgundians and Goths; in Scandinavia - sviony, gaut. From the 2nd century A.D. e. The Germans are increasingly invading the boundaries of the Roman Empire. To the Romans, however, they were simply barbarians. Gradually they formed tribal unions (Alemanni, Goths, Saxons, Franks).

Great Migration

At the end of the 4th century, the invasion of Asiatic nomadic peoples into Europe prompted the resettlement of the Germans. They populated the border lands of the Roman Empire, and soon began armed incursions into it. In the 5th century, the German tribes of the Goths, Vandals and others created their kingdoms on the territory of the crumbling Western Roman Empire. At the same time, on the territory of Germany itself, the primitive communal system was mainly preserved. In 476, the last Roman emperor was deposed by a German commander.

[b]Middle Ages

Frankish state

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Frankish tribes played the most significant role among the Germanic tribes. In 481, Clovis I became the first king of the Salic Franks. Under him and his descendants, Gaul was conquered, and from the Germans, the Alemanni and most of the tribes of the Franks entered the state. Later, Aquitaine, Provence, northern Italy, a small part of Spain were conquered, the Thuringians, Bavarians, Saxons and other tribes were subordinated. By 800, all of Germany was part of the vast Frankish state.

In 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned Roman emperor. This event was prepared in advance, but Charles did not think about the separation of Rome from Constantinople: until the year 800, Byzantium was the legitimate heir of the Roman Empire, the empire restored by Charles was a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and Charles was considered the 68th emperor, the successor of the eastern line immediately after deposed in 797 by Constantine VI, and not by the successor of Romulus Augustulus. In 843, the Frankish Empire collapsed, although various kings (more often the kings of Italy) formally held the title of emperor intermittently until 924.

[b] The beginning of German statehood

Main article: East Frankish kingdom

The origins of the German state are connected with the Treaty of Verdun, which was concluded between the grandchildren of Charlemagne in 843. This agreement divided the Frankish empire into three parts - the French (West-Frankish kingdom), inherited by Charles the Bald, Italian-Lorraine (Middle Kingdom), whose king was the eldest son of Charlemagne Lothar, and German, where power went to Louis the German.

Traditionally, the first German state is considered to be the East Frankish state. During the 10th century, the unofficial name "Reich of the Germans (Regnum Teutonicorum)" appeared, which after several centuries became generally recognized (in the form "Reich der Deutschen").

In 870, most of the Lorraine kingdom was captured by the East Frankish king Louis the German. Thus, the East Frankish kingdom united almost all the lands inhabited by the Germans. During the IX-X centuries there were wars with the Slavs, which led to the annexation of a number of Slavic lands.

The next East Frankish king in 936 was the Duke of Saxony Otto I (in the Russian historical tradition he is called Otto).

[b]Holy Roman Empire

Main article: Holy Roman Empire

Early period of the Holy Roman Empire

On February 2, 962, Otto I was crowned in Rome as Holy Roman Emperor. It was believed that he revived the power of Charlemagne. But now the empire consisted mainly of Germany and parts of Italy.

The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (lat. Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Teutonicae) is a political institution that retained the same form, the same claims for ten centuries (until 1806). The external history of the empire is, in essence, the history of Germany from the ninth to the nineteenth century. and Italy in the Middle Ages. In its origin, the S. Roman Empire was ecclesiastical and Germanic; it was given form by the unfading tradition of the universal dominion of eternal Rome; Germanic and Roman elements, merging, determined the all-encompassing and abstract character of the empire as the center and head of Western Christendom.

Despite the attempts of the emperors to unite the "Holy Roman Empire", it turned out to be fragmented into numerous almost independent states and cities. Some North German cities merged into the Hansa, a military trade union that monopolized trade in the Baltic Sea.

Germany in the Renaissance

Humanism originated in Germany in the 1430s, a century later than in Italy, under the influence of its culture.

A special role belonged to printing - the great discovery of the middle of the 15th century, brewing in a number of countries, but made in Germany by John Gutenberg.

Germany - the birthplace of the reformation

The beginning of the Reformation was marked by a speech in Germany in 1517 with his positions, or as they were also called "theses for discussion", by the Augustinian monk Martin Luther. The ideologies of the Reformation put forward theses that actually denied the need for the Catholic Church with its hierarchy and the clergy in general. The Catholic Holy Tradition was rejected, the church's rights to land riches were denied, etc.

The Reformation gave impetus to the Peasants' War of 1524-1527, which engulfed many German principalities at once. In 1532, the all-German criminal-judicial code "Carolina" was published.

The Reformation marked the beginning of several religious wars in Germany, which ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. As a result, the fragmentation of Germany was consolidated.

[b] Rise of Prussia

Main article: Prussia

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 led to a significant expansion of the possessions of the Electorate of Brandenburg, which even earlier (in 1618) annexed the Duchy of Prussia. In 1701, the Brandenburg-Prussian state was given the name "Kingdom of Prussia". It was distinguished by a rigid bureaucratic system and militarism. In Prussia and other East German states, a second edition of serfdom was observed. On the other hand, it was in Prussia that Kant and Fichte laid the foundation for classical German philosophy.

The most famous was Frederick II (King of Prussia). He was considered a supporter of an enlightened monarchy, abolished torture, reorganized the army on the basis of drill. Under him, Prussia participated in the War of the Austrian Succession, in the Seven Years' War, in the division of the Commonwealth. Although the Austrian Habsburgs remained emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, their influence weakened, and Prussia took Silesia from Austria. East Prussia was not even considered an integral part of the empire. In a fragmented and weakened form, the Holy Roman Empire existed until 1806.

Creation of a single state

[b] Germany in the era of the Napoleonic wars

Main article: Confederation of the Rhine

By 1804, when Napoleon I became French emperor, Germany remained a politically backward country. Feudal fragmentation remained in the Holy Roman Empire, serfdom existed, and medieval legislation was in force everywhere. A number of German states had previously fought revolutionary France with varying degrees of success.

In the autumn of 1805, Napoleon's war began with the coalition, which included Austria. Austria was defeated. The German emperor Franz II, who just before that in 1804 also became emperor of the Austrian multinational state, left the German throne under pressure from Napoleon. In July 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was abolished and the Confederation of the Rhine was proclaimed instead. Under Napoleon, the number of German principalities was significantly reduced due to their unification. Lost their independence and many cities, the number of which during their heyday was over eighty. By 1808, the Confederation of the Rhine included all the states of Germany, except for Austria, Prussia, Swedish Pomerania and Danish Holstein. Half of the territory of Prussia was taken from her and partly entered the Confederation of the Rhine.

Serfdom was abolished in almost the entire Confederation of the Rhine. In most states of the Confederation of the Rhine, the Napoleonic Civil Code was introduced, which abolished feudal privileges and opened the way for the development of capitalism.

The Confederation of the Rhine participated in the Napoleonic Wars on the side of France. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1813, he actually ceased to exist.

[b] German Confederation

Main article: German Confederation

At the Congress of Vienna (October 1814 - June 9, 1815) on June 8, 1815, the German Confederation was formed from 38 German states under the leadership of Austria. The states of the union were completely independent. In 1848, a wave of liberal uprisings swept across Germany, including Austria (see Revolution of 1848-1849 in Germany), which were eventually suppressed.

Soon, after the revolution of 1848, a conflict began to brew between the growing influence of Prussia and Austria for a dominant position both in the German Confederation and in Europe as a whole. The Austro-Prussian-Italian War of 1866, which ended with the victory of Prussia, led to the dissolution of the German Confederation. Prussia annexed the territories of some North German states that participated in the war on the side of Austria - thus the number of German states also decreased.

[b]North German Confederation and German unification

Main article: North German Confederation

On August 18, 1866, Prussia and 17 North German states (four more joined in the fall) united into the North German Confederation. In fact, it was a single state: it had one president (the Prussian king), chancellor, Reichstag and Bundesrat, a single army, a coin, a foreign policy department, a post office and a railway department.

The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 led to the annexation of four South German states and the formation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871 (see Unification of Germany (1871)).

United Germany (1871-1945)

German Empire (1871-1918)

Map of the German Empire at the beginning of the 20th century from the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

The German Empire was a federal state that united 22 monarchies, 3 free cities and the land of Alsace-Lorraine. According to the constitution, the emperor of the German Empire was the Prussian king. He appointed the Chancellor. The Reichstag was elected by popular vote. The empire had a single budget, an imperial bank, an army, a coin, a foreign policy department, a post office and a railway department.

The absence of customs borders, progressive economic legislation and French indemnity led to the rapid growth of the economy. Thanks to a well-thought-out system of secondary education and universities, there was a flourishing of science and the progress of technology. Under the influence of the Social Democratic Party, strikes and legislative reforms led to higher wages and mitigation of social tensions.

French Tire-Bone. Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy smoke on a barrel of gunpowder

Germany began to seize the colonies late and was forced to look for ways to redistribute them. She entered into a Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. Thanks to huge military spending (up to half of the entire budget), by 1914 Germany had an army with the best weapons in the world.

[b] World War I

Main article: World War I

On June 28, 1914, the assassination of the Austrian heir Franz Ferdinand in the city of Sarajevo triggered the start of the First World War.

Military success accompanied Germany on the Eastern Front in 1915: during this year, Germany managed to advance deep into Russia and capture such territories as Lithuania and Poland.

Germany failed to break the French army and the war in the west turned into a positional one, with heavy human and material losses. Germany gradually bled dry, and the entry of the United States into the war hastened the predetermined outcome, which could no longer be influenced by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in the east.

On September 26, 1918, the Entente offensive began on the western front. Germany's allies were defeated and one after another signed a truce with the Entente (September 29, 1918 - Bulgaria, October 30 - Turkey, November 3 - Austria-Hungary). On October 5, the German government asked for an armistice. It was concluded on November 11, 1918.

[b] Weimar Republic

Main article: Weimar Republic

The events of November 1918 are known as the November Revolution. On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled the country. On November 10, 1918, a provisional government was established - the Council of People's Deputies. On November 11, a ceasefire was declared and hostilities ceased. On December 16, 1918, the so-called Imperial Congress of Soviets took place in Berlin.

Numerous reforms were carried out, women received voting rights, an eight-hour working day was introduced. The uprising of the Spartacists in January 1919 was crushed by the Freikorps, while the communist leaders Rosa Luxembourg and Karl Liebknecht were killed. Until the middle of 1919, all attempts to establish a socialist Soviet republic in Germany were thwarted with the use of the Reichswehr and Freikorps. The last was the Bavarian Soviet Republic, which fell on May 2, 1919.

On January 19, elections were held for the national assembly. The elected deputies gathered for the first meeting not in riot-ridden Berlin, but in Weimar. The National Assembly elected Friedrich Ebert as Reich President and Philipp Scheidemann as Reich Chancellor. In accordance with the adopted Weimar constitution, Germany received a parliamentary democracy. The constitution provided for a strong Reich President, who was actually a replacement for the Kaiser and was even called ironically "ersatz Kaiser", and a qualified majority was required to change it.

On June 28, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ceded large territories and transferred its colonies to the League of Nations. The unification of Germany and Austria was banned. All the blame for starting the war was laid on Germany and her allies. Germany was also forced to pay reparations. Saar came under the control of the League of Nations, and the Rhineland received the status of a demilitarized zone. Significant restrictions were imposed on the German army.

The absence of democratic reforms in the army, justice and administration, the Treaty of Versailles, which was perceived in the country as a “shameful dictate”, as well as a widespread conspiracy theory that blamed Jews and communists for the defeat in the war, laid a heavy burden on the shoulders of the young German state, critically named “ Republic without Republicans.

In 1920, the Kapp putsch and several political assassinations took place. In the elections to the Reichstag, the extremist parties managed to significantly improve their performance. The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that the decision on the nationality of some border regions would be made at referendums. After two referendums, Schleswig was divided between Germany and Denmark. Northern Schleswig returned to Denmark, and Southern remained with Germany. After the referendum on July 11, the districts of Allenstein and Marienwerder remained part of Prussia. On September 20, Eupen and Malmedy (near Aachen) withdrew to Belgium.

The Reichswehr was created in 1921. Upper Silesia after a referendum, accompanied by clashes with the use of force, was divided between Germany and Poland. In 1922, Germany and the Soviet Union concluded the Treaty of Rapallo to restore diplomatic relations.

In January 1923, French troops occupied the Ruhr region in response to delays in paying reparations, initiating the so-called Ruhr Conflict. The imperial government supported the resistance of local residents to the invaders. The following months were accompanied by galloping inflation, the end of which was put only by the November monetary reform.

Bavaria has become a haven for right-wing conservative political forces. In this environment, Hitler held his beer putsch, was arrested and sentenced to prison, but released after a few months.

In 1924, a period of relative stability began. Despite all the conflicts, democracy reaped the first fruits of its work. New money and the loans that appeared in the country under the Dawes plan marked the beginning of the "golden twenties".

Friedrich Ebert died in February 1925 and was succeeded by Paul von Hindenburg as Reich Chancellor.

The Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Weimar Republic Gustav Stresemann, together with his French counterpart Aristide Briand, moved along the path of rapprochement between the two countries and the revision of the Treaty of Versailles, which was reflected in the Locarno agreements concluded in 1925 and Germany's entry into the League of Nations in 1926.

The outbreak of the global economic crisis of 1929 was the beginning of the end of the Weimar Republic. In the summer of 1932, the number of unemployed in the country reached six million. Since 1930, the country has been led by cabinets of ministers appointed by the Reich President without taking into account the opinion of Parliament.

Economic problems were accompanied by a radicalization of the political situation, which resulted in street clashes between the NSDAP and the KPD. In 1931, the right-wing forces of Germany united in the Harzburg Front, the NSDAP, after the Reichstag elections on July 31, 1932, became the largest party in parliament. On January 28, 1933, Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher announced his resignation.

On January 30, 1933, Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of the Reich. This event marked the end of the Weimar Republic.

[b]Third Reich

Main article: Third Reich

The regime that existed in Germany under the Nazis is called the Third Reich. On February 1, 1933, the Reichstag was dissolved. The presidential decree of February 4, 1933 became the basis for the ban on opposition newspapers and public speeches. Using the Reichstag fire as a pretext, Hitler launched mass arrests. Due to the lack of places in prisons, concentration camps were created. Re-elections were called.

From the elections to the Reichstag (March 5, 1933), the NSDAP emerged victorious. The votes cast for the communists were annulled. The new Reichstag, at its first meeting on March 23, retroactively approved Hitler's emergency powers.

Part of the intelligentsia fled abroad. All parties, except for the Nazis, were liquidated. However, right-wing party activists not only were not arrested, but many of them joined the NSDAP. Trade unions were disbanded and new ones were created in their place, fully controlled by the government. Strikes were forbidden, entrepreneurs were declared the Fuhrers of enterprises. Compulsory labor service was soon introduced.

In 1934, Hitler physically eliminated some of the top of his party ("Night of the Long Knives"), and also, taking advantage of the opportunity, some objectionable people who had nothing to do with the NSDAP.

Thanks to the end of the Great Depression, the destruction of all opposition and criticism, the elimination of unemployment, propaganda that played on national feelings, and later territorial acquisitions, Hitler increased his popularity. In addition, he achieved major successes in the economy. In particular, under Hitler, Germany came out on top in the world in the production of steel and aluminum.

In 1936, the Anti-Comintern Pact was signed between Germany and Japan. Italy joined in 1937, followed by Hungary, Manchukuo and Spain in 1939.

On November 9, 1938, a pogrom of Jews was carried out, known as Kristallnacht. Since that time, mass arrests and extermination of Jews began.

In 1938, Austria was captured, in 1939 - part of the Czech Republic, and then the whole of the Czech Republic.

[b] World War II

Main article: World War II

On September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany. During 1939-1941, Germany defeated Poland, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Greece, Yugoslavia. In 1941, the Nazis invaded the territory of the Soviet Union and occupied a significant part of its European territory.

In Germany, there was a growing shortage of labor. In all the occupied territories, civilian migrant workers were recruited. In the Slavic territories, mass deportation into slavery in Germany was also carried out. In France, forced recruitment of workers was carried out, whose position in Germany was intermediate between the position of civilians and slaves.

A regime of intimidation was established in the occupied territories. Gradually, the mass extermination of Jews began, and in some areas, the partial destruction of the Slavic population (as a rule, under the pretext of retribution for the actions of the partisans). In Germany and some occupied territories, the number of concentration camps, death camps and prisoner-of-war camps grew. In the latter, the situation of Soviet, Polish and Yugoslav prisoners of war differed little from the situation of concentration camp prisoners.

Cruelty against the civilian population caused the growth of the partisan movement in Poland, Belarus and Serbia. Gradually, a guerrilla war also unfolded in other occupied territories of the USSR and Slavic countries, as well as in Greece and France. In Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, the regime was softer, but there was also anti-Nazi resistance. Separate underground organizations also operated in Germany and Austria.

On July 20, 1944, the military carried out an unsuccessful attempt at an anti-Nazi coup with an assassination attempt on Hitler.

In 1944, the lack of food began to be felt by the Germans. Aviation of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition bombed the city. Hamburg and Dresden were almost completely destroyed. Due to the heavy losses of personnel in October 1944, a Volkssturm was created, in which old men and young men were mobilized. Werewolf detachments were prepared for future partisan and sabotage activities.

Germany after World War II

After World War II: The division of Germany (and Austria) into zones of occupation

[b] The occupation of Germany

Main article: Potsdam Agreement (1945)

Occupation zones

After the Second World War, the members of the anti-Hitler coalition, primarily the USA, the USSR, Great Britain, and later France, at first sought to promote a collective occupation policy. The tasks set in the development of this policy were demilitarization and the so-called "denazification". But already in the question of the interpretation of the concept of "democracy" the differences of opinion between the USSR on the one hand and the Western powers on the other became obvious.

The result was:

in the west - the Trizone of Germany or West Germany, since 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG),

in the east - the Soviet zone of Germany or East Germany, since 1949 the German Democratic Republic

[b] Federal Republic of Germany

Main article: Federal Republic of Germany (until 1990)

The Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed in 1949 on the territory of the British, American and French occupation zones. The capital of Germany was the city of Bonn. Thanks to the help of the Americans under the Marshall Plan, rapid economic growth was achieved in the 1950s (the German economic miracle), which lasted until 1965. To meet the need for cheap labor, Germany supported the influx of guest workers, mainly from Turkey.

Until 1969, the country was ruled by the CDU party (usually in a bloc with the CSU and less often with the FDP). In the 1950s, a number of emergency laws were developed, many organizations were banned, including the Communist Party, and professions were banned. In 1955 Germany joined NATO.

In 1969, the Social Democrats came to power. They recognized the inviolability of post-war borders, weakened emergency legislation, and carried out a number of social reforms. In the future, the Social Democrats and Christian Democrats alternated in power.

West Berlin

Main article: West Berlin

Since 1945, Berlin has been divided between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition into four occupation zones. The eastern zone, occupied by Soviet troops, later became the capital of the German Democratic Republic. In the three western zones, control was exercised, respectively, by the occupying authorities of the United States, Great Britain and France.

After the formation of the FRG and the GDR, both states declared their claims to sovereignty over West Berlin.

With the conclusion of the Quadripartite Agreement on September 3, 1971, the ratio of the FRG - West Berlin - GDR was put on a new legal basis. The occupation regime remained in West Berlin.

In 1990, West Berlin became part of a united Germany.

[b] German Democratic Republic

Main article: German Democratic Republic

The proclamation of the GDR took place five months later in response to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany on the territory of the three western occupation zones; on October 7, 1949, the Constitution of the GDR was proclaimed.

The USSR removed machinery and equipment from the GDR and levied reparations from the GDR. Only by 1950 did industrial production in the GDR reach the level of 1936. The Berlin crisis of 1953 led to the fact that instead of reparations, the USSR began to provide economic assistance to the GDR.

As proclaimed, the citizens of the GDR had all democratic rights and freedoms. Although the Socialist Unity Party of Germany occupied the dominant position in the country (its leading role was enshrined in the Constitution), four other parties existed alongside it for decades.

The rates of economic development of the GDR were lower than in the FRG, and the lowest among the Warsaw Pact states. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the GDR remained the highest among the Eastern European states. By the 1980s, the GDR had become a highly developed industrial country with intensive agriculture. In terms of industrial output, the GDR occupied the 6th place in Europe.

Berlin Wall

Main article: Berlin Wall

The absence of a clear physical border in Berlin led to frequent conflicts and a massive drain of specialists from the GDR. East Germans preferred to receive education in the GDR, where it was free, and to work in West Berlin or the FRG. In August 1961, the GDR authorities began building a guarded wall that physically separated West Berlin from the GDR. The Berlin Wall was largely destroyed in 1990.

Modern history of Germany

Main article: Germany

Gorbachev's reforms in the USSR were perceived with caution by the authorities of the GDR and with enthusiasm in the FRG. In 1989, tensions in the GDR began to increase. In the fall, long-term leader of the country Erich Honecker left his post as top party leader, his place was taken by the former leader of the Union of Free German Youth Egon Krenz. However, he did not stay at the head of state for long, only a few weeks. In early November, a grandiose demonstration began in Berlin, ending with the destruction of the Berlin Wall. This was the first step towards the unification of the two German states. Soon, the German mark of the FRG came into circulation on the territory of the GDR, and in August 1990, the Treaty on the Establishment of Unity was signed between the two parties.

After the reunification of the FRG and the GDR on October 3, 1990: the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). Since 1995, in the full name of the country in Russian, the word Germany has been in the nominative case.

der Tag der deutschen Vereinigung

History of Germany

Formation of the German state.

The German state was formed as a result of the collapse of the Frankish Empire. The German duchies conquered at different times were united under the rule of the Frankish kings and, according to the Verdun Treaty of 843, became part of the East Frankish kingdom, inherited by one of the sons of Louis the Pious - Louis the German. The Carolingian dynasty ended in Germany in 911. For a short time, Duke Conrad I of Franconia became king. But he failed to subjugate other dukes to his power and secure the throne for his dynasty. In 919, the magnates elected Henry I the Fowler as king, who laid the foundation for the Saxon dynasty.

Beginning of the Saxon dynasty.

Saxon rulers manage to protect their possessions from invasions for quite a long time; since the reign of the Swabian Duke Liudolf they have been the most powerful rulers in Germany. Before his death, the ailing Conrad I of Franconia passes on the attributes of German royalty to his grandson Henry I.

Henry I organizes the defense of the eastern provinces from the Hungarians and Slavs. He becomes the ancestor of the new Saxon dynasty. After the death of Henry I in 936, his son Otto ascended the throne.

The position of royal power in the country is still unstable, and Otto I, until 953, has to rely only on the help of his brother Henry, until his authority is recognized by all of Germany, while the dukes become faithful representatives of the central authorities in the field. Otto I is trying to put the church at the service of the state, generously endowing it with lands and introducing investiture. The influence of Otto I was facilitated by his decisive victory over the Hungarians in 955 on the Lech River near Augsburg, after which the Hungarians stop their raids on German lands and stop on the Danube plain.

The reign of Otto I the Great.

In 951, Otto makes the first trip to fragmented Italy. The reason for the campaign was the call for help from Adelgeida, the widow of King Lothair II, imprisoned by the local ruler Berengariy. Otto frees Adelgeida, marries her and proclaims himself King of Italy. But due to circumstances, I am forced to entrust the management of the country to the same Berengaria

In 961, Otto makes a new campaign in Italy. This time he defeated Berengaria at the request of Pope John XII. On February 2, 962, the pope crowns Otto I in Rome with the imperial crown. Otto I recognizes the pope's claims to secular possessions in Italy, but the emperor is proclaimed the supreme lord of these possessions. The obligatory oath of the pope to the emperor is also introduced, which is an expression of the subordination of the papacy to the empire. Thus, in 962, the Holy Roman Empire arose.

The emperor administers justice in the kingdom of the Franks, calls for the conversion of the Polish prince Mieszko to Christianity, achieves the acceptance of the Gospel by the Hungarians and undertakes many campaigns in the Slavic lands. One of the clearest indicators of imperial power is the beginning of the production of silver coins since 970 from ore mined in the Harz mountains. Finally, Otto, who himself ousted the Byzantines from Italy, marries his son to the daughter of the Greek emperor Theophano.

By the time of his death in 973, Otto the Great is the most powerful ruler in Europe. But his empire, which included, in addition to Germany, part of Italy, was not an exact copy of the former empire of Charlemagne.

Unfulfilled plans of Otto III.

In one of the campaigns in Italy, Emperor Otto II died. There comes the regency of the empresses, Adelgeida and Theophano, who ruled on behalf of the four-year-old Otto III.

Otto III, brought up in Byzantine traditions, dreams of uniting the Christian world into one whole under the rule of the pope and the emperor. In 996, he was crowned in Rome, where his residence is located in the palace on the Aventine hill. In 999, he erected his teacher Herbert of Aurignac, who took the name of Sylvester II, to the papal throne. The premature death of Otto III in 1002, and soon after of Sylvester in 1003, put an end to their ambitious plans.

Politics of the kings of the Franconian dynasty.

In the 11th century, large feudal lords sought to create autonomous possessions and make royal power completely dependent on themselves. In order to attract petty feudal lords to his side, Conrad II secured their hereditary rights to their fiefs. The kings of the Franconian dynasty tried to create a permanent army of knights and ministerials (service people), built burghs in their domain and placed garrisons from ministerials in them in order to be able to suppress conspiracies and rebellions. At the same time, the royal government tried to win over service people, church and secular magnates, which it often succeeded in doing. This policy ensured in the first half of the 11th century not only a temporary increase in power, but also contributed to the rise of the ministeriality.

Kingship reached considerable power under Henry III. This king strongly supported the movement for church reform, hoping in this way to weaken the episcopate and maintain dominance over the church. But in reality it turned out the opposite, the reform strengthened the church hierarchy and weakened its dependence on the imperial power. Under Henry III, the papacy was still dependent on the emperor. The king unceremoniously interfered in the affairs of the Roman Curia, dismissed and appointed popes.

Henry III's successor Henry IV succeeded to the throne at the age of six. The nobility took advantage of guardianship to seize actual power in the state and appropriate domain lands. Having reached adulthood, Henry IV tried to return the stolen property and curb the willfulness of the nobility, relying on petty vassals and ministerials.

Saxon uprising.

The mass uprising of peasants and petty nobility in 1073-1075 in Saxony and Thuringia against King Henry IV was called the "Saxon uprising". The rebels opposed the system of measures of Henry IV - the construction of fortresses and the placement of garrisons from ministerials, mainly from Swabia and Franconia, the imposition of various duties on the local population, etc. - aimed at strengthening the royal domain in Saxony and Thuringia.

40-60 thousand people took part in the movement. Initially, the rebels achieved some success, captured and destroyed a number of fortresses; the king was forced to flee in August 1073 from the besieged Harzburg. Subsequently, Henry IV was supported by the feudal lords of the western and southern regions of Germany, as well as the city of Worms. On February 2, 1074, the leaders of the Saxon uprising made peace with Henry IV. The peasants, left without leadership, were defeated at Homburg on June 9, 1095. After the suppression of the uprising in Saxony, the process of drawing peasants into feudal dependence accelerated. The feudal lords almost did not suffer, only some fiefs were confiscated and some were subjected to short imprisonment.

Henry I the Fowler (c. 876 - 936)

Saxon duke from the Liudolfing family, king of Germany since 919, founder of the Saxon dynasty. The nickname "Birdcatcher" is based on the legendary story that the news of his election as king caught Henry I catching birds. He paid attention and relied mainly on the lands of his domain (Saxony and possessions in Westphalia), rather than on Germany. He achieved recognition of his power by the tribal dukes, for which he granted some of them (the dukes of Swabia and Bavaria) significant privileges - in fact, they were almost independent of the king. He transformed the army, created a strong knightly cavalry. He built a number of burgs in East Saxony to fight the Hungarian raids, defeated the Hungarians on March 15, 933 at Riad on the Unstrut River. Began the capture of the Polabian Slavs. In 925 he annexed Lorraine. The policies of Henry I prepared for the strengthening of royal power under his son Otto I.

Otto I the Great (912 - 973)

King of Germany from 936, Holy Roman Emperor from 962, son of Henry I. To strengthen the central government and limit the separatism of the dukes, relying on an alliance with the church, which he tried to put at the service of the state. To do this, he granted the so-called "Ottonian privileges" to bishoprics and abbeys, granted them power over the territory, and gave broad state powers. All episcopal and abbey posts were actually at the disposal of Otto I, he also owned the right to investiture. He strengthened the margraviates and palatine counties, split up the large duchies and put his relatives at the head of them, which put the big dukes in the position of royal officials and strengthened the royal power in Germany. The church policy of Otto I was completed in an effort to establish control over the papacy. In 951, he launched the first campaign in Italy, captured Lombardy and, having married Adelheide, the widow of King Lothair, took the title of King of the Lombards. In 961, Otto I made a new campaign to Rome and on February 2, 962, received the imperial crown from the hands of the pope, which marked the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. He actually subjugated the papacy to his power. However, his attempt to subjugate southern Italy in 967-971 was unsuccessful. Otto I actively attracted ecclesiastical persons to carry out diplomatic, administrative, military and public service. Such an ecclesiastical organization, placed at the service of the royal power and becoming its support, was called the "imperial church".

Otto I made campaigns against the Polabian Slavs and created two large stamps on the conquered lands. With the aim of spreading Christianity in the Slavic lands, he founded in 968 the Archbishopric of Magdeburg. He fought against the Hungarians, defeated them in 955 on the Lech River near Augsburg. Already during his lifetime, Otto I received the title "Great".

Otto II (955 - 983)

King and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire since 973; son of Otto I. He fought against the strengthening of the duchies, suppressed the rebellion of the Duke of Bavaria in 976, and strengthened the episcopal system created by his father. He invaded southern Italy in 981, met with resistance from the Arabs and Byzantium, and in 982 was defeated by them at Cotron in Calabria. It was the impetus for the performance of the Danes and Polabian Slavs, who were freed from German rule thanks to the uprising of 983.

Otto III (980 - 1002)

King of Germany from 983, Holy Roman Emperor from 996; son of Otto II; had the nickname "Wonder of the World". Until he came of age in 995, his mother Theophano (until 991) and grandmother Adelgeida were regents. He was constantly in Italy, trying to restore the "world empire" and make Rome the capital of this empire, dreamed of uniting the entire Christian world under the rule of the Roman emperor.

Conrad II (c. 990 - 1039)

German king from 1024, Holy Roman Emperor from 1027, founder of the Franconian dynasty. In contrast to the growing secular and spiritual magnates, he sought to rely on a numerous layer of petty feudal lords, ministerials. He forbade the feudal nobility to arbitrarily confiscate the fiefs of vassals, secured them in the hereditary possession of the latter. The policy of the king contributed to the strengthening of royal power. In 1031, he captured Upper Lusatia from the Polish king Mieszko II. In 1032-1034, he annexed the kingdom of Burgundy (Arelat) to the empire.

Henry III the Black (1017 - 1056)

German King from 1039, Holy Roman Emperor from 1046; son of Conrad II. The main pillars of Henry III were ministerials and chivalry. He made a campaign in Italy in 1046-1047, during which he deposed three rival popes; several times appointed candidates for the papacy. He patronized the Cluniac church reform, which contributed to the strengthening of papal power. He made the Czech Republic and Hungary dependent on the empire, subjugated the Duke of Lorraine. Henry III sold fiefs for money, which set a number of feudal lords against him.

Henry IV (1050 - 1106)

German King from 1056, Holy Roman Emperor from 1084; son of Henry III. During his early childhood (until 1065), the German princes became stronger, so when he came of age, he had to strengthen royal power, which led to the Saxon uprising in 1073-1075. Having suppressed it, Henry IV opposed the intention of Pope Gregory VII to subjugate the German clergy and thereby weaken the royal power. Henry IV's struggle with the pope for the right to church investiture in Germany and northern Italy led in 1076 to a clash: at a meeting of the highest German clergy in Worms, Henry IV announced the deposition of Gregory VII. In response, the pope excommunicated Henry IV from the church, deprived him of his royal dignity, and freed the king's subjects from the oath to his sovereign. Under pressure from the princes, Henry IV in January 1077 was forced to go to repentance to the pope in the castle of Canossu in Northern Italy: having removed all the signs of royal dignity, hungry, barefoot, in one sackcloth, with his head uncovered, he stood in front of the castle for three days. Finally, Henry IV was admitted to the pope and on his knees begged his forgiveness. In 1080 he was again excommunicated, but in 1084 he took possession of Rome and was crowned by his protege Clement III (antipope). Gregory VII fled south to the Normans and soon died. In 1090-1097, Henry IV made a third, unsuccessful, campaign in Italy. In 1104, his son Heinrich rebelled against him, becoming close to his father's opponents - the pope and a number of German princes. Henry IV was captured by his son, fled, but died while preparing for war with his son.

Henry V (1081 - 1125)

German King from 1106, Holy Roman Emperor from 1111; son of Henry IV. At the end of 1104 he raised an uprising against his father. In 1122, he concluded a compromise Concordat of Worms with Pope Calixtus II, which ended the struggle for investiture. With the death of Henry V, the Franconian dynasty ended.

Fight for investment. Church reform.

The Church is in the hands of secular people.

Since the 10th century, the decline of central power and the rise of the feudal system have threatened the church with dangerous consequences. Promising to protect the church, those in power appropriate its wealth for themselves, dispose of abbeys and bishoprics not without profit, distribute the titles of prelates to members of their family. The church falls completely into the hands of secular rulers.

For their part, some priests, attracted by material goods, evaluate this or that office or rank according to the benefit that it can bring. They buy and sell church offices without hesitation, and demand payment for worship services, a practice known as simony.

The number of priests who have a call from above is rapidly falling. Many are married or have a concubine, and Archbishop Manassa of Reims even regrets that his duties include the celebration of Mass. The papacy itself became the object of rivalry between the Roman families. During the first half of the 10th century, the senator Theophylact and his daughter Marotia erected and deposed popes. A century later, one of the counts fights for the papacy until Emperor Henry III restores order in 1046.

Roots of Church Reform.

In this state of affairs, the first centers of reform appear in the first half of the 11th century. The famous ascetic bishop Peter Damiani, who became a cardinal in 1057, sharply condemns the vices of the then clergy. His followers denounce simony.

Gradually, the idea is born that in order to get out of the crisis, the church must get rid of the dominance of secular people. Thanks to this, in the 10th century, a monastery was founded in Cluny, whose abbots led the Cluny movement for the reform of monastic life and the church. The church must gain freedom, which requires a clear distinction between the clergy and secular people, their duties and way of life. Marriage remains for secular people, which by the end of the 11th century becomes a real social institution, and for the clergy who have dedicated themselves to serving God, celibacy, mandatory celibacy. The lifestyle of the latter should correspond to the life of monks in poor communities.

In addition, it was necessary that the reform of the church be universal and come from the pope, the vicar of God on earth. Since 1046, emperors have been elevating worthy people to the papal throne, people from the Lorraine reformers.

Pope Gregory VII.

On April 13, 1059, Pope Nicholas II promulgated a decree according to which only the cardinals of the Roman Church had the right to choose the pope. The papacy, liberated after imperial guardianship, can set about the reform of the church and, above all, the consecration to the bishops.

This mission is entrusted to the former monk Hildebrand, who became the archbishop of the Roman church and was an adviser to the reforming popes for 15 years. He ascended the papal throne on April 22, 1073 and took the name Gregory VII. As an authoritative figure wholly absorbed in the service of God (he will be called "the servant of the servants of God"), he believes that the freedom of the church requires strict and centralized government.

In 1075, at the Synod of Rome, Pope Gregory VII forbade the secular authorities to appoint bishops, that is, deprived them of the right to investiture, and also forbade the clergy to receive any office from the hands of secular rulers. The actions of Gregory VII provoked the protest of Henry IV, who declared the pope a usurper and a false monk. Gregory VII responded to this with an ecclesiastical curse, releasing his subjects from the oath taken by Henry IV.

Humiliation at Canossa.

The struggle flares up even more when Henry IV appoints his chaplain Bishop of Milan. Gregory VII excommunicates the king. Henry deposes the pope, and he, in turn, in February 1076, the king.

German princes support the pope and want to replace the king. Henry IV refuses to comply. But he gives up, confessing in the castle of Canossa, a village in northern Italy. There, in January 1077, Gregory gives him remission of sins.

Heinrich tries to resume the fight. Then Gregory excommunicates him again and recognizes the new king, chosen by the German princes. But on June 25, 1080, the German bishops depose Gregory and elect Antipope Clement III. Henry IV captures Rome, where Clement III crowns him emperor on March 31, 1084, while Gregory VII flees. He died at Salerno in 1085.

The conflict would last for about 40 years, until in 1122 Henry V, son of Henry IV, entered into the Concordat of Worms with Pope Calixtus II, which provided the emperor with the right to participate in the election of bishops and abbots.

The Church is the head of Christianity.

In 1139, 1179 and 1215, the Lateran Councils regulate the life of the church and the leadership of the faithful, determine church discipline, the duties of believers, the order of worship and church ceremonies.

The Church defended its right to lead Christianity. "Rome is the head of the world," says the council in 1139. But Frederick I Barbarossa, starting in 1155, is again trying to take over the clergy. Claiming that he received his power from God, declares his right to rule the world and tries to establish power in Italy. He will face the Pope, the defender of the northern Italian cities, united in the northern Lombard League. In the fight against the League, Emperor Frederick was defeated at Legnano in 1176 and signed a treaty in Venice in 1177, in which he recognized the sovereignty of the pope in church affairs and refused to support the antipopes. The plan to restore the supremacy of the emperor over the papacy did not materialize.

The reign of Lothair II / 1125-1137 /.

After the death of the childless Henry V in 1124, the German princes gathered in Mainz to elect a new king. There were three candidates: Friedrich Hohenstaufen, Duke of Swabia; Lothair, Duke of Saxony; Leopold, Margrave of Austria. The last two asked voters not to place a heavy burden of power on them. On the contrary, Frederick considered himself alone worthy of the crown and did not hide this conviction. Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, who could not expect anything good for himself from the Hohenstaufen, close relatives of the late emperor, asked all three candidates whether each of them would willingly obey the one chosen by the princes. Lothair and Leopold answered in the affirmative. Frederick, however, hesitated to answer and left the meeting on the pretext that he needed to consult with friends. This angered the princes, and, at the suggestion of Adalbert, they gave their votes to Lothair, without waiting for the return of Frederick. Just before the start of the voting, Lothair fell to his knees and with tears asked the princes to exclude him from the list of candidates. And when he was nevertheless chosen, he refused to accept the crown. But Adalbert and the papal legates persuaded the princes not to accept his refusal.

The Hohenstaufen, deceived in their ambitious hopes, became enemies of Lothair. Soon, open hostility broke out between them and the emperor. As the closest relatives of Henry V, they inherited all his lands. But Henry at one time confiscated many fiefs and family estates of princes who rebelled against him. Friedrich considered them his property. But at the very first imperial congress in Regensburg in 1125, Lothair turned to the princes with the question: should the confiscated estates be considered the private property of the king, or should they be treated as state lands. The congress decided that they belonged to the state and could not be alienated into private hands. Friedrich refused to recognize this decision, which deprived him of many lands. The next congress, held in Strasbourg, declared him a rebel. Lothair understood that the war with the powerful Frederick would be difficult, and took care of the allies. He entered into an alliance with the powerful family of the Bavarian Dukes of Welf. For the head of their family, Duke Henry, he gave his only daughter Gertrude. After that, the Duke of Bavaria became a loyal ally of the emperor. Together they besieged Nuremberg, which belonged to the Hohenstaufen, but could not take it.

The war against the Swabian duke was soon joined by mutinies in Burgundy and Lower Lorraine. In 1129, after a stubborn struggle, Lothair took Speyer, and the following year, together with the dukes of Bavaria, Carinthia and Bohemia, he again approached Nuremberg. This time the city had to surrender. In 1131, Lothair pacified the Wends and repelled the attack of the Danes.

Deciding that now was the time for the coronation, Lothair in 1132 moved with a small army to Italy. Verona and Milan closed the gates in front of him. The emperor laid siege to Cremona, stood under it for several weeks, but could not take it. Soon, Pope Innocent II, expelled from Rome by his rival Anaclet II, came to him. Around Easter 1133, Lothair approached Rome. On April 30, he entered the city and occupied the Aventine Hill. But the castle of the Holy Angel and all the fortresses of the Roman region remained with the adherents of Anaclete. For several weeks, the emperor tried to break through to St. Peter's Cathedral, but all his attacks were repelled. I had to make a coronation in the Lateran temple. In June Lothair returned to Germany.

Meanwhile, the war in Germany was going well. In 1134, Henry of Bavaria took Ulm, the last important stronghold of those possessions that the Hohenstaufen fought to maintain. The war spread directly to the possessions of Frederick - Lothair with a large army invaded Swabia and devastated it. The Hohenstaufen saw that the time had come to admit defeat. In March 1135, the recalcitrant Frederick appeared at the Bamberg Congress, fell at the feet of the emperor and swore allegiance to him. Lothar forgave him and confirmed him as Duke of Swabia. A few months later, Friedrich's brother Conrad also reconciled with Lothair. At the next congress in Magdeburg, the Danish King Eric and the Duke of Poland Bolesław Krivousty took the fealty oath to the emperor. Lothair established a general truce for 10 years.

In August 1136, Lothair set out for Italy for the second time. This time he was accompanied by a large army, since all the princes took part in the campaign. In Verona and Milan, the emperor was received with honor. Other Lombard cities hesitated to submit. But after Lothair took Garda and Guastalla by storm, they also humbled themselves before him. Lothair conquered Pavia, Turin, took Piacenza by storm, and after a stubborn siege, Bologna. In January 1137, he moved against the Sicilian king Roger, who had mastered all of southern Italy. Lothair himself occupied all the Adriatic cities from Ancona to Bari. His son-in-law, Henry of Bavaria, meanwhile operated on the western side of the Apennines and took possession of all the cities from Viterbo to Capua and Benevent. Roger, not accepting the fight, fled to Sicily. Thus was restored the power of the empire over all of Italy. On the way back, Lothair fell ill and died in the village of Breitenwang. Before his death, he declared his son-in-law Henry the Duke of Saxony and gave him the signs of kingship.

The reign of Conrad III /1138-1152/.

After the death of Emperor Lothair II, who left no sons, the German princes had to elect a new king. There were two applicants - the son-in-law of the deceased Heinrich Welf, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and Conrad, to whom his elder brother Friedrich, Duke of Swabia, willingly ceded the right to represent the Hohenstaufen family. If the elections had taken place at a general congress, Henry would certainly have taken the lead, so the Hohenstaufens preferred to act by cunning. Two months before the appointed date, the papal legate Albert and Archbishop Arnold of Cologne convened a congress of nobles in Koblenz, which was attended mainly by supporters of the Hohenstaufen. Here, on March 7, Conrad was proclaimed king, and a week later he was crowned in Aachen. This choice, however, was recognized by all sovereign princes. Heinrich Welf hesitated until July with an expression of humility, but seeing that he was left alone, he sent Konrad the signs of royal dignity, which he had previously kept. In August, the rivals met at a congress in Augsburg. But this meeting did not lead to peace. Conrad announced that state laws did not allow one person to own two duchies, and therefore Henry must renounce Saxony. Welf replied that he would defend his possessions with weapons. Fearing an attack, Conrad hurriedly left Augsburg, and at the next congress in Würzburg, Heinrich was declared a rebel. This event was the beginning of a long-term war, once again splitting Germany into two parties.

In 1139, Margrave Albrecht the Bear, whom Konrad proclaimed Duke of Saxony, and Leopold, Margrave of Austria, who received Bavaria from the emperor, unsuccessfully tried to seize their duchies. Both the Bavarians and the Saxons unanimously stood for the Welfs. Henry defeated both of his opponents, and then forced the emperor himself to retreat. But in October, he suddenly fell ill and died, leaving behind a 10-year-old son, Henry the Lion. After that, the war went more successfully for the king. In 1140, Conrad laid siege to Weinsberg, the ancestral castle of the Welfs, and under it defeated Welf, the uncle of the little duke. Then, after a difficult siege, he forced the defenders of the castle to surrender. He ordered all the men to be executed, and allowed the women to leave, taking with them what they could carry on their shoulders. Then the women took their husbands on their shoulders and left the castle. Friedrich did not want to let the husbands through and said that permission was given to carry property, not people. But Conrad, laughing, answered his brother: "The king's word is unchanged." So the legend says, but there is a possibility that this was actually the case.

After two years, peace was concluded. In 1142, at the Frankfurt Congress, Henry the Lion renounced Bavaria and was confirmed in the rank of Duke of Saxony.

At the end of 1146, the emperor was fascinated by the sermons of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, and at a congress in Speyer he vowed to take part in the Second Crusade. More than 70 thousand knights gathered under his banner for the war against the infidels. In early September 1147, the Byzantine emperor Manuel took them to Asia. Burdened with a huge convoy and ill-organized, the army slowly moved into Phrygia. On October 26, when the crusaders reached Dorileum, the Turkish cavalry appeared. The knights immediately rushed to the enemy in a gallop, but only in vain tired their horses. The Turks evaded the first onslaught, but when the weary knights stopped, they boldly attacked them and inflicted a severe defeat on the Germans. Then the mood of the crusaders completely changed. Conrad gathered a council of war, at which it was decided to return to the sea and wait for the French crusaders, who, led by their king Louis VII, followed. This retreat completed the defeat of the crusaders. The Turks attacked their army from all sides, bombarding them with arrows. Conrad and the princes bravely fought the enemy hand to hand several times, the emperor was wounded, but could not save his army. The losses of the Germans were huge, besides, all the supplies went out. Hunger and disease destroyed several tens of thousands of people. Many people died already in Nicaea from hunger and wounds. Of the survivors, most returned to Constantinople and to their homeland. Only a small detachment, led by King Conrad, had enough determination to make a new attempt to continue the crusade.

Soon an army of French crusaders approached Nicaea. Louis greeted Conrad very cordially and both monarchs decided to act together. Through Pergamon and Smyrna, the crusaders reached Ephesus. But then the hardships suffered made themselves felt, and Conrad became seriously ill. He returned to Constantinople to rest and spent the first months of 1148 here in noisy festivities at the Byzantine court. Having corrected his health as much as possible, the emperor landed in April with a small army in Akkona. In Jerusalem, Conrad was also received in the most flattering manner. The young king Baldwin III persuaded him not to start the siege of Edessa, which was actually the goal of the Second Crusade, but offered the Crusaders a campaign against Damascus. King Louis soon joined this enterprise. But, despite the fact that the crusaders had enough forces, the siege of Damascus in July ended in nothing because of the strife between the crusaders and the Palestinian Christians. In September, Conrad left the Holy Land and returned first to Constantinople, and from there in the spring of 1149 he went to Germany. Shortly after his return, he fell ill. In early 1150, his only son Henry died. Therefore, dying, the emperor recommended that his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, Duke of Swabia, be elected king.

The reign of Frederick I Barbarossa (c. 1125 - 1190)

Frederick I Barbarossa (Redbeard) - German king since 1152, from the Staufen dynasty, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire since 1155.

He made 5 military campaigns in Italy (1154 - 1155, 1158 - 1162, 1163 - 1164, 1166 - 1168, 1174 - 1178), the main purpose of which was to subjugate the northern and Tuscan city-republics, as well as the pope and the Papal State.

During the first Italian campaign, he helped the pope suppress the uprising of Arnold of Brescia in Rome (1143 - 1155), for which the grateful pope handed him the imperial crown.

In 1158 - 1176 he tried to permanently subjugate the cities of Northern and Central Italy (the dependence of the cities of Lombardy and Tuscany on the empire before the campaigns of Frederick Barbarossa was nominal). During the second Italian campaign, in 1158, he gathered representatives of the commune cities in the Roncal Valley (near Piacenza) and passed a decision to deprive the cities of the rights of self-government and transfer them under the authority of the podest. Thus, the northern Italian cities had to submit completely to the emperor. Milan, who opposed this decision, was taken by Frederick Barbarossa (after a two-year siege) and completely destroyed. The territory of the city was plowed.

This massacre of Frederick Barbarossa caused an uprising of two cities of Northern Italy, led by Milan, which in 1167 created an alliance against the German emperor - the so-called Lombard League, which was also supported by Pope Alexander III. After a long war with the Lombard League, Frederick Barbarossa was defeated at the Battle of Legnano in 1176 by the combined forces of the league and the Papal State. According to the Peace of Constance in 1183, he renounced his claims to Italy, which in fact meant the restoration of the self-government of the cities of Italy.

The reign of Frederick I Barbarossa is the period of the most outward splendor of the empire. He pursued a policy of centralization within the country (generally unsuccessful); he sought to strengthen his power over the princes, for which he took a number of measures (for example, he obliged all feudal feudal lords to serve the emperor in military service - the Lena Law of 1158); centralized vassal relations; crushed the fiefs of the princes and tried to create a continuous royal domain in the south-west of Germany. Pursuing such a policy, he relied mainly on ministerials.

In 1186, he annexed South Italy and Sicily to the Staufen possessions, successfully marrying his son Henry to Constance of Sicily.

He led (together with the French king Philip II Augustus and the English king Richard I the Lionheart) the Third Crusade, during which he drowned on June 10, 1190 in the mountain river Salefa in Cilicia (Asia Minor).

The reign of Henry VI the Cruel / 1165-1197 /

Henry VI - German king since 1190, Holy Roman Emperor since 1191, from the Staufen dynasty, son of Frederick I Barbarossa. In 1186 he married the heiress of the Sicilian king Constance, annexed the Kingdom of Sicily to the possessions of the Staufen, but established himself there only in 1194 after a hard struggle. He made plans to create a "world empire", subjugate Byzantium, put him in vassal dependence on the empire of the English king Richard I the Lionheart. He strove to make the power of emperors in Germany hereditary, which caused resistance from the papacy and a number of German princes.

The reign of Otto IV /1176 - 1218/

Otto IV of Brunswick - King of Germany since 1198, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire since 1209, from the house of Welf; son of Henry the Lion, nephew of Richard I the Lionheart, Count of Poitou. He was nominated by the Welfs as an "anti-king" in opposition to Philip of Swabia in 1197, after the death of Henry VI. He finally established himself on the throne of Germany in 1208 after a long struggle with Philip of Swabia. Supported by Pope Innocent III. He tried to seize the Kingdom of Sicily (in 1210), which was under the rule of the pope, because of which the pope excommunicated Otto IV from the church and nominated Frederick II Staufen (son of Henry VI) to the German throne. In fact, he lost power after the defeat at Buvin in 1214.

Germany in the first half of the 13th century.

In 1212, Pope Innocent III helped Frederick II Staufen (1212-1250) take the German throne. By this time, the German princes had already strengthened their independence to such an extent that there could be no question of their real subordination to the imperial power. Therefore, Frederick II - one of the most educated monarchs of the Middle Ages - did not set such goals. He seeks to maintain the normal supremacy over the princes and to obtain their military support in order to maintain power over Italy. Unlike his predecessors, he did not seek an alliance with individual princes or princely groups, but tried to pacify the entire princely estate, securing for him, in fact, already acquired and new privileges. It was at this time that the highest state prerogatives of the princes were legislated. According to the "Privileges to the Princes of the Church" published in 1220, bishops received the right to mint coins, collect duties and establish cities and markets. Even more significant privileges were received by all German princes by decrees of 1231-1232. The emperor renounced his right to build cities and fortresses and establish mints if this would harm the interests of the princes. The princes were recognized as having an unlimited right to jurisdiction over all matters, they could issue their own laws. Zemstvo cities remained in the complete power of the princes. Any unions of townspeople, including craft workshops, were forbidden. Cities were deprived of the right to self-government and the creation of intercity unions.

But the decrees directed against the cities remained only on paper. The cities, in a hard struggle with the princes, defended their rights to unions and self-government. These decrees inflicted more damage on the royal power than on the cities, since they finally deprived it of reliable allies in clashes with the princes. By acquiring the support of the German princes at such a high price, Frederick II hoped to subdue the northern Italian cities and all of Italy with their help. But such an intention had even less chance of success than in the time of Frederick Barbarossa.

Having consolidated his power in the Sicilian kingdom, Frederick II began to strengthen his position in northern Italy. The danger of enslavement forced the northern Italian cities to restore a military alliance - the Lombard League, to which the pope again joined. Despite the victory over the league at the battle of Kortenovo, Frederick II failed to force the cities to lay down their arms. The following year he was defeated at the siege of the city of Brescia. The League strengthened its military forces and was ready to repel any attack of the emperor.

Even more unsuccessful was Frederick II's attempt to subdue the papacy. The Pope successfully used his unfailing weapon of excommunication. The emperor was constantly under the papal curse. To give more weight to his actions, Pope Gregory IX announced the convening of an ecumenical council in Rome. But Frederick II captured the prelates heading for the cathedral and blockaded Rome. Gregory IX soon died in the besieged city. His successor Innocent IV, with whom the emperor tried to reconcile at the cost of great concessions, secretly left Rome and went to French Lyon, where he convened an ecumenical council, at which Frederick II was excommunicated and deprived of all honors and titles. The appeal of the cathedral called on the population to disobey the heretic king, and the princes to elect a new king in his place. The German nobility abandoned Frederick II and elected the anti-king Heinrich Raspe. In Italy, war resumed with the Lombard League. In the midst of these events, Frederick II suddenly died.

His successor Conrad IV (1250-1254) unsuccessfully continued the struggle against the papal curia and the Lombard League. At the call of the pope, the brother of the French king Charles of Anjou landed in Sicily. In the war with the pope and the Angevins, all representatives of the Staufen dynasty perished. In 1268, the last of them, 16-year-old Conradin, was beheaded in the square in Naples. Southern Italy and Sicily passed to the Angevin dynasty. Germany entered a 20-year interregnum.

Interregnum and the beginning of the reign of the Habsburg dynasty.

During the interregnum of 1254-1273, territorial fragmentation set in in Germany. Although the imperial throne did not remain vacant, there was in fact no supreme power in the country, and local territorial rulers became completely independent sovereigns. The first place among them was occupied by the electors - the princes, who enjoyed the right to elect the emperor.

The anarchy that prevailed in the country brought losses to the feudal lords themselves. That is why four of the seven Electors decided to make an agreement to elect a new king. In 1273, the electors elected to the throne Rudolf Habsburg, who bore the title of count, but did not belong to the estate of imperial princes. The Habsburgs had relatively small possessions in southern Alsace and northern Switzerland. The electors expected that the new king, who did not have sufficient funds, would not be able to pursue an independent policy and would carry out their will. But their hopes were dashed. Rudolf Habsburg used imperial power to enrich his house and create a large hereditary principality.

He tried to take possession of the lands that previously belonged to the Staufen domain and appropriated by other princes, but failed. Then the Habsburgs began a war against the Czech king Przemysl II, as a result of which the Czech king died, and the lands belonging to him - Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Kraina - passed into the possession of the Habsburgs. Rudolf Habsburg also increased his holdings in Alsace and Switzerland.

The strengthening of the Habsburg dynasty as a result of the seizure of Austrian lands made it undesirable for the princes to stay on the throne of the empire. After the death of Rudolf Habsburg, the electors did not want to transfer the throne to his son Albrecht and elected one of the minor German princes, Adolf of Nassau, as king, forcing them to sign the so-called electoral capitulation, which put the king under the complete control of the elector princes. In 1298 he was deposed by the Electors for violating this "surrender".

After a short stay on the throne of the representative of the Habsburg dynasty - Albrecht I in 1308, one of the petty princes of Germany, the ruler of the county of Luxembourg, Henry VII (1308 - 1313), was elected king, who followed the example of the Habsburgs: marrying his son John to the heiress of the Czech throne, Elizabeth , Henry of Luxembourg secured hereditary rights to the Kingdom of Bohemia and the title of Elector of the Empire for his dynasty.

Henry VII resumed campaigns in Italy. In 1310, he marched with troops over the Alps to get money and the imperial crown in Rome. The sharp struggle of the warring parties in the cities of Italy ensured the success of the campaign at first, but the robberies and violence of the Germans caused uprisings in the Italian cities. During the war, Henry VII died, and the senseless campaign ended in failure.

The intensified struggle for political dominance between the big princes led to the election of two kings to the throne at once - Frederick of Habsburg and Ludwig of Bavaria. The rivals started a war, the winner of which was Ludwig of Bavaria (1314 - 1347). Like his predecessors, he used his power to expand his home, in which he achieved considerable success. But this did not strengthen his position in the empire, but only increased the number of his opponents. Ludwig of Bavaria repeated the predatory campaign in Italy. Pope John XXII of Avignon excommunicated him from the church and imposed an interdict on Germany. However, the campaign was initially successful. Relying on the opponents of the Avignon pope in Italy, Ludwig occupied Rome and placed the antipope on the throne, who placed the imperial crown on his head. But then the usual story was repeated: an attempt by the Germans to collect a tax from the population caused an uprising of the Roman townspeople; the emperor and his protege, the antipope, fled the city.

Dissatisfied with the strengthening of the Bavarian house, the electors elected the Czech king Charles Luxemburg to the throne of the empire during Ludwig's lifetime. Charles IV (1347 - 1378) was primarily concerned with strengthening his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia. In an effort to establish calm in the empire, he made concessions to the princes and in 1356 published the Golden Bull. According to this legislative act, the complete political independence of the electors was recognized, the princely polyarchy that existed in Germany was confirmed and the established procedure for electing the emperor was legitimized by a collegium of 7 princes-electors, which included 3 church persons / the archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier / and 4 secular ones / the king of Bohemia, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg/. The emperor was elected by majority vote in Frankfurt am Main. The election was to be held at the initiative of the Archbishop of Mainz. The bull defined the duties of the electors and sanctioned not only the old, but also the new privileges of the princes. It assigned them the right to develop mining, minting coins, collecting customs duties, the right to a higher court, etc. At the same time, it legalized private wars, except for the war of a vassal against a lord, and banned alliances between cities. This bull greatly contributed to the political fragmentation of Germany.

The Luxembourg dynasty lasted on the imperial throne (with a break) until 1437. In 1437, imperial power finally passed to the House of Habsburg. Under Frederick III (1440 - 1493), a number of imperial territories came under the rule of other states. Denmark took possession of Schleswig and Holstein in 1469, Provence was annexed to France. At the end of his reign, Frederick III lost even hereditary possessions - Austria, Styria and Carinthia, conquered by the Hungarian king Matthias Corvin.

However, the complete collapse of the empire did not happen. At the end of the 15th century, the position of the Habsburgs was strengthened. As a result of the collapse of the Burgundian state, the empire temporarily annexed the Netherlands and Franche-Comté, legally this was formalized by the marriage between Maximilian I of Habsburg and Mary of Burgundy. And in 1526, the Habsburgs re-annexed a significant part of Hungary and Austria.

History of Bavaria.

Long before the new era and before the arrival of the Romans on these lands, the ancient Celts lived on the territory of present-day Bavaria. And only after the departure of the Roman legions, in the 5th century AD, these places were settled by people from Bohemia, which at that time bore the name of Boyerland. Therefore, both they and the Ostrogoths, Lombards and Thuringians who later settled here began to be called Bayovars, then Bavarians and, finally, Bavarians, and the country itself - Bavaria. After the creation of the Holy Roman Empire, the Bavarian dukes really claimed power in it. But only Ludwig IV of Bavaria, who belonged to the Wittelsbach dynasty, managed to receive the crown of the emperor in 1314. The next representative of this family, who managed to prove himself in the political arena, was Duke Maximilian. During his reign, one of the most difficult periods for Europe fell - the Thirty Years' War of 1618 - 1648.

After the followers of Protestantism united in the Union in 1608, the Catholics, in turn, created a League, headed by Maximilian. With his commander Tilly, he wins the first battle of the Thirty Years' War - the battle of White Mountain. But soon luck changed the winners. The Catholics were defeated, the Swedish troops captured Munich. On October 6, 1648, Maximilian inflicted another defeat on the Swedes in the Dachau region, although this battle could no longer solve anything. For Germany, the Thirty Years' War turned into a shame and tragedy: the country broke up into separate principalities.

In 1741, the Bavarian Elector Karl Albrecht managed to achieve the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, but during the Wars of Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748), the Austrians occupied Bavaria three times, and in 1792 French troops captured the left bank of the Rhine Palatinate. Bavaria is in ticks. And then Maximilian IV Joseph enters the political scene. Skillfully maneuvering between the two sides, he made peace with France in 1800, and in 1805 he received Napoleon Bonaparte for a visit. As a result of the deal, from 1806 Bavaria became a kingdom and Maximilian became king. His daughter Augusta marries Napoleon's adopted son, Eugene Beauharnais. Soon 30 thousand Bavarians are sent to the Russian front to help the French army and die during the retreat of Napoleon's troops from Russia. Such was the price of the crown. After the defeat of Bonaparte, Maximilian goes over to the side of the Austrians, which allows him to keep his kingdom under the Vienna Treaty of 1815.

In 1825, Maximilian's son, Ludwig I, ascended the throne, and launched extensive construction in the capital. The Ludwigstrasse Avenue appears in Munich, a complex of museums is being built according to ancient models - the Pinakothek, the Glyptothek, the Propylaea. And suddenly, when the king was already in his sixties, a young dancer Lola Montez came into his field of vision. Ministers and university professors seek her expulsion, and Ludwig himself is worth the crown: in 1848 he abdicates in favor of his son.

Maximilian II behaves like a liberal and progressive politician: he arranges the first industrial exhibition on German soil in the Bavarian capital, builds a new Maximilianstrasse following the example of his father ... However, not all the plans of the king came true: his sudden death in 1864 prevented him. Ludwig II, the eldest son of Maximilian, who at that time was only 19 years old, becomes the new ruler.

In 1866, Bavaria is defeated in a fleeting war with Prussia. And when in 1871, after the victories of Prussia, first over Austria, and then over France, the question of creating a united German Empire was decided, Ludwig II of Bavaria was forced to sign a letter recognizing Wilhelm I as emperor. The sovereignty of Bavaria was infringed, the feeling of independence of the Bavarians was offended. However, Ludwig is passionate about something else: Wagner's music and the personality of the composer himself. The monarch acts as the patron of the musician and builds fantastic castles in the Bavarian Alps, inspired by the images of Wagner operas. Construction not only drains Ludwig's own funds, but almost ruins the state treasury. The government tries to remove the king from the political arena and declares him incompetent. On June 13, 1886, Ludwig's body was found in the waters of Starnberg Lake: he went for an evening walk without bodyguards and never returned to the castle. Today, this romantic monarch is incredibly popular in Bavaria. His image is repeatedly depicted in works of sculpture and painting. And in memory of his favorite composer, the prestigious Wagner Festival is held in Bayreuth, invitations to which music lovers have been waiting for ten years.

After the death of Ludwig II, power passed to his uncle, 65-year-old Luitpold. Since the mentally handicapped younger brother of Ludwig II was then alive, Luitpold becomes Prince Regent and rules in Bavaria until 1912. Then the throne passes to his son Ludwig III. After the defeat of Germany in the First World War, against the backdrop of a political crisis and the November Revolution of 1918, Ludwig fled the country, and thus the centuries-old rule of the House of Wittelsbach in Bavaria ends.

On April 7, 1919, the Soviet Republic was proclaimed in Bavaria, which did not last long - only three weeks. And after the formation of the Weimar Republic in July 1919, Bavaria became one of its lands. In 1923, Hitler's "beer" putsch took place in Munich, which choked almost instantly. However, just 10 years later, the Nazis come to power already legally - as a result of elections. Bavaria becomes the "heart" of its movement, but as a result of the general centralization of the German state, it finally loses its independence and independence. After the end of the Second World War, a trial of war criminals is organized in Nuremberg. Thus, the Nazi movement, which originated in Bavaria, was also condemned here. In 1946, Bavaria adopted a new constitution and, when the Federal Republic of Germany was formed in 1949, became part of it.

History of Germany

© "Knowledge is power"

History of Germany in the period 58 BC - 16th century.

And now we will continue the story of the history of Germany. Let us dwell, of course, only on the main events that determined the fate of Germany. A detailed presentation of German history cannot be part of our task, because even the electronic memory of a powerful computer may not be enough for material of such a volume.

The Germanic tribes were neighbors of the slave-owning Roman Empire and were in constant economic relations with it. This contributed to the decomposition of the tribal layer and the gradual social differentiation of the ancient Germans.

In 58 BC Caesar conquered Gaul, which was owned by the Suevian tribal union of the Germans. Later, under Emperor Augustus, the Romans conquered the lands between the Rhine and the Weser. But in 9 A.D. The German tribe of the Cherusci, under the leadership of their leader Arminus, defeated the Roman troops in the Teutoburg Forest, and the Romans went over to the defense of the northern and western borders of the empire. The "Roman Wall" was built - a chain of fortifications between the upper reaches of the Rhine and Danube. A period of peaceful relations began between the Germans and Rome. There was a lively trade with the border tribes. Leaders with squads, and sometimes entire Germanic tribes settled in Roman territory as warriors. Many Germans penetrated into the Roman army and partly into the state apparatus. There were many Germans among the slaves in the Roman Empire.

Although nothing is known about Arminus other than his name and the fact of fighting in the Teutoburg Forest, he is considered the first German national hero. Arminus in the period in 1838 - 1875. a monument was erected near the city of Detmold (North Rhine-Westphalia). As the productive forces of the Germans grew, their onslaught on the Roman Empire intensified. The invasion of the Quads, Marcomanni and other Germanic tribes (the Marcomannic War of 165-180), and then the invasion in the 3rd century of a number of Germanic tribes (Goths, Franks, Burgundians, Alemanni) became one of the reasons for the so-called migration of peoples in 4-6 centuries. The subsequent campaigns of the Germans, Slavs and other tribes and the simultaneous uprisings of slaves and columns contributed to the fact that in the 5th century the slave system of the Roman Empire collapsed. German kingdoms appeared on the territory of Western Europe, in which a new, more progressive social mode of production, feudalism, gradually took shape.

Beginning of German history

9 AD conventionally considered the beginning of German history. The formation of the German people began, which lasted for many centuries. The word "deutsch" ("Deutsch") appeared, apparently, only in the eighth century. At first, this word denoted the language spoken in the eastern part of the Frankish Empire, which in the 6th century included the duchies of the Germanic tribes of the Alemanni, Thuringians, Bavarians and some others conquered by the Franks. Later than other tribes, by the beginning of the 9th century, the Saxons were subjugated and included in the Frankish Empire. Soon, however, after the death of the founder of the Frankish Empire, Charlemagne (814), this empire began to disintegrate and ceased to exist by the end of the 9th century. From the eastern part of the collapsed Frankish Empire arose the kingdom of Germany, which later became an empire. The formal date of the emergence of the German kingdom is usually considered the year 911, when, after the death of the last representative of the Carolingians, Louis the Child, Duke of the Franks Conrad I was elected king. He is considered the first German king.

Gradually, the Germanic tribes developed a sense of identity, and then the word "deutsch" began to mean not only the language, but also those who spoke it, and then the territory of their residence - Germany. The Germanic western frontier was fixed early, around the middle of the 10th century, and remained quite stable. The eastern frontier changed as German territory expanded to the east. The eastern border was fixed in the middle of the 14th century and remained until the outbreak of World War II.

Officially, the title of the King of Germany was first called "Frankish King", later - "Roman King". The empire was called the "Roman Empire" from the 11th century, the "Holy Roman Empire" from the 13th century, and the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" in the 15th century. The king was elected by the highest nobility, along with this, the "right of consanguinity" ("Geblütsrecht"), i.e. the king had to be related to his predecessor. There was no capital in the medieval empire. The king ruled the country by constantly visiting different areas. There were no state taxes in the empire. Treasury revenues came from public property, which the king managed through proxies. It was not easy for the king to earn the authority and respect from the powerful dukes of the tribes: military strength and skillful politics were required. Only the successor of Conrad I, the Saxon duke Henry I (919 - 936), succeeded in this. And to an even greater extent to the son of the latter, Otto I (936 - 973) - in German Otto I, who became the real ruler of the empire. In 962, Otto I was crowned in Rome and became Kaiser (emperor). According to the plan, the imperial power was universal and gave the right to its bearer to dominate all of Western Europe. It is known, however, that such a plan could never be realized.

By the beginning of the 10th century, the kingdom of Germany included the duchies of Swabia, Bavaria, Franconia, Saxony and Thuringia. In the first half of the 10th century, Otto I added Lorraine to them, and in 962 Otto I added Northern Italy. In this way, an empire was created, which later became known as the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". Conrad II (the first king of the Frankish dynasty) annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire in 1032.

The created empire fought for a long time and to no avail with the power of the Pope. Under Henry V, a compromise agreement was concluded - the Concordat of Worms in 1122.

11th - 12th century

In the 70s of the 11th century in Germany, a powerful movement of Saxon peasants was noted against the increase in corvee in the Crown Lands (i.e., on the lands of the king). The onslaught of large landowners in Germany was vigorously resisted by the peasant community - the brand. This was the main reason why the feudal system in Germany developed slowly. It was only in the twelfth century that the formation of feudal relations in Germany was basically completed. This was the period of formation of the so-called princely territories. Let's explain what these areas are. There is a rapid growth of cities, but the weak imperial power is not able to use for its own purposes the new source of funds that has opened up - income from urban crafts and trade - and create support for itself in the growing social stratum of the townspeople, as was the case in England, France and other countries . The owners of independent principalities (or duchies), having subjugated the cities of their regions and seizing the income from crafts and trade, sought to obtain the rights of sovereign sovereigns over the territories subject to them. This was the process of formation of princely territories.

In the twelfth century, the hierarchy of the class of feudal lords took shape, representing by the end of this century three groups: princes, counts and knights. The dominating position was gradually occupied by the princes. The exploitation of the peasants intensified as commodity-money relations developed. In 1138, the century of the Staufen dynasty began, one of whose representatives was Frederick I Barbarossa (1152 - 1190). This king fought against the Pope, as well as against his main rival in Germany - the Saxon Duke Henry the Lion. In search of material resources, Frederick I turned his eyes to the flourishing cities of Northern Italy. Formally subject to the German emperor, these cities were in fact completely independent of him. Relying on knighthood and on the former servants of the king and on major lords who had political influence and created a mercenary army, Frederick I decided to turn fictitious imperial rights (collection of taxes and duties, judicial law) into real ones. Barbarossa moved to northern Italy. Having met the resistance of individual cities, he took them by storm. It is known that his troops in 1162 during the assault almost completely destroyed Milan. To repel the German invasion, the northern Italian cities in 1167 united in the Lombard League. Pope Alexander III entered into an alliance with the Lombard League. At the Battle of Legnano in 1176, Barbarossa's troops were completely defeated. Barbarossa capitulated to the papacy, and then, according to the peace concluded in Constance in 1183, he was forced to renounce the rights to the Lombard cities.

13th - 15th century

Neither Frederick I Barbarossa nor his heirs from the Staufen dynasty, which ended in 1268, were able to achieve the establishment of an effective centralized imperial power. By the 13th century, Germany had not yet become a single nation-state, but consisted of a number of separate principalities, economically and politically separate. Moreover, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified, and by the end of the 13th century, the territorial princes acquired the rights of supreme jurisdiction over the principalities subject to them, close to the rights of royal power: the right to tax, mint coins, control the troops of the principality, etc. And under the emperor Charles IV, the princes in 1356 achieved the publication of the so-called Golden Bull, which recognized the right of the princes to elect the emperor. For this, a board of seven princes-electors was approved. These princes were called Electors. All princes received confirmation of all the rights they acquired as a sovereign sovereign, with the exception of the right to independently wage war with foreign states and conclude peace. At the same time, a central authority was established - the Reichstag (Imperial Diet), which was a congress of imperial princes and some imperial cities. But the Reichstag did not have an apparatus of executive power and therefore was not and could not be to any extent an organ for the unification of Germany. In some principalities, the estate-representative bodies were landtags (land diets). By the beginning of the 16th century, Germany was a collection of many virtually independent states.

In connection with the later, in comparison with England, France and other states, the unification of Germany into one centralized national state, the term "belated nation" pertaining to the Germans. This term seems to us not entirely successful if we take into account the contribution of the German nation to world science and culture, as well as the results achieved in the socio-economic development of modern Germany.

Speaking about the events of the German history of the 13th century, it is impossible not to mention Battle on the Ice. So in history they call the battle that took place in April 1242 on the ice of Lake Peipsi between the knights of the Teutonic Order and the army of the Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky and ended in the complete defeat of the German knights. The Teutonic Order was forced to withdraw its troops from the borders of the Russian lands. The further fate of this order was deplorable for him. In the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, the combined Polish-Lithuanian-Russian troops defeated the Teutonic Order, after which he recognized his vassal dependence on Poland.

Late 15th - 16th century

The end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th centuries entered the history of Germany as period of the Reformation and the Peasants' War. The Reformation was a broad social movement against the Catholic Church. It all started with a speech by Professor Luther of Wittenberg University on October 31, 1517 with theses against the trade in indulgences. Luther denounced the abuses of the Catholic clergy and spoke out against the all-powerful papal authority. He put forward a whole program of church reform. Each opposition class interpreted this program in accordance with its aspirations and interests. The burghers wanted the church to become "cheap", the princes and knights wanted to seize church lands, and the oppressed masses understood the reformation as a call to fight against feudal oppression. The leader of the plebeian-peasant masses was Thomas Müntzer. He openly called for the overthrow of the feudal system and its replacement by a system based on social equality and community of property. Luther, as a representative of the burghers, could not share such radical views and opposed the revolutionary understanding of his teachings. Although the ideas of the Reformation to some extent pushed the Peasants' War of 1525, Luther's movement nevertheless took on a one-sided character in Germany: purely religious struggle, questions of religion overshadowed the broader tasks of transforming social life and culture for many years. After the suppression of peasant uprisings, the Reformation reveals ever greater narrowness and, no less than the Catholic Counter-Reformation, intolerance for free thought, for reason, which Luther declared "the harlot of the devil." In the words of Erasmus of Rotterdam, the sciences died wherever Lutheranism was established.

Luther's reform eventually became an instrument of princely absolutism, which manifested itself, in particular, in the alienation of church lands in favor of secular princes, carried out in some principalities.

© Vladimir Kalanov,
"Knowledge is power"

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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), is a state in Central Europe. Borders with Denmark, Poland, Czech Republic, , Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. In the north, the natural border is formed by the North and Baltic Seas. The Russian name comes from lat. Germany. (currency sign - €, bank code: EUR) - the official currency of 17 countries of the Eurozone.

The capital is the city of Berlin (the seat of the Bundestag and the government, some ministries are located in Bonn). The form of government is a parliamentary republic, the form of government is a symmetrical federation of 16 autonomous lands. Germany is a member of the European Union and NATO, is a member of the G8, and claims to be a permanent member of the UN Security Council. The Russian name of the state Germany comes from the Latin name Germania, which goes back to the writings of Latin authors of the 1st century AD and is formed from the ethnonym Germans (lat. Germanus). It was first used by Julius Caesar in his "Notes on the Gallic War" regarding the tribes living beyond the Rhine. The word itself probably has non-Latin roots and comes from the Celtic gair ("neighbor"). In German, the state is called Deutschland. The modern name comes from pragerms. Eudiskaz. The name Deutsch (derived from the Proto-German Þeodisk) originally meant "related to the people" and meant primarily the language. Land means "country". The modern form of writing the name of the state has been used since the 15th century.

In the USSR, the name Federal Republic of Germany was used in Russian. This form, for example, is used in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. After the accession of the German Democratic Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990, it was decided, by mutual agreement between the governments of Germany and Russia, not to decline the word Germany in the official name of the state. Correct: the Federal Republic of Germany (and not the Federal Republic of Germany).

Story

The first mention of the ancient Germans appeared in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans. One of the first mentions of the Germans refers to the year 98. It was made by the Roman chronicler Tacitus (lat. Tacitus). The entire territory of modern Germany east of the Elbe (Slavic Laba) until the 10th century was inhabited by Slavic tribes. (see more details: Polabian Slavs). By the XII-XIV centuries, these lands gradually became part of various German state formations that made up the so-called Holy Roman Empire. As these territories were part of the German states, over several centuries, the local Slavs gradually, almost completely Germanized. This process dragged on until the late Middle Ages and the beginning of the new time, and in some places, with the last, not yet completely Germanized Slavic people of Germany - the Lusatians, continues to this day.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, the Frankish state was formed, which three centuries later, under Charlemagne, turned into an empire (800). Charles's empire covered the territories of a number of modern states, in particular Germany. However, the empire of Charlemagne did not last long - the grandchildren of this emperor divided it among themselves, as a result of which three kingdoms were formed - West Frankish (later France), East Frankish (later Germany) and the Middle Kingdom (soon split into Italy, Provence and Lorraine).

Traditionally, the founding date of the German state is considered to be February 2, 962: on this day, the East Frankish king Otto I was crowned in Rome and became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Despite the attempts of the emperors to unite the Holy Roman Empire, it broke up into numerous independent states and cities. After the Reformation and the Thirty Years' War, the emperor's power was still nominal.

This situation continued until 1806, when, under the pressure of Napoleon I, the existence of the Holy Roman Empire was terminated and its emperor began to bear only the title of emperor. . The number of German states was significantly reduced. The Congress of Vienna contributed to the further unification of the German states, as a result of which the German Confederation was formed from 38 German states under the leadership of Austria.

After the revolution of 1848, a conflict began to brew between the growing influence of Prussia and Austria. This led to the war of 1866, in which Prussia won and annexed a number of German principalities. The German Confederation collapsed.

In 1868, the North German Confederation was created, headed by the President - the King of Prussia. On December 10, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation renamed the North German Confederation into the German Empire (German das Deutsche Reich), the constitution of the North German Confederation into the constitution of the German Empire, and the President of the North German Confederation into the German Emperor (German der Deutsche Kaiser). Count Otto von Bismarck was appointed Chancellor of Germany.

In 1914, Germany entered the First World War, the loss of which led to the end of the monarchy and the proclamation of the republic.

In 1933, the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany, under which Germany pursued an aggressive expansionist and revanchist policy, which in 1939 led to World War II.

After Germany was defeated in World War II in May 1945, its statehood was terminated, vast territories were separated from Germany, and the rest was divided into 4 zones of occupation: Soviet, American, British and French. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was established on the territories of the American, British and French zones of occupation, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on the territory of the Soviet zone of occupation.

On October 3, 1990, the German Democratic Republic and West Berlin were incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany. It has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation, which were established by the USSR in 1955 (with the GDR in 1949).

State structure

Berlin is the capital of Germany. Meanwhile, in the course of lengthy negotiations regarding the terms of transferring the capital from Bonn to Berlin, Bonn managed to keep most of the federal ministries on its territory, as well as a number of the main important federal departments (for example, the federal audit chamber).

Germany is a democratic, social, legal state. It consists of 16 lands. The state structure is regulated by the Basic Law of Germany. The form of government in Germany is a parliamentary republic.

Germany is a democratic state: “All state power comes from the people (Volke). It is carried out by the people through elections and voting, as well as through special bodies of legislation, executive power and justice.

The head of state is the federal president, who performs rather representative functions and appoints the federal chancellor. The Federal President of the Federal Republic of Germany takes the following oath: “I swear to devote my energies to the good of the German people (deutschen Volkes), to increase their wealth, protect it from damage, observe and protect the Basic Law and the laws of the Federation, conscientiously fulfill my duties and observe justice in relation to everyone . God help me.” The Federal Chancellor is the head of the German government. He directs the activities of the Federal Government. Therefore, the form of government in Germany is often also called chancellor democracy.

Germany has a federal structure. This means that the political system of the state is divided into two levels: the federal one, at which national decisions of international importance are made, and the regional one, at which the tasks of the federal lands are solved. Each level has its own executive, legislative and judicial authorities. Although the states have unequal representation in the Bundesrat, legally they have equal status, which characterizes the German federation as symmetrical.

The German Bundestag (parliament) and the Bundesrat (organ of representation of the states) carry out legislative and legislative functions at the federal level and are authorized by a two-thirds majority in each of the bodies to amend the constitution. At the regional level, lawmaking is carried out by the parliaments of the lands - Landtags and Burgerschafts (parliaments of the cities-lands of Hamburg and Bremen). They make laws that apply within the lands. Parliaments in all states except Bavaria are unicameral.

Executive power at the federal level is represented by the Federal Government, headed by the Chancellor. The head of the executive authorities at the level of the subjects of the federation is the prime minister (or mayor of the city-land). The federal and state administrations are led by ministers who are at the head of the administrative bodies.

The Federal Constitutional Court enforces the constitution. The supreme courts of justice also include the Federal Court of Justice in Karlsruhe, the Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig, the Federal Labor Court, the Federal Public Court and the Federal Financial Court in Munich. Most of the litigation is the responsibility of the Länder. Federal courts are mainly engaged in review cases and check the decisions of the courts of the Länder for formal legality.

German "hidden" federalism

Speaking about the form of government, the term "hidden" federal state is often applied to Germany. Although the Basic Law establishes the distribution of powers at the level of the federal states and the federation as a whole, at the same time it combines the advantages of a centralized state with the advantages of a federal state. For example, citizens most often resolve issues through the land authorities and local administrations, which carry out their activities on behalf of the lands (according to the principle of subsidiarity).

However, public life is regulated for the most part by federal laws. The point is that, according to the Basic Law, it is necessary to strive for the equalization of living conditions in all federal states of Germany, which are determined by the social and economic policy of the state. For example, the police is a federal agency with a single federal leadership(there is no police of the federal states, like the police of the states in ).

So, the social and economic spheres of public life are regulated mainly by federal laws. In this aspect, the German federal state is similar to the centralized one.

On the one hand, the land administrations execute the laws of the given federal land, which is typical for a federal state. On the other hand, they enforce most federal laws, which is not typical for a federal government.

Stages of reforming the federal system

After the adoption of the Basic Law in 1949, the German authorities repeatedly made attempts to improve the federal system. The first large-scale reform was carried out by the "grand coalition" government (CDU/CSU-SPD) under Chancellor KG. Kiesinger in 1966-1969. As a result of the reform, the interweaving of the interests of the lands and the federal center received a new dimension. In the financial sector, the principle of "cooperative federalism" was introduced, which will become one of the stumbling blocks at the present stage of the history of Germany.

Under the Schroeder government (1998-2005), the goal was to carry out a large-scale constitutional reform of federalism in order to simplify the political processes in the country, make them more transparent to the population and less dependent on momentary party calculations. The reform was designed to redistribute powers between the center and the subjects of the federation, clarify the legislative competence between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat, and ultimately increase the viability of the state as a whole.

The number of laws requiring the mandatory approval of the Bundesrat was planned to be reduced to 35-40% by removing laws on the principles of administration of all lands from the coordination mechanism with the Bundesrat. That is, in the future, the Länder will have to proceed from federal guidelines, which implies giving the Landtags more responsibility.

In March 2003, the Federalism Convention (composed of the heads of state parliaments and the leaders of the factions of the parties represented in them) approved the "Lübeck Declaration", containing specific measures to modernize the federal system.

On October 17, 2003, the Commission on Federalism was created, which included the then Secretary General of the SPD F. Müntefering and the Chairman of the CSU and Prime Minister of Bavaria E. Stoiber.

On November 18, 2005, a coalition agreement between the CDU / CSU and the SPD (“Together for Germany - with courage and humanity”) was signed, which stipulated the proposals of these parties on the division of powers and responsibilities between the lands and the center.

The innovation package covers the following areas:

1. Education Now the current issues of education are within the competence of the Länder, and they will be directly transferred funds from the federal budget. This excludes misuse of the received funds.

2. Distribution of income. Federal laws cannot set tasks for cities and communities that require additional material expenses from local governments. If federal laws interfere with the competence of the Länder, these laws must necessarily obtain the consent of the Bundesrat.

3. High school. Completely relegated to the jurisdiction of the lands. The Federation may participate in the financing of scientific research, but only with the consent of the Länder.

4. Environmental protection The federation can develop framework legislation, but the Länder can make decisions deviating from it. In doing so, the EU environmental regulations must also be taken into account.

5. Budget Introduction of the EU-style Stability Pact. In connection with the problem of land debts, eventual debt sanctions will be 65% on the shoulders of the federation, and 35% on the shoulders of the lands.

6. Land legislation The jurisdiction of the Länder included housing law, issues of meetings, associations and the press, the penitentiary system, hunting legislation, opening hours of shops, rules for opening restaurants.

7. Combating terrorism The exclusive competence of the federation (Federal Office of the Criminal Police), along with nuclear energy, registration of citizens, regulation of arms and explosives.

8. Public service Competence of the Länder.

On December 15, 2006, a new stage of federalism reform started. The main issues unresolved at the 1st stage were: the reduction of land debts, distortions in financial relations between the federation and the lands and the lands themselves.

The essence of the problem is that all the lands must carry out federal tasks, but their possibilities for this are very different.

Therefore, the German Constitution (paragraph 2, article 107) states that “the law must ensure a commensurate equalization of differences in the financial capabilities of the lands; at the same time, the financial capabilities and needs of the communities should be taken into account. ”For this, there was a procedure for equalizing the budgetary provision of the regions, that is, part of the funds of the “rich” lands is redistributed in favor of the “poor”, sometimes with infusions from the federal budget.

Formally, the federal state structure in Germany has two levels: the federation as a whole state and the states as members of this state. But in reality, there is also a "third", informal level of relations between the federation and the lands - "cooperative federalism"; that is, along with the horizontal self-coordination of the lands, the practice of vertical coordination along the federation-Land axis has developed: the participation of the federation in land financing. Within the framework of vertical coordination, commissions are created from representatives of the federation and the states.

The main problems of horizontal and vertical relations in Germany are related to the distribution of financial resources between rich and poor federal states and the implementation of the principle of "equivalence" of living conditions.

"Horizontal" alignment allows you to help underdeveloped regions by redistributing the income that the federation and the states receive jointly (corporate and income tax). This situation causes a lot of criticism, primarily from the liberals (FDP, O. Lambsdorf), who are in favor of reducing the "charitable" role of the state.

Politicians of other parties also agree with similar proposals. For example, the Prime Minister of Bavaria, Stoiber (CSU), calls for increased regionalization, and the Prime Minister of Baden-Württemberg, Teufel (CDU), calls for a reduction in the number of lands and an increase in legislative (legislative) terms.

Briefly, their ideas for reforming federalism can be formulated as follows:
Assignment to each level of its tax powers; the transition of all lands to the status of "solid financial units";
Reducing the "horizontal alignment" of land budgets;
Cancellation of mixed financing;
Reducing the legislative competence of the federation in favor of the lands by limiting the powers of the center to such areas as defense, law and order, human rights, foreign policy and “framework” regulation of environmental, economic and social policy issues;
Significant limitation of the Bundesrat's veto power. The general principles of administration in the Länder were removed from the topics of the bills requiring the mandatory approval of the Bundesrat.

The search for a more effective model of federalism is complicated in Germany by three factors: the aggravation of contradictions between poor and rich lands, the presence of competing projects of large political parties, and the needs of European federalism, which is forced to take into account both the experience of states with centralized government (England and France) and the experience of federations (Germany). )

Foreign policy

In foreign policy, the West-oriented German Chancellor K. Adenauer (1949-1963) acted in accordance with the slogan of the ideologist of South German liberalism K. von Rottek: "Freedom without unity is better than unity without freedom." German European Policy 1949-1963 how the relationship between ends and means is divided into two stages.

In its first phase (from 1949 to the mid-1950s), it was the means by which West Germany planned to rebuild its economy, create its own armed forces, and achieve recognition by world powers. Foreign policy was pursued for the sake of domestic.

At the second stage (from the mid-1950s to 1963), now domestic policy was carried out for the sake of foreign policy: Germany sought to become not just an independent, but also a strong state. European military policy of Germany in 1958-63. was based on rapprochement with France (Berlin-Paris axis) and the rejection of the plan of "multilateral nuclear forces" proposed by the United States. The signing of an agreement on German-French cooperation drew a line under the centuries-old confrontation between these states.

Adenauer recognized the international management of Ruhr industry established by the Petersberg Accords, considering this as the basis for future Western European integration. In 1950, Adenauer adopted the plan developed by R. Schuman to create the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Adenauer also supported the idea of ​​creating a European Defense Community (EDC) proposed by W. Churchill.

In 1952, the Bonn Treaty was signed, which abolished the occupation statute and granted the Federal Republic of Germany state sovereignty.

On May 5, 1955, the Paris Agreements came into force, the most important of which was the agreement on Germany's entry into NATO. However, at that time, Germany's sovereignty could not be called complete: foreign troops remained on its territory, Germany was deprived of the right to possess many types of strategic weapons.

In 1959, a conference of four powers was held in Geneva: the USA, Great Britain, the USSR and France, which ended with the actual recognition of the existence of two German states: the FRG and the GDR.

One of the important priorities of Germany's foreign policy is to deepen the integration of the EU states. Germany plays a decisive role in the construction and organization of European structures. At the same time, from the very beginning, the goal was to dispel the post-war fear of the neighboring countries of Germany and to make redundant the restrictions imposed by the Soviet occupying forces. Since 1950, Germany has become a member of the Council of Europe, and in 1957 signed the Rome Agreements, which became the foundation for the creation of the European Union: Germany joined the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).

So, the important results of the European policy of Germany in 1949-63. became: the recognition of Germany's sovereignty and its status as an important European partner and the beginning of the formation of the foundations of Germany's economic power.

Germany has been a member of the Group of Ten since 1964.

During the Cold War, Germany's foreign policy was severely limited. One of its main tasks was the reunification of West Germany with East Germany. Military-politically, Germany was closely connected with the NATO bloc. American nuclear warheads were stationed in West Germany.

Modern Germany is rightfully considered a nodal center both between East and West, and between the Scandinavian and Mediterranean regions, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

With the accession of the GDR to the FRG, the threat of using the GDR as a springboard for the deployment of foreign troops was eliminated, the risk of turning Germany into an object of the use of nuclear weapons, as well as the dangerous game of "third countries" on the contradictions between the GDR and the FRG, was eliminated.

Until recently, one of the most controversial was the question of the possibility of using the German armed forces outside the sphere of joint responsibility of NATO.

According to the constitution, Germany has no right to take part in wars of conquest. This limitation is the subject of ongoing controversy. Its armed forces stand to protect the sovereignty and integrity of Germany and the NATO countries.

Only recently has the Bundeswehr taken part in various activities aimed at maintaining peace. This became possible after the decision of the Constitutional Court, which allowed the use of the German Armed Forces for UN peacekeeping missions, and for each specific case, the consent of the Bundestag is required, which until now was given only with temporary restrictions. In this case, the use of weapons only for self-defense is allowed. All attempts by various parties to get the Constitutional Court to review this issue have so far been rejected. German troops took and are taking part in resolving the following conflict situations:
1992 - 1996: Operation SHARP GUARD using warships and reconnaissance aircraft in the Adriatic Sea against Yugoslavia;
1993 - 1995: UN Force Operation in Somalia UNOSOM II;
1999 - present: NATO war against Yugoslavia, operation KFOR;
2002 - present: NATO war in Afghanistan, operation ISAF;
2002 - present: Operation Enduring Freedom with the participation of the naval contingent in the coastal waters of East Africa and the Mediterranean Sea;
2003 - present: With AWACS reconnaissance aircraft, with the right to cross Iraqi airspace, but without the right of occupation.
2005 - present: Maintaining peace in Sudan as part of Operation UNMIS.
2006 - 2008: Participation in the armed mission of the EU to ensure elections in the Congo
2006 - present: Protection of the coastal waters of Lebanon in order to suppress the smuggling of weapons (as part of the UNIFIL mission)
2008 - present: Somali Coastal Patrol under Operation ATLANTA (Counter Piracy).

Administrative division

Germany is a state with a federal structure; consisting of 16 equal subjects - lands (Länder; see the lands of the Republic of Germany), three of them are cities (Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg).

1. Baden-Württemberg	Stuttgart
2. Free State of Bavaria	Munich
3. Berlin	Berlin
4. Brandenburg	Potsdam
5. Free Hanseatic City of Bremen	Bremen
6. Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg	Hamburg
7. Hesse	Wiesbaden
8. Mecklenburg - Vorpommern	Schwerin
9. Lower Saxony	Hanover
10. North Rhine-Westphalia	Dusseldorf
11. Rhineland-Palatinate	Mainz
12. Saarland	Saarbrücken
13. Free State of Saxony	Dresden
14. Saxony-Anhalt	Magdeburg
15. Schleswig-Holstein	Keel
16. Free State of Thuringia	Erfurt

Geography

The northern part of Germany is a low-lying plain formed during the ice age (North German Plain, the lowest point is the Neuendorf-Saxenbande in Wilstermarsh, 3.54 m below sea level). In the central part of the country, forested foothills adjoin the lowlands from the south, and the Alps begin to the south (the highest point in Germany is Mount Zugspitze, 2,968 meters). Rivers and lakes A large number of rivers flow through Germany, the largest of which are the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, Weser and Oder, the rivers are connected by canals, the most famous canal is the Kiel Canal, which connects the Baltic and North Seas. The Kiel Canal begins in the Bay of Kiel and ends at the mouth of the Elbe River. The largest lake in Germany is Lake Constance, with an area of ​​540 sq. km, and a depth of 250 meters. The weather is often changeable. In the middle of summer it can be warm and sunny, but the very next day it can get cold and rainy. Truly extreme natural events (severe droughts, tornadoes, storms, severe frost or heat waves) are relatively rare. This is also due to the fact that Germany is located in a temperate climate zone. Over the past few years, Germany, as well as throughout Europe, has experienced several large-scale floods, but given the long history of Germany, these are rather rare natural phenomena. Many tend to see this as evidence of climate warming. In the summer of 2003, Germany was hit by a drought: the “summer of the century,” as the media dubbed it, was one of the hottest in decades. The consequences of the drought, among other things, were significant crop failures. Earthquakes with severe consequences in Germany have not occurred so far. This can be explained by the fact that Germany is located on the Eurasian plate. Since there are no boundaries between tectonic plates inside Germany, earthquakes are relatively rare. The average temperature in July is from +16 to +22 degrees Celsius. The average temperature in January is from +2 to -5 degrees Celsius. The average annual temperature is +5-+10 degrees Celsius.

topography of germany

Cities

The largest cities in Germany are Berlin, Hamburg, Munich and Cologne. The next most important is the fifth most populated city in Germany and the financial metropolis of Frankfurt am Main, Germany's largest airport. It is the third largest airport in Europe and the first in terms of revenue from air cargo. The Ruhr Basin is the region with the highest population density.

Economy

With a GDP of $2 trillion 811 billion (PPP), Germany was in fifth place in the world in 2009 (after the US, China, Japan and India). In addition, Germany occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of export volumes. Exported products are known all over the world under the trademark Made in Germany. In terms of living standards, the country ranks 10th in the world, according to the Human Development Index.
The share of Germany in world GDP is 3.968%
The share of Germany in the GDP of the EU countries is almost 30%
GDP per capita - about 35 thousand dollars
State budget deficit for 2006 - 1.7%
Government spending in Germany is up to 50% of the country's GDP.
SMEs in Germany account for approximately 70% of jobs and 57% of GDP generated.
In general, industry accounts for 38% of GDP, 2% for agriculture, and 60% for services.
The shadow sector of the economy is approximately 15% of GDP

According to official According to data, in 2011 the average number of unemployed was 3.0 million (7% of the German working-age population).

Industry

Germany is an industrialized country. The main industries are mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, chemical, automotive and shipbuilding, coal mining.

Germany does not have large reserves of any minerals. A rare exception to this rule, which applies to the entire Central European region, is coal, both hard (Ruhr basin) and brown. Therefore, its economy is concentrated mainly on the industrial production and service sectors.

Germany is far from the last place in terms of volume and quality of watches and watch movements produced in the country. The center of the German watch industry is the small town of Glashütte. Most of the factories producing watches and mechanisms for them are concentrated here. Also an important link in the watch industry are manufacturers of interior clocks and mechanisms for them. The most famous of them: Hermle and Kieninger.

In Germany, the production of children's toys, goods and products for modeling is developed. The main companies in this industry are Auhagen GmbH, Gebr. Marklin & Cie. GmbH, Gebr. Fleischmann GmbH, PIKO Spielwaren GmbH.

Agriculture

Germany has highly productive agriculture. About 70% of the marketable output of agriculture comes from animal husbandry, the needs of which are largely subordinated to crop production: the area under fodder crops is much larger than under food crops. Large quantities of feed grains, especially maize, are imported.

Germany is a country of predominantly small family farms. In the period 1994-1997. the share of land plots of agricultural enterprises exceeding 50 hectares increased from 11.9 to 14.3%. Larger farms are located mainly in Schleswig-Holstein and in the east of Lower Saxony. Small farms predominate in Central and Southern Germany. At the same time, there was a sharp decline in the number of people employed in agriculture, from 24% of the total number of the economically active population in 1950 to 2.4% in 1997. income in other sectors of the economy.

In areas with high natural soil fertility, the main crops are wheat, barley, corn and sugar beets. The poorer soils of the North German lowlands and mid-altitude mountains are traditionally used for crops of rye, oats, potatoes and natural fodder crops. The traditional nature of German agriculture has been significantly altered by technological progress. Today, the so-called light soils are valued more because of their suitability for mechanical processing, using artificial fertilizers; for example, corn is now widely cultivated also in the North German Plain, where it is replacing the potato.

Of the total grain production in the European Union, Germany accounts for slightly more than 1/5, but it stands out mainly in the production of rye (3/4 of the harvest), oats (about 2/5) and barley (more than ¼). The areas of cultivation of sugar beet largely coincide with the areas of wheat crops.

Of the fodder grains, barley is the most important; some varieties of spring barley are grown specifically for use in the production of beer, which is considered the national drink in Germany (consumption per capita is about 145 liters per year). The world's largest hop-growing area Hallertau is located in Bavaria.

Of great importance is the cultivation of fodder root crops (fodder beets, etc.), corn for green fodder and silage, alfalfa, clover, and other fodder grasses. Of the oilseeds, rapeseed is the most important, the crops of which are more than 10 times higher than the crops of sunflower.

The warm climate of the river valleys, intermountain basins, and lowlands of southwestern Germany favors the cultivation of crops such as tobacco and vegetables; the latter are also grown in the area of ​​the Elbe marches below Hamburg and in the Spreewald region south of Berlin. Fruit plantations are especially characteristic of the mountain slopes of southern Germany, the lower reaches of the Elbe near Hamburg, the region of the Havel lakes near Potsdam and the vicinity of Halle.

Viticulture is superior in marketable products to fruit and vegetable growing combined. Vineyards are located mainly in the valleys of the Rhine, Moselle and other rivers in southern Germany, as well as in the Elbe valley near Dresden.

The valleys of the Upper Rhine, Main, Neckar and Lower Elbe are famous for their gardens.

Cattle breeding is the main branch of animal husbandry in Germany, it provides more than 2/5 of all marketable agricultural products, with milk accounting for the bulk (about ¼). The second place in importance is occupied by pig breeding. The country's self-sufficiency in milk and beef systematically exceeds 100%, but in pork it is less than 4/5.

Dairy and beef cattle breeding is most typical for well-moisturized coastal, alpine and pre-alpine regions rich in meadows and pastures, as well as for the periphery of urban agglomerations. Due to the rather cold winters, stall keeping of livestock is common. Pig breeding is developed everywhere, but especially in areas close to ports of entry of imported feed, areas of cultivation of sugar beets, potatoes and fodder root crops. In the agro-industrial complex, agriculture plays a subordinate role. Slaughter of livestock is carried out by 95% at industrial slaughterhouses, milk processing - at dairies, which are usually included in the systems of either industrial and industrial and commercial concerns, or owned on shares by cooperative associations of the farmers themselves.

Broiler production, production of eggs, veal, as well as pig breeding are concentrated in large livestock farms, the location of which is little dependent on natural factors.

In terms of agricultural production, grain production and livestock production, Germany is second only to France, and in terms of milk production it ranks first within the EU. The efficiency of agricultural production in Germany is significantly higher than the EU average. At the same time, Germany lags behind in the average yield of corn and sugar beets.

The competence of state bodies in the field of agriculture includes: resolving issues of changing the agrarian structure, lending and financing of agriculture, and regulating agricultural markets. The German government is providing financial assistance in the complex process of adaptation and integration of East German agriculture into the European Community. Assistance is also being provided in the transformation of former agricultural cooperatives into competitive firms, which is already bearing fruit: many sole proprietorships have made significant profits, in particular due to large cultivated areas.

In addition to food production in Germany, agriculture performs additional tasks, the importance of which is constantly growing. This is the preservation and protection of the natural foundations of life, the protection of attractive landscapes for residential areas, resettlement, economic location and recreation, the supply of agricultural raw materials to industry.

Infrastructure industries

Transport

The basis of the transport system is made up of railways, carrying about 2 billion passengers a year. Their length is more than 39 thousand km. Some roads are adapted for the movement of high-speed Intercity-Express trains. At the beginning of 2003, 53 million cars (including passenger cars) were registered in Germany. Motor roads of all classes make up more than 230 thousand km, autobahns - about 12 thousand km. The German merchant fleet has 2,200 modern ships.

Energy

Germany is the world's fifth largest energy consumer. In 2002, Germany was Europe's largest consumer of electricity at 512.9 terawatt-hours. Government policy involves the conservation of non-renewable sources and the use of energy from renewable sources such as solar energy, wind energy, biomass, hydropower and geothermal energy. Energy-saving technologies are also being developed. The German government plans that by 2050, half of the electricity demand will be covered by energy from renewable sources.

As of 2009, the following types of energy carriers dominated the structure of electricity consumption in Germany: brown coal (24.6% of net electricity consumption), nuclear energy (22.6%), hard coal (18.3%), renewable energy sources ( 15.6%) and gas (12.9%). In 2000, the government and the German nuclear industry announced the decommissioning of all nuclear power plants by 2021. In 2010, the government abandoned the previous cabinet's plans to shut down the country's nuclear power plants until 2021 and decided to extend the operation of nuclear power plants until the 2030s.

Population

The Federal Republic of Germany is only slightly larger in area than neighboring Poland, but twice as large in population. As of January 1, 2009, 82,002,356 inhabitants live in Germany.

As in many developed countries of the world, the birth rate in Germany is below the replacement level. Since 1972, the birth rate in Germany has been lower than the death rate. In 2008, 8 people were born per 1,000 inhabitants and 10 died.
Annual population growth for 2007 - 0.12%
Annual population growth for 2008 - -0.2%

The rural population is less than 10%, almost 90% of the German population lives in cities and urban areas adjacent to them.

The population of large cities (as of 2008): Berlin - 3424.7 thousand people; Hamburg - 1773.2 thousand people; Munich - 1315.4 thousand people; Cologne - 1000.3 thousand people; Frankfurt am Main - 670.6 thousand people

Immigration

In recent years, the number of immigrants has been growing rapidly. The number of immigrants from India, Syria, Egypt, Libya, Jordan, Israel, Brazil, Ukraine, Belarus, Congo, South Africa and other African and Maghreb countries, Indonesia, Malaysia, North Korea, Serbia, Mongolia is increasing. At the same time, the Germans themselves are migrating to Australia and Canada. Thus, the ratio of indigenous people to migrants has changed dramatically over the past decades. The proportion of immigrants from the traditional is large (the second largest ethnic group).

Population structure

The overwhelming majority are Germans (92%). Lusatian Serbs (60,000) live in the lands of Brandenburg and Saxony, and Danes (50,000) live in the northern regions of Schleswig-Holstein. There are 6.75 million foreign citizens in the country, of which 1.749 million are Turks, 930 thousand are citizens of the republics of the former Yugoslavia, 187.5 thousand are citizens of the Russian Federation and 129 thousand are citizens of Ukraine.

Since 1988, 2.2 million migrants of German origin and 220,000 contingent refugees (including members of their families) have arrived in Germany from the post-Soviet states for permanent residence, thus making up one of the largest Russian diasporas in the world.

The Muslim population in Germany is between 3.2 and 3.5 million, although this figure is sometimes disputed. According to some other data, 4.3 million Muslims live permanently in Germany, of which approximately 63.2 percent are of Turkish origin.

Languages

The official literary and business language is German. Along with this, the population uses Low, Middle and High German dialects (10 main and more than 50 local), which are also spoken by residents of the border regions of neighboring states; the dialects themselves are often very different from the literary language. There are mixed dialects. The recognized minority languages ​​include Danish, Frisian and Lusatian, as well as the regional language Low Saxon (Low German), which has been recognized by the EU since 1994.

According to estimates, about 6 million people in Germany speak Russian to some extent, including more than 3 million immigrants from the countries of the former USSR (and their descendants), mainly from Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine. Also in Germany they speak Turkish (2.1 million), the languages ​​of the peoples of the former Yugoslavia (720,000), Italian (612,000). Migrants who do not speak German often find themselves in an information vacuum and/or become dependent on sources of information.

Religion and worldview

Freedom of conscience and freedom of religion are guaranteed by the German constitution.

The majority of Germans are Christians, while Catholics make up 32.4%, Lutherans - 32.0%, Orthodox - 1.14%. A small part of believers belong to Christian denominations - Baptists, Methodists, believers of the New Apostolic Church - 0.46% and adherents of other religious movements.

Part of the believers are Muslims (from 3.8 million to 4.3 million or from 4.5% to 5.2%), Jehovah's Witnesses (about 164,000 or 0.2%) and members of the Jewish communities (about 100,000 or 0.12 %). About 31% of the German population, mainly in the territory of the former GDR, are atheists (70% there).

Germany was converted to Christianity during the time of the Franks. The Baptist of Germany is considered to be Saint Boniface, who was the Bishop of Mainz and converted a significant part of modern Germany to Christianity (he suffered martyrdom from the pagans in 754). At the beginning of the 16th century, the Church Reformation began in Germany and Switzerland, based on the teachings of Ulrich Zwingli and Martin Luther. As a result of the Reformation and the religious wars that accompanied it (the main of which was the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648), Germany was divided into Catholic and Protestant (Lutheran) regions. The main principle enshrined in the Augsburg Religious Peace (1555) was the principle of “cuius regio euius religio” (“whose power, that is the faith”), that is, the subjects of one or another feudal lord were obliged to accept his faith: Catholic or Protestant.

Holidays

Many holidays have a long history based on ancient rites and religious holidays. A number of holidays are reflected in the calendars as a holiday and therefore a non-working day. All-German holidays include: New Year (January 1); Day of the Three Kings (Magi, in the Orthodox tradition) (January 6); Labor Day (May 1); German Unity Day (October 3); St. Nicholas Day (December 6, see Nikolaustag); Christmas (December 25-26). In addition, each land and administrative unit with appropriate powers can also celebrate a local memorial day. These include Oktoberfest (Munich), Christkindlmarkt (Nuremberg), Rosenmontag (Düsseldorf, Cologne, Mainz, Nuremberg).

Trade unions in Germany

Among the European models of social partnership, one of the most successful and stable is the German one.

The formation of a social partnership system in Germany dates back to the end of the 19th century. An important role in Germany is played by the traditions of interaction between social partners, the experience of conflict-free problem solving, and high civic consciousness. By the middle of the 20th century, a system was developed that included unemployment insurance, government measures to promote employment, a negotiating mechanism between trade unions and employers' unions (tariff autonomy), and the like.

The "German" model provides for the conclusion of a large number of industry agreements, which practically neutralizes negotiations at the enterprise level. According to the Basic Law "The Federal Republic of Germany is a democratic and social state" and through the adoption of relevant laws, the state largely determines the framework conditions in the field of social and labor relations.

So, the State contributes to the creation of the necessary conditions for resolving conflicts, and legally extends collective agreements to "non-unified" employees.

Labor legislation in Germany is also at a high level of development. One of the features of German trade unions is that there is no primary trade union organization at German enterprises, but there is a representative of the trade union. He is a member of the works council of the enterprise. The production council of the enterprise establishes contacts between the administration and trade unions. In relations between employers and employees, these councils have no right to take sides. They cannot organize strikes, and are called upon to defend the interests of the company as a whole. There are such works councils in all sectors of the economy.

In Germany, 85% of all workers who are members of some trade union are members of the German Trade Union Association (DGB).

The Association of German Trade Unions is the largest (6.6 million members) and influential trade union organization in Germany, created back in 1949.

The association of German trade unions represents the interests of workers in the private and public sector, employees and officials. It consists of eight branch trade unions:
Industrial Union "Construction-Agriculture-Ecology" (IG Bauen-Agrar-Umwelt);
Industrial Trade Union "Mining, Chemical Industry, Energy" (IG Bergbau, Chemie, Energy);
Trade Union "Education and Science" (Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft);
Industrial Union "IG Metall" (IG Metall);
Trade Union "Food-Delicatessen-Restaurants" (Gewerkschaft Nahrung-Genuss-Gaststätten);
Police Union (Gewerkschaft der Polizei);
Trade Union of Railway Workers TRANSNET
United Service Workers Union (Verdi)

In its program, the Association of German Trade Unions adheres to the idea of ​​​​social solidarity, that is, it advocates a fair distribution of jobs and incomes, social subsidies, benefits, the development of accumulation funds, the fight against unemployment, equal chances for success regardless of origin, skin color and sex - the share of women in the SNP - 31.9%.

In the economy, the SNPs support the concept of a socially oriented market economy that meets the interests of established social structures.

The UNP is a member of the European Trade Union Confederation, the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the Advisory Committee to the OECD and represents the German trade union movement in the EU, UN, IMF, WTO and ILO.

Their slogan is "Save the welfare state through reform." Other priorities include the development of infrastructure and public sector utilities, maintaining a high quality of life. A special role in this, according to the UNP, belongs to the state: active state intervention serves as a guarantor of social order and justice.

The UNP opposes general privatization and deregulation and calls for a redistribution of responsibility for regulating markets between trade unions and the state. It is necessary to limit privatization so that citizens do not pay for the state's mistakes related to the sale of highly profitable business areas to private hands.

The public sector must also address environmental issues and set the norm in the economic and social spheres.

Particular emphasis is placed on the role of local self-government in public life as a form of citizen participation in politics. Creating an affordable housing market that takes into account the opportunities of people with low incomes is one of the main tasks of the state "social construction".

Key tasks of social policy:
Job Opportunity Guarantee
Prevention of poverty and related social exclusion
Integration of disabled people, prevention of their social and professional exclusion
development of affordable health care, family support, school education.
protection of the elderly, development of a system of social insurance funds (accumulation funds), increase in social payments (increase in federal pension subsidies), benefits, accumulation funds, fight against unemployment.

German Bureau of Officials and Tariff Union (DBB)
(Federal Chairman - Peter Hazen)

“Proximity is our strength,” says the German Confederation of Officials. The DBB represents the tariff-political interests of public sector and private sector employees. The trade union has more than 1.25 million members. This trade union is supported by 39 other trade unions and 16 state organizations.

The title of the union's recent program is "Challenging the Future - Creating Opportunities". The DBB says it puts "People First" and calls for a fight against job cuts. The trade union position itself as an association of reformers. “Reforms are not through cost savings… First of all, the rights of the people. Every individual matters." The DBB, like the UNP, advocates equal opportunities for all, especially in matters of gender equality (for example, the DBB has 320,000 women and 150,000 youth aged 16-27).

The DBB expresses its concern about the emerging deficit of public funding.

In 2003, the DBB Congress of the Union in Leipzig presented the program "Reformist model of the 21st century". It contains proposals for a long-term, citizen-friendly reconstruction of public administration.

DBB proposes a "new career model":
According to education and experience, everyone can take a proper post.
Flexible working hours
Reform of labor legislation on wages and working hours
Against slogans like "we will increase working hours, we will refuse public holidays"
Preservation of jobs for workers and employees
Protection of the income of the population in accordance with the economic situation in the country
Extending the working conditions of the West German states to the East German ones (high wages, social guarantees, fixed working week, etc.)
Organization of the work of employees in accordance with the job law that contributes to the success and productivity of labor
Performance related pay
Autonomy in negotiating wage increases and comprehensive labor contracts nationwide
High performance and humane management of recruited employees.

The union works closely with the EU on labor law issues. In 1991 DBB participated in the creation of the European Trade Union Confederation (8 million members).

German Christian Trade Union Association

This trade union represents the interests of religious workers and officials. The German Christian Trade Union Association (CGB) is the third largest trade union association in Germany. Under his leadership are 16 separate tariff negotiators in a wide variety of industries such as railways, hospitality or agriculture. The CGB advocates for the extension of Christian values ​​to working life. In its program, the CGB emphasizes that the CGB is a voluntary association of independent trade unions. The main priorities of the CGB:
Implementation of Christian social values ​​in work, economy, public life and society
Protection of socially vulnerable segments of the population, public unity.
Freedom of association/union in accordance with the Basic Law (workers can choose any representative to protect their interests)
Promoting trade union pluralism in Europe and Germany
Human rights and freedoms are the main value of the rule of law, against all types of extremism

The trade union also advocates the development of a social market economy model that combines the advantages of a competitive economy with social responsibility. The CGB encourages the development of social partnership between employees and employers. Personal performance is the basis for fair job evaluation. Particular attention should be paid to people with limited working capacity.

As far as Christian values ​​are concerned, Sunday should remain a day of rest as an important foundation for the Christian way of life.

The CGB advocates minimal government intervention in tariff autonomy. The task of a Christian-social tariff policy is to ensure a fair participation in social production for workers.

The family is the basis of society, it is necessary to intensify social policy to support the institution of the family.

Preservation and creation of jobs determine the tariff policy of the CGB. The CGB excludes political strikes as a means of defending the interests of workers, and advocates for the rights of workers to participate in the management of the enterprise and for a fair tax system "burdening all social groups according to their ability to pay."

The expansion of the European Community poses great challenges to Germany, primarily in economic and social policy. The CGB stands for the equalization of the living conditions of all EU countries, taking into account the characteristics of the Member States.

United Trade Union of Service Workers

It has over 2 million members. Employee representation was brought to life in 2001 by the merger of five separate trade unions from the economic sectors: financial services, municipal services, logistics, trade and media. Consists of 13 industry divisions and extensive network organizations.

The system of social protection of the population

The model of social protection that existed in Germany (called “corporate”, “continental”, “conservative” or “Bismarckian”) is considered one of the most effective among European countries. Germany was the first country to introduce a social insurance system. Back in the 1890s, under Bismarck, three laws were adopted that formed the basis of this system: the law on insurance for the sickness of persons in commercial work, the law on insurance against industrial accidents, and the law on disability and old-age insurance (1891).

At the beginning of the 20th century, the development of social insurance led to a reduction in the retirement age to 65 with 35 years of insurance experience. Early retirement pension (from the age of 60) was assigned to miners with many years of work experience.

The modern model of social protection in Germany was formed under the influence of the changes that took place in the country in the 50-60s of the XX century, and changed as a result of the coming to power of each new party.

The concept of the social market economy was developed to rebuild the German economy after World War II. Its political implementation is associated with the personalities of L. Erhard and A. Müller-Armak. The term "social market economy" was introduced by Müller-Armac. L. Erhard was the first Minister of Economics, and then became the Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. Under his leadership, the concept of a social market economy was developed and then implemented in Germany. The social task of the state was not the redistribution of social benefits, but the provision of framework conditions for the activities of individuals, encouraging their consciousness, independence and responsibility for their own well-being. The result of the implementation of these principles was an "economic miracle". According to L. Erhard, the state should provide social assistance in accordance with the moral principles of society (the most vulnerable and low-income segments of the population - the disabled, orphans, large families, pensioners), but support competition and fight dependency. After the resignation of Chancellor L. Erhard, Keynesian methods of economic stimulation were given priority in domestic policy; the state assumed the role of distributor of the national income.

During the rapid economic growth, due to a shortage of workers, guest workers from southeastern Europe were allowed to enter the country. In the mid-1970s, about 4 million people lived in the country (11% of the workforce). This was the reason for the increase in state social spending, which, after the oil crises, became a heavy burden on the state treasury. The state took measures to restrict immigration, which provoked an increase in taxes. Layoff protection and tariff autonomy laws were passed to restore economic stability. This led to the fact that only three major players remained on the market: the state, trade unions and employers. This weakened competition and made it possible for trade unions to demand higher wages, a reduction in the working week, etc. Another feature of this period can be the desire of the state to redistribute income not vertically (to reduce the differentiation of society), but horizontally (within the middle class).

The modern model of social protection in Germany has the main characteristics: the principle of professional solidarity, the principle of redistribution, the principle of assistance and the principle of self-government of insurance institutions.

The principle of professional solidarity

Insurance funds are being created, managed on an equal footing by employees and employers. These funds receive deductions from salaries in accordance with the “principle of insurance”. The system establishes a strong link between the level of social protection and the success and duration of employment. This model assumes the development of a system of social insurance benefits differentiated by types of labor activity. In contrast to the social-democratic model, the corporate model is based on the principle of personal responsibility of each member of society for their own destiny and the position of their loved ones. Therefore, here self-defense, self-sufficiency play a significant role.

The principle of redistribution

This principle applies to a small part of the low-income strata of society. Social assistance is provided regardless of previous contributions and is financed from tax revenues to the state budget. The right to receive such assistance belongs to persons who have special merits before the state, for example, civil servants or victims of war.

Assistance principle

This principle is an indispensable element of the social protection system, since the previous principles do not take into account all insurance risks. According to the principle of assistance, social assistance can be received by anyone in need of the amount necessary for him, if he does not have the opportunity to improve his financial situation on his own.

The principle of self-government of insurance institutions

The management of the social insurance system is carried out directly by interested persons-employers and employees, which ensures the most complete representation of the interests of both parties. There are three main actors involved in social protection at the regional and local levels: national or local business associations, trade unions and the state. It is interesting to note that the German social protection system is characterized by the division of institutions providing social insurance by areas of competence: organizations for pensions, sickness and accidents at work operate separately. Unemployment insurance is not included in the general system of social protection, but falls within the competence of the federal department for labor, that is, it is carried out within the framework of the policy of promoting employment of the population. The financing of the compulsory social insurance system (in addition to it, there is private, of course) is carried out according to a mixed system: from the contributions of insured workers and their employers (medical, pension and unemployment insurance) and from general tax revenues to the state budget. A special position is occupied only by accident insurance, which is financed by contributions from the employer. In the event of financial difficulties for social insurance bodies, the state acts as a guarantor of the fulfillment of their obligations, which indicates the special role of social protection bodies in maintaining stability and social justice.

At the present stage of history, the former model of socio-economic development of Germany is in crisis. The tax burden reaches 80% of the income of the population, there is a high level of unemployment, which is chronic, the distribution of income is inefficient and non-transparent, the quality of public services does not meet the requirements of the time. Due to the aging of the population (its growth in 2000 was only 0.29%), social security spending is steadily increasing. The high level of benefits for the unemployed generates dependency in society. Against the backdrop of falling economic growth rates, unemployment has become an acute problem in Germany (at the beginning of 2002, more than 4 million unemployed people were registered).

Large companies, skillfully using loopholes in the legislation to reduce taxes, often seek privileges for themselves. In the pension sector, the policy of the "contract of generations" was unofficially proclaimed, when pension contributions are made from the income of the working population. Given the aging of the German population, the tax burden is increasing sharply, and there are not enough funds for payments from the pension fund. Problems arise in relation to those segments of the population that do not have a permanent job and, accordingly, are not entitled to receive insurance benefits, while the level of state assistance is extremely low. Therefore, these categories are forced to rely on local charitable organizations and public assistance. Accordingly, the corporate model of social policy leads to the emergence of a "dual society".

culture

The culture of Germany includes the culture of both the modern Federal Republic of Germany and the peoples that make up modern Germany, before its unification: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, etc. A broader interpretation of "German culture" also includes the culture of Austria, which is politically independent of Germany, but inhabited by Germans and belongs to the same culture. German (Germanic) culture has been known since the 5th century. BC e.

Modern Germany is characterized by diversity and wide dissemination of culture. There is no centralization of cultural life and cultural values ​​in one or several cities - they are dispersed literally throughout the country: along with the famous Berlin, Munich, Weimar, Dresden or Cologne, there are many small, not so widely known, but culturally significant places: Rothenburg Obder -Tauber, Naumburg, Bayreuth, Celle, Wittenberg, Schleswig, etc. In 1999 there were 4570 museums, and their number is growing. They receive almost 100 million visits per year. The most famous museums are the Dresden Art Gallery, the Old and New Pinakotheks in Munich, the Deutsches Museum in Munich, the Historical Museum in Berlin and many others. There are also many palace museums (the most famous is Sanssouci in Potsdam) and castle museums.

Sport

Germany is a state where physical culture and sports have been widely developed on the basis of the sports traditions of the German nation. According to the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB), in 2009, about 25-30% of the German population (24-27 million people) were members of various sports organizations. Every year the number of people involved in sports in the country increases by 5-6%. The German national football team is one of the strongest teams in the world. The Germans have 11 world championship medals: 3 gold, 4 silver, 4 bronze; 7 medals of the European championships: 3 gold, 1 silver, 3 bronze. The German national football team is one of the most successful national teams in the history of international tournaments. One of the most successful and famous Formula 1 drivers, seven-time world champion Michael Schumacher is German.

Education in Germany

Preschool education in Germany

Pre-school education is provided by institutions (mainly kindergartens (German: Kindergärten)), which work with children aged 3-6 until they usually start school. Children who have not reached the level appropriate for their age or are behind in development have the opportunity to catch up in preschool classes (German: Vorklassen) and kindergartens at schools (German: Schulkindergärten).

These institutions adjoin either the pre-school sector or the primary education sector, depending on the rules of the individual Länder. Attendance is usually optional, although in most Länder it is the responsibility of the authorities to make schooling compulsory for children of the appropriate age who are retarded.

The transition from primary education to one of the types of lower secondary education, where pupils study before they have completed the entire course of compulsory education, depends on the legislation of individual states. The recommendations of the school in which the child studied is a kind of guideline in determining further professional orientation. This is agreed with the parents. The final decision, in principle, is made by the parents, but for certain types of schools it also depends on the student's abilities in the area in which the school specializes, where the parents want to send the child, and / or on the decision made by the school management.

School education

School education in Germany is free and universal. A 9 year education is required. In general, the school education system is designed for 12-13 years. To date, there are about 50 thousand schools in Germany, in which more than 12.5 million students study. The school system is divided into three levels: primary, secondary I and secondary II.

All children who have reached the age of six begin their education in primary school (Grundschule). Education in primary school lasts four years (four classes), the load is from 20 to 30 hours a week. In 2008, there were approximately 3 million students in primary school.

Secondary education

Education of the second stage (secondary I) continues until the 10th grade.

After elementary school, children are divided, mainly by ability, into three different groups.

The weakest students are sent for further education in the so-called "main school" (German: Hauptschule), where they study for 5 years. The main goal of this school is to prepare for low-skilled professional activities. This is where basic education comes in. The average workload is 30-33 hours per week. After graduating from the main school, a young German can start working or continue his studies in the vocational education system. Students with average results go to a "real school" (German: Realschule) and study there for 6 years. After graduating from a real school, you can get a job, and the most capable can continue their education in the 11th and 12th grades of the gymnasium.

In the gymnasium, the student receives a classical education. After graduating from the gymnasium, a matriculation certificate is given, giving the right to enter the university.

Secondary education of the second stage (secondary II) is carried out only in the gymnasium in the 11th and 12th grades. Students in the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium are considered applicants. In the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium, students are preparing to study at higher educational institutions. At the end of the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium, students take exams in basic school subjects (German: Abitur). The level of education in the 12th and 13th grades and the level of final exams in the gymnasium is very high and, according to the UNESCO ISCED International Classification of Education Standards, corresponds to the level of 1-2 courses of higher educational institutions of countries with a ten-year or eleven-year school education system (for example, Russia). The average score of all entrance exams is the most important criterion for obtaining a place to study at a higher education institution. There are no entrance exams to higher educational institutions in Germany. Admission is carried out in accordance with the average mark in the certificate, as well as taking into account some social factors. If there are more applicants for study at a higher educational institution than there are places, then the best ones are accepted, and the rest are enrolled in the queue; they can get a place to study next year.

Secondary education in Germany is represented by vocational schools, special vocational schools and higher specialized schools.

Germany is subject to constant criticism from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development for its policy in the field of education. The government has not yet taken measures to eliminate the identified problems in the education system. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany's spending on education is below average. At the same time, there is an imbalance in the financing of educational institutions. While the cost of primary school is relatively low, a lot of money is invested in higher education institutions. According to experts, Germany may suffer losses in the future if educational reform is not carried out.

Higher education

The German system of higher education is characterized by a variety of types of universities. In total, there are 383 universities in Germany, of which 103 are universities and 176 universities of applied sciences. Getting the first higher education in almost all universities until recently was free for both Germans and foreigners. Since 2007, students of some universities are required to pay approximately 500 euros per semester plus the regular fee (which has existed for much longer and everywhere), about 150 euros, which includes a ticket, use of libraries, etc. [source not specified 865 days] In the Western federal states under the control of the CDU party, students who exceed the prescribed study period by several semesters are usually required to pay tuition fees. These reforms in the education system are regulated by the relevant law. The number of students is almost 2 million, of which 48% are women, 250,000 are foreign students. The teaching staff is about 110 thousand people. Approximately 69,000 Germans study abroad. Until 2010, in the course of the Bologna process, German universities must restructure their curricula according to a new model.

A significant number of universities are state-owned and are subsidized by the government. There are relatively few private universities - 69.

When entering a university, entrance exams are not provided, and the most important thing for an applicant is to successfully pass the final exams at a school or gymnasium. When enrolling in prestigious specialties, the average score of the applicant's school certificate is of decisive importance.

The distribution of places for prestigious specialties at universities is not carried out by universities, but by a special department - "Zentralstelle für die Vergabe von Studienplätzen". In addition to the average score, ZVS also takes into account social and personal reasons, such as disability, marital status, etc. If the average score is insufficient, then the applicant is put on a waiting list. After several semesters of waiting, he is granted a place at the university.

Those wishing to study at institutes (Fachhochschule) apply directly there. There is also a selection based on certificates.

Parents of all students under the age of 25 in Germany are entitled to receive so-called "children's money" (Kindergeld) in the amount of 184 euros. Students, taking into account their own income and the income of their parents, can receive a student loan (“BaFöG”). Half of this loan must then be returned to the state.

In addition to the usual scholarship, in Germany there are many scholarships assigned by various foundations - there are party foundations and the German People's Foundation, foundations of churches, state governments, departments of the German government, as well as small regional organizations. Scholarships are usually designed for a certain category of students, for example, especially gifted ones. Scholarships are available for both German students and students from other countries. The main organization issuing scholarships for foreigners is the German Academic Exchange Service. The next major foundations: the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, the Friedrich Erbert Stiftung, the NaFög (Each Lands Foundation) grant scholarships only for the writing of a Dissertation (Promotionsstudium).

The science

Scientific research in Germany is carried out in universities and scientific associations, as well as in corporate research centers. Scientific research at universities is financed from the federal budget, from the state budget and from funds allocated by enterprises. 9.2 billion euros are spent annually on research at universities.

Scientific research in Germany is also carried out by four large scientific associations: the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Society, the Fraunhofer Society and the Leibniz Society.

The Max Planck Society has about 13 thousand employees, including 5 thousand scientists, the annual budget of the society is 1.4 billion euros.
The Helmholtz Society has about 26.5 thousand employees, including 8 thousand scientists, the annual budget is 2.35 billion euros.
The Fraunhofer Society has about 12.5 thousand employees, the budget is 1.2 billion euros.
The Leibniz Society has 13,700 employees and a budget of 1.1 billion euros.

Large German and foreign companies also maintain research centers in Germany.

media

Newspapers and magazines

The German newspaper market is characterized by a small number of national newspapers and a well-developed local press. The reason for this development of the press market was that the modern German media landscape is rooted in the post-war years, when the Western allies, having closed all the media that existed in Nazi Germany, began to create their own media system, naturally focusing on the development of media within their own occupation zones. That is why there are relatively few nationwide newspapers in Germany, and most of them appeared after 1949, that is, after the formal occupation status of West Germany ended and the FRG was created. Conventionally, the German press can be divided into three categories:
national newspapers (distributed throughout Germany);
supra-regional newspapers (überregionale Zeitungen) - distributed in more than one region, but not throughout the country;
local press - newspapers of one region, one district, city, and so on.

Separately, it must be emphasized that many small local newspapers are included in the “publishing chains”: since a small newspaper with a circulation of several hundred or thousands of copies, of course, cannot afford to buy good photographs, send a correspondent on business trips, or subscribe to news feeds , she enters into an associated relationship with a certain publishing concern. This concern provides dozens of local newspapers with unified content - articles on domestic and foreign policy, sports reviews, etc., leaving only local news at the discretion of the editors. In this way, the local newspaper survives economically and readers can continue to buy the newspaper they are used to. Meanwhile, in this case, of course, we cannot talk about an independent publication, and German media researchers prefer to talk about "editorial publications" (German: redaktionelle Ausgabe) and "journalistic units" (German: publizistische Einheit).

National dailies:
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, FAZ (Frankfurt General Newspaper) is a liberal-conservative and most widely read newspaper in Germany, more to the left than "Welt", but more to the right than "taz". Published in Frankfurt am Main. Circulation: 387,064 copies.
"Süddeutsche Zeitung", SZ (South German newspaper) - a serious newspaper, left, closer to the "FAZ", a liberal direction, published in Munich. / Concern Süddeutscher Verlag /. Despite its name, it is a national newspaper. Circulation: 444,000 copies.
The Frankfurter Rundschau (Frankfurt Review) is a newspaper close to the Social Democrats. Circulation: 150,000 copies.
Die Welt (Peace) is a right-wing, most conservative newspaper owned by the largest German publishing concern Springer-Verlag, which specializes in the production of mass periodicals. Circulation: 264,273 copies.
"Bild" (Picture) - tabloid newspaper, the most popular "yellow" newspaper, the flagship of the Springer-Verlag publishing house, the most circulated newspaper in Germany. Unlike all other national newspapers, the vast majority of Bild's circulation is retail, not subscription. Circulation: 3,445,000 copies.
Handelsblatt (Trade Newspaper) is Germany's leading financial newspaper. Published since 1946. Circulation: 148,000 copies.
Financial Times Deutschland (Financial Times Germany) is a financial and political newspaper that has been published since 2000. Circulation: 100,000 copies.
Die Tageszeitung (Daily) is a far-left, independent of concerns and political forces, founded in 1978 as a mouthpiece for the radical left movement. Today it has rather a left-liberal orientation. In addition to the Berlin edition, there are several regional editions. Known for her provocative, anti-war and anti-nationalist articles. Circulation: 60,000 copies. Published in Berlin.
"Junge Welt" (Young World) is a small-circulation left-wing newspaper. It was created as the mouthpiece of the youth organization of the GDR, the Union of Free German Youth. Circulation: below 20,000 copies.
"Express" Tale newspaper: Cologne-Bonn /M. DuMont & Schauberg Verlag/.

Supra-regional dailies:
The Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, WAZ (West German General Newspaper) is a conservative publication distributed in North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate, the parent newspaper of the WAZ-Gruppe publishing group.
Neues Deutschland (New Germany) is the former mouthpiece of the SED, the ruling party of the GDR. Today, she is close to her successor, the Left Party. Popular mainly in the eastern lands. Circulation: 45,000 copies.

Other German daily newspapers:
"Sächsische Zeitung" (Saxon newspaper) - the largest newspaper in East Germany, with an editorial office in Dresden, the flagship publication of the newspaper group Sächsische Zeitung
"Berliner Zeitung" (Berlin newspaper)
"Tagesspiegel" (Mirror of the day)
"Stuttgarter Zeitung" (Stuttgart newspaper)

etc.

Weekly socio-political magazines:
"Der Spiegel" (The Mirror) left-wing weekly, criticism, analysis - Hamburg / Bertelsmann AG concern /
"Focus" (Focus) left-wing weekly, Munich / Hubert Burda Media concern
"Stern" (Star)

Weekly Newspapers:
Die Zeit (Time) is the most influential liberal weekly newspaper. Circulation: 480.000 copies
Freitag (Friday) is a small-circulation newspaper that finds its readers among the left-wing intellectuals. Circulation: 13.000 copies.
"Junge Freiheit" (Young Freedom) is a small-circulation newspaper of a national conservative orientation. Circulation: 16,000 copies (according to own instructions).

Russian-language newspapers and magazines:
Russian-language press of Germany - Library online.
Review of the "Russian" press of Germany (Article).
"We are in Hamburg." The main content of the editorial part is articles on the history of Hamburg and its famous people, museums, the Hanseatic traditions of the metropolis on the Elbe, economic and other aspects of life in the districts of modern Hamburg, and the cities of Northern Germany. Distributed for free. Circulation 10,000 copies.

Also in Germany, local versions of international magazines such as Cosmopolitan, Glamour, Maxim, Newsweek, Businessweek, etc. are published.

Television and radio

Today, the system of German audiovisual media is called the "dual" system. This means that there are only two forms of media ownership in Germany:
a) public-legal form of ownership;
b) private ownership.

The public-legal form of ownership dates back to the post-war period, when, as part of the denazification policy, all the media that existed in Nazi Germany were closed by the Western allies, and the press and radio, completely controlled by the occupying military authorities, were created to ensure information broadcasting. Between 1945 and 1949 the radio stations established by the Allies were gradually transferred to the management of German personnel, but the question arose before the occupying authorities how these companies should be managed. The Allies immediately rejected the idea of ​​transferring the media to the hands of the German state (the government of the FRG, as well as the local governments of the federal states are still forbidden to have any media), but the idea of ​​transferring radio stations to private hands was also rejected (despite the fact that newspapers, created by the allies were transferred to private editors). As the main form of ownership, the allies chose the public-legal form of ownership.

This form of ownership is typical for the British BBC and means that the company is not owned by either private persons or the state, but is in the "community ownership". The strategic management of the company is carried out by a special supervisory board, formed from representatives of major parties, significant public organizations, churches, trade unions, etc., which should ensure the most balanced program policy. The Supervisory Board appoints a management board, which is engaged in "tactical planning" of the company's actions and appoints an intendant - the general director of the company, who directly manages the company. Such a complex management system, borrowed from the same BBC, was also designed to ensure the democratic development of the German media. The first public law company in West Germany was NWDR (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk), broadcasting in the British occupation zone and created by the Englishman Hugh Carlton Green, a BBC employee who later received the post of BBC CEO. Also, the public-legal form of ownership was chosen by the Americans and the French - for their occupation zones.

Broadcasting

Public law broadcasting remained the only broadcast in Germany until the late 1980s, when legislation was amended to allow the creation of private radio and television companies. Private companies subsist by advertising and producing their own films and shows, which they can sell to third parties. Public law companies can only place a limited amount of advertising in their broadcasts (in particular, advertising on public legal channels is completely prohibited on weekends and holidays, and on weekdays - prohibited after 8 pm), but they receive the so-called. "subscription fee" (Gebühren) from all German citizens who have a TV or radio at home. The subscription fee for a TV station is about 17 euros per month, for a radio receiver - about 9 euros per month. All Germans who have a TV or radio are required to pay a subscription fee, regardless of whether they watch broadcasts of public legal channels - this causes fierce discussions in German society. The largest public law company in Germany and the largest television and radio company in Europe is the public law television and radio company ARD (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland - the Commonwealth of Public Law Television and Radio Companies of the Federal Republic of Germany).

Within the framework of ARD, the first German television channel is broadcast: ARD Das Erste, about a dozen local television channels produced respectively by members of the community, local public broadcasters and radio broadcasters, as well as over fifty local radio programs.

The members of the ARD are (in alphabetical order):
Bayerischer Rundfunk (BR)
Hessischer Rundfunk (HR)
Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk (MDR)
Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR)
Radio Berlin-Brandenburg (RBB)
Radio Bremen (RB)
Südwestfunk (SWR)
Saarländischer Rundfunk (SR)
Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR)

ARD also broadcasts radio and television Deutsche Welle - Deutsche Welle. Deutsche Welle performs the functions of foreign broadcasting, therefore, for its creation, ARD receives a separate budget, subsidized by the federal government. Deutsche Welle is presented on television (DW-TV) and radio (DW-Radio), as well as on the DW-WORLD Internet. Broadcasting is carried out in 30 languages. Radio programs and a website are published in Russian.

The second public television channel in Germany is ZDF - Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (Second German Television), headquartered in Mainz. The history of the creation of the ZDF goes back to the 1950s, when Federal Chancellor Konrad Adenauer tried to bring the media under state control. One of the directions of the federal government's offensive against the media was an attempt to create a state second channel. Faced with serious opposition from both the ARD functionaries, who did not want to tolerate state competitors, and the governments of the federal states, who did not want to strengthen the federal center, Adenauer tried to realize his project until the early 1960s, when in 1962 the verdict of the federal constitutional court recognized the very possibility of creating a state-owned television was illegal and banned the federal center from any attempts to create such media. As an alternative, a second, also public-legal channel, ZDF, was created, which differed from ARD in that ARD was a decentralized structure, a commonwealth of many local companies, and ZDF was originally created as a vertically organized, centralized project.

The following private channels also broadcast in Germany:

RTL, RTL2, Super RTL, Sat1, Pro7, Kabel1, VOX, Eurosport, DSF, MTV, VIVA, VIVA PLUS

news channels: n-tv, N24, EuroNews

other German TV channels:
KinderKanal (KiKa) is a joint project of ARD and ZDF
Phoenix (a political information channel, almost all of whose content is made up of live broadcasts from political events, lengthy speeches by politicians, etc.)
ARTE (French-German cultural and information channel, created on the German side with the participation of ARD and ZDF)
3Sat is a joint German-language channel broadcasting in the territories of Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
R1 - Russian-language channel. broadcasting Russian programs.

Military establishment

On November 10, 2004, German Defense Minister Peter Struck announced plans to reform the armed forces, according to which the number of military personnel and civilians employed in servicing parts of the Bundeswehr will be reduced by a third (35 thousand military personnel and 49 thousand civilians will be fired), and 105 permanent military garrisons on German territory will be disbanded.

Along with the reduction, reforms will be carried out in the system of recruiting the army and the basic principles of its application.

On July 1, 2011, the mandatory military conscription into the German army was discontinued. Thus, the Bundeswehr moved to a fully professional army.

The reform of the principles of the use of the army means the reduction of the Bundeswehr's strongholds from a total of 600 to 400. First of all, this will affect the bases of the ground forces in the country. The Ministry of Defense sees no point in keeping heavily armed units within German borders. Since the whole world is now considered the area of ​​​​possible operations of the Bundeswehr, it was decided that it would be more correct to maintain military bases outside of Germany, on the territory of NATO countries in Eastern Europe, where the main NATO strike groups will soon be relocated.

At the same time, the terminology is changing - it is supposed to place here not “military bases”, but “rapid deployment strongholds” and “security cooperation zones”, that is, bridgeheads that will become the basis for “rapid deployment of armed forces against terrorists and hostile states”.

Germany is one of the most active NATO countries, providing the military-political alliance during all peacekeeping operations (Afghanistan, Serbia, Macedonia, Kosovo, Somalia, and so on) with a significant proportion of personnel. German troops were also part of the UN multinational force in Central and West Africa.

Since 2000, the foreign operations of the Bundeswehr annually cost the country's budget about 1.5 billion euros.

In the course of the reform, by 2010, German troops will be divided into 3 types:
rapid reaction forces (55 thousand people), which are intended for combat operations anywhere in the world;
peacekeeping contingent (90 thousand);
base forces (170 thousand), stationed in Germany and consisting of command and control units, logistics and support services.

Another 10,000 servicemen will make up an emergency reserve stock under the direct control of the Chief Inspector of the Bundeswehr. Each of the three corps will include units of the ground, air force, naval forces, joint support forces and medical and sanitary service.

In connection with the above, heavy armored vehicles and artillery systems will no longer be purchased for the armament of the army. This is due to the increased mobility requirements for the rapid reaction forces. At the same time, Germany will buy 180 Eurofighter Typhoon multi-role combat aircraft.

By the beginning of the XIV century. The Holy Roman Empire remained the largest political entity in Western Europe, devoid, however, of internal unity. The core of the empire was the old German lands, as well as vast areas that were Germanized during colonization beyond the Elbe and along the Danube. In addition, the empire included only formally associated with it, in fact, the sovereign states of Northern Italy and Tuscany, the Kingdom of the Czech Republic.

In 1291, another independent state, the Swiss Union, was founded on the territory of the empire. The free communities of the three Alpine "forest lands" - Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden - united against the attempts of the Habsburgs to subdue them and take possession of the St. Gotthard Pass, through which an important trade route connecting Germany and Italy passed. In 1315, the Swiss infantry, consisting of peasants, utterly defeated the knightly cavalry of the Habsburgs at Mount Morgarten (south of Lake Zurich). To an alliance that managed to defend its independence, in the middle of the XIV century. five "city" cantons (districts) joined, including Lucerne, Zurich, Bern. It took, however, a long struggle and new military victories for the Swiss, before at the beginning of the 16th century. their confederation achieved virtual autonomy from the empire. The confederation then included 13 cantons and several allied lands. The cantons differed in the features of the economy, the social composition of the communities, and the legal status, but the abundance of the free peasantry was similar in them. Outside of Switzerland, especially in the German countryside, this even gave rise to the legend of a happy country where the laws of the peasant freemen reign. There were no permanent bodies of central government in the union; tagzatzung, periodic meetings of representatives of the cantons, was considered the supreme authority. The allied lands did not have their own voice on it. Each of the cantons had the right to its own domestic and foreign policy, but gave the obligation not to act to the detriment of the general interests of the confederation.

The empire did not have in the XIV - XV centuries. firmly fixed borders, they changed as a result of wars, dynastic marriages, changes in vassal relations.

The development of cities in the XIV-XV centuries. For Germany, the XIV-XV centuries were the time of the highest flourishing of its cities, the rapid growth of crafts and trade, especially intermediary between different countries. All this was facilitated by the advantageous position of Germany on the routes of international trade.

Already at the turn of the XIII and XIV centuries. in Germany there were about 3,500 cities, in which about a fifth of the country's population, which was 13-15 million people, lived. The vast majority of these were small towns of various types with a population of up to a thousand people, closely connected with their agrarian environment. Their markets attracted peasants from nearby villages located within a radius of 10-30 km. Such a distance allowed one day to visit the market and return home. The network of these towns covered the whole country, but in Germany there were also three zones of predominant concentration of urban life, where the bulk of larger cities, with 3-10 thousand inhabitants, as well as the most significant German cities, with a population of over 20 thousand people, were located, - Cologne, Strasbourg, Lübeck, Nuremberg. The first of these zones is North German, it included Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund and other port cities located on the coast of the North and Baltic Seas or on river routes to them. They were energetically involved in the European transit trade on the extensive sea routes between London and Novgorod, Bruges and Bergen. The second zone is South German: Augsburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Regensburg, but also Basel, Vienna and other cities. Many of them carried on a lively trade with the lands along the Danube, but most focused primarily on Italy: they were connected through the Alpine mountain passes with Milan, famous for its fairs, and with Venice and Genoa, the two main intermediaries in Western Europe's trade with the Levant. The third zone was formed by numerous cities along the Rhine, from Cologne to Strasbourg. Through them there was a trade exchange between the south and the north, not only of Germany, but to a large extent of Europe as a whole. The general level of development of intra-German trade was quite high, although the attraction of individual regions to each other remained still weak.

Own production in German cities was designed mainly for local markets. However, there were also such centers, the products of which were valued throughout the country and beyond its borders. These were, first of all, South German cities, where good-quality linen and cotton fabrics were made, including fumes. They were in constant demand not only in Italy, but also in Spain. In these cities, they were engaged in silk weaving, using imported raw materials, they achieved high skill in metal processing. All-European fame was enjoyed by metal products of Nuremberg artisans - from artistic casting and jewelry, weapons, bells, lamps to thimbles, scissors, compasses, pincers and other labor tools. As in other Western European countries, the main industry that supplied goods for export was cloth-making. Rough cloths were made all over Germany for their own use, usually from local wool and using local dyes. They exported fine cloth from Germany. They were especially famous for Cologne, which tried to compete even with the Flemish cloth makers.

In the second half of the XIV century. artisans worked in the major cities of Germany in more than 50 branches of production, and this differentiation later increased even more. In a number of industries - in Nuremberg metalworking, Cologne cloth making - specialization appeared in two dozen professions. As a result, one of the prerequisites for the development of German manufactory production was formed.

By the middle of the XV century. new phenomena in the economic and social life of the German city intensified. Although the guild system continued to dominate, the symptoms of its beginning disintegration became clear: the "closing of the guild", the appearance of "eternal apprentices", the growing polarization of property among guild artisans. At the same time, predominantly in German textile production, and mainly in rural areas, where labor was cheaper and there was no shop regulation, the "distribution system" began to take root. It was a form of dispersed manufactory, in which the merchant-entrepreneur, the organizer of the production process divided into operations, bought raw materials in bulk in distant markets, loaned them to home-workers for a fee, manufacturers of yarn and semi-finished products, brought the product to full readiness in the city from experienced specialists -artisans and then sold the products again in distant markets. The main areas where the "distribution system" spread were Southern Germany, the North Rhine region with the center in Cologne, Saxony, which in the 15th century. in cloth making has become one of the most advanced lands of the country.

A special place in the German economy belonged to mining, in which German masters occupied leading positions in Europe in the 14th-15th centuries. Elements of early capitalist relations were also born here. The deepening of the mines, the lengthening of the adits required large expenditures on equipment, including for pumping water and air purification. The necessary capital began to be provided by shares of wealthy citizens, wealthy monasteries, trading firms, who received a commensurate share of the profits. The feudal owners of the subsoil - the princes and the emperor - often pledged mining to trading firms, and they rented them out to entrepreneurs or themselves invaded the organization of production. Along with the miners who worked in the mines on their own, at their own peril and risk, by the end of the 15th century. there were hired workers numbering in the thousands.

The origin of manufactory production in a centralized form took place mainly in the rapidly developing new industry - book printing, where an important role was played by the system of sequential book production operations. By the end of the XV century. in the German lands there were about 60 book-printing houses, including several large ones.

The further growth of the German economy and the emergence of new forms of organization in a number of industries met serious obstacles in their path. The main ones were the uneven economic development of individual regions and their weak interconnection with each other, as well as the political fragmentation of the country largely due to this situation. Its characteristic manifestations were the lack of a unified system of coins, measures and weights, the insecurity of roads and the numerous customs fees on trade routes. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. various coins were minted in Germany in 500 places, and there were more than 60 customs houses on the Rhine alone.

In an environment of political fragmentation of the country, the dominance of feudal arbitrariness, the weakness of the imperial power, the cities themselves were forced to defend their interests in Germany and abroad, uniting in unions. The largest of them in the history of medieval Europe was the North German trade and political "partnership" - Hansa. Beginning in the 12th century as an association of individual merchants and their groups, from the end of the 13th century. until the middle of the 14th century. turned into a union of cities and lasted more than 500 years, formally - until 1669. Its heyday falls on the XIV - the middle of the XV century, when it united about 160 cities.

The purpose of the Hansa was active intermediary trade, ensuring the security of trade routes, guaranteeing the privileges of its citizens abroad, maintaining the stability of the political system in the cities of the union, where, as a rule, the wealthy patrician elite was in power. The Hansa carried out its tasks by all means available to it - from diplomatic to the use of economic blockades and military actions against rivals or recalcitrants. Its core consisted of the already mentioned cities of the northern zone, the most influential of which were Lübeck and Hamburg. The Hansa dominated trade between the Netherlands, England, the Scandinavian countries and Russia, had its own trading offices, residential buildings, warehouses in Novgorod, Stockholm, London, Bruges and other cities, but its merchants also visited Bordeaux, Lisbon, Seville.

Flotillas of Hanseatic ships, carrying up to 200-300 tons of cargo, carried from the Baltic States, Scandinavia and Russian lands mainly bulky and heavy goods - grain, fish, salt, ore, timber, wood products, but also honey, wax, lard, furs, and in the opposite direction - Western European handicrafts made of metal, high-quality cloth, wines, luxury goods, as well as spices that have made their way from the Levant itself. In contrast to the trade of the South German cities, goods of their own production occupied little place in the Hanseatic trade.

The foreign and domestic policy of the Hansa was determined not by the burghers, and even more so not by the plebeian layers of its cities. The plebs made up more than half of the population in them, but were powerless. Power firmly held in the hands of the patriciate, a tenth of the city dwellers. From the second half of the XIV century. representatives of the cities of the Hansa gathered at regular congresses, the decisions of which were binding on all its members. Like a state, the Hanse waged wars more than once; thus, with the help of Sweden and other allies, she energetically fought with Denmark, won, and in the peace of 1370 not only confirmed the privileges of her merchants, but also received possession of a number of fortresses in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula.

Each Hanseatic city was autonomous in the conduct of its commercial and political affairs, but was not supposed to harm the entire union. He did not have a single administration, cash desk, fleet; efforts were united only for common, specific tasks beneficial to all participants. As a result, fleets ranging from a few ships to several tens or even hundreds of them could be sent for one or another trade operation or military purposes. In total, the Hansa had about a thousand ships.

The Hansa played a dual role: it contributed to the development of intermediary trade over a vast territory, but stifled the competition of merchants from other countries; she defended the communal freedoms of her members from the claims of feudal rulers, but also suppressed inner-city protests against the dominance of the patriciate; it united the cities of the North of Germany, but also separated them from the interests of other parts of the country.

By the middle of the XV century. Hansa is under increasing pressure from competitors who receive support from their states, while the Hansa did not have it. Dutch, then English merchants are pushing the Hanseatics. In trade with Novgorod, the leading position passes from Lübeck to the cities of Livonia. The strengthening of Poland increases the importance of Danzig. The internal contradictions in the Hansa also played their part. Its share in transit trade is declining, but the decline of the union is relative, it still remains a great force.

The Hansa was not the only major city union in Germany. In the second half of the XIV century. there are the Swabian and Rhine unions of cities, united in 1381. This coalition included more than 50 cities. Chivalry is also becoming more active, especially in Southwestern Germany, creating a number of its own class associations, including the St. Jorgen Shield Society and the St. Wilhelm Society. In an effort to expand their influence, the chivalrous unions come into conflict with the city ones. The princes, who were not satisfied with the strengthening of either knights or cities, took advantage of this, and in 1388 the union of the Swabian and Rhine cities was defeated. The attempt of cities to reinforce their role with military force in order to increase their political influence in the empire failed.

German village in the XIV-XV centuries. The growth of commodity-money relations at that time affected the changes not only in the city, but also in the agriculture of Germany, where both peasants and feudal lords were increasingly involved in connection with the market. The rapid development of cities had a number of adverse consequences in the countryside, including those characteristic of the 14th-15th centuries. the so-called "price scissors": high prices for handicrafts and low prices for agricultural products, especially grain. This situation was exacerbated by the plague epidemic of the late 40s of the XIV century, which claimed large masses of the village population, wars, and hunger strikes in lean years. The result of the demographic crisis was the depopulation and disappearance of many previously inhabited places, the reduction of arable land, the advance of forests and swamps on abandoned fields. In general, almost a fifth of the former settlements disappeared in Germany, especially farms and small villages. The process of "desolation" turned out to be connected, however, with attempts to make changes in agriculture, increasing its intensity, since there was a shortage of labor. The 14th-15th centuries became for Germany the time of the maximum expansion of viticulture, an increase in the share of animal husbandry, including sheep breeding and stall breeding, expansion of areas under horticultural and berry and industrial crops, of which especially great attention was paid to flax and hemp.

In the agrarian system of the German village of the XIV-XV centuries. two main development trends were outlined, the difference of which increased towards the end of the 15th century. The first of them is typical for territories to the west of the Elbe, the second - to the east of it, for previously colonized lands.

East of the Elbe there were many free peasants who had been provided with large allotments since the time of the resettlement and who owned two-thirds of the arable land; the rest belonged mainly to the knights. In the XIV - the middle of the XV century. the peasantry retained its more favorable position here, but the situation began to change when the demand for agricultural products in local cities increased, and then the demand for bread began to grow more and more for exporting it abroad, mainly to the Netherlands. In an effort to increase the profitability of their possessions, the chivalry tried to expand them, driving the peasants from their allotments and using them on corvee in the master's estates. In the XV century. this phenomenon had not yet become widespread, but a new trend emerged by the beginning of the 16th century. already clear enough.

West of the Elbe, the process of restructuring the patrimony went differently - to a partial or complete rejection of the master's plowing. The income of the seigneurs here consisted mainly of the amount of rents received from the land, judicial, and personal dependence of the peasants. Part of the peasantry managed to improve their situation by fixing the volumes and terms of duties on a contractual basis, but the number of peasants who had only half or a quarter of their allotment, or even completely lost it, also increased. In North-West Germany, a significant stratum of free, prosperous Meyer peasants has formed. The feudal lords rented out to them in hereditary lease in whole or in shares of the land of the former domain. Farming on large plots of 20-40 hectares of arable land, the meyers paid large chinches and, in turn, used the labor of small-land kotters, whose plots did not exceed 0.1 hectares, and landless peasants, whose number continued to grow with the development of monetary relations. In Southwestern Germany, where the “pure seigneury” dominated, small peasant farms predominated and the property stratification and debts of the peasants went especially far, they turned out to be the least protected from the desire of secular and spiritual feudal lords to increase incomes at their expense. It was here, earlier and to a greater extent than in other regions of Germany, that the feudal lords launched a multifaceted attack on the rights of the peasants: the seizure of peasant communal lands to intensify their animal husbandry, especially sheep breeding; the desire to increase the corvée to expand the master's crops of industrial crops in demand; revision to the detriment of tenant farmers of the conditions and terms of lease agreements; the use of personal and judicial duties of peasants to return them to a state of comprehensive hereditary dependence. The result of this feudal reaction was the aggravation of contradictions in the countryside and the intensification of the struggle of the peasants against feudal oppression.

The political development of Germany. A characteristic feature of the political development of Germany XIV-XV centuries. There were further successes of the princes, who sought to prevent the strengthening of imperial power, to continue centralization within individual territories. These goals were also served by the election by the princes to the royal throne of the insignificant ruler of the county of Luxembourg, Henry VII (1308-1313). Following the path already paved by his predecessors - the path of dynastic politics and the strengthening of his ancestral possessions as the basis for further strengthening the power of the king - he married his son to the heiress of the king of Bohemia, ensuring his descendants the possession of this country. On the other hand, he turned to the old traditions of the German sovereigns and made a trip to Italy, where for the first time after a century-old break he was crowned in Rome with the imperial crown. Seeing the strengthening of the Luxemburgs as a threat to their interests, the princes, after the death of Henry VII, elected Ludwig of Bavaria (1314-1347) from the Wittelsbach family to the throne. The last major act of the centuries-old struggle between the empire and the papacy is associated with his name. Having spoken out against the political and financial claims of Pope John XXII in Germany, Ludwig received the support of a broad anti-papal opposition, the main force of which was the German burghers and part of the clergy. Among the main ideologists of the movement were ardent opponents of the secular power of Pope Marsilius of Padua and William of Occam, who found refuge in Germany. The pope excommunicated Ludwig from the church, who, in turn, declared the pope a heretic and committed in 1327-1330. trip to Italy, where he was crowned with the imperial crown. The German princes, who did not at all want the excessive strengthening of Ludwig of Bavaria, took advantage of the sharpness of the struggle and, even during the life of Ludwig, elected the representative of the Luxembourg dynasty, the Czech king Charles, as the ruler of Germany. He ruled the empire as Charles IV (1346-1378). It was during this period that the political fragmentation of Germany was legally consolidated in the "Golden Bullet" published by the emperor (1356), which K. Marx called "the basic law of German multi-power" *. The bull confirmed the established procedure for the election of "the Roman king, who should become emperor." The electoral college consisted of seven princes-electors: three ecclesiastical (archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier) and four secular (king of Bohemia, count palatine of the Rhine, duke of Saxony, margrave of Brandenburg). The election was to be held at the initiative of the Archbishop of Mainz in Frankfurt am Main by a majority vote. When elected "king of Rome", the approval of the pope was not required - it was recognized as necessary only at the coronation with the imperial crown. This election procedure was valid until 1806. The Bull sanctioned not only the old, but also the new privileges of the princes. They secured their right to the highest court, mining, minting coins, collecting customs duties. The social orientation of the bull was unambiguously reflected in the permission contained in it for the feudal lords to wage "lawfully declared" private wars (except for the actions of vassals against their lords), while alliances between cities were called "conspiracies" and were strictly prohibited. In general, the bull did not so much lead to a significant strengthening of the positions of the electors, but fixed their historical privileges, including the right to elect the emperor. Charles IV, however, secured with a bull the exclusion from participation in the college of electors of the rivals of his dynasty - the dukes of Bavaria and Austria, and consolidated the privileged position of the Czech Republic.

* (Archive of Marx and Engels. T. VI. S. 82.)

The more than thirty-year reign of Charles IV, which only briefly strengthened the central power, laid the traditions and further policy of the Luxembourg dynasty, which paid primary attention to caring for its hereditary lands and, for this, made further concessions to the princes and the Roman curia. Emperor Sigismund (1410-1437), dreaming of a great power under the leadership of the Luxemburgs, tried to consolidate his power by participating in the restoration of the unity of the church, the persecution of heretics, and making plans for a large coalition of European states against the growing Turkish danger.

After the end of the Luxembourg dynasty in 1437, the imperial crown passed to the Habsburgs for centuries. The actual heredity of the dynasty of emperors (with the preserved order of elections) no longer posed a serious danger to the princes who had consolidated their positions. The decline of the empire intensified simultaneously with the crisis of another universalist institution of the Middle Ages - the papacy. The particular impotence of the central government in Germany was characteristic of more than half a century of the reign of Emperor Frederick III (1440-1493). This time was marked by many princely strife, accompanied by looting of cities and the devastation of entire areas in the countryside. Robbery on the roads of knights who felt their impunity reached an unprecedented scale even for Germany. Frederick III's attempts to proclaim bans on violating peace and order were ineffectual: the emperor had no real power to force him to fulfill his orders. For a long time, in the foreign policy of the sluggish and indecisive Frederick III, failures pursued. The Teutonic Order, which was defeated by Poland, found itself in vassal dependence on its king (1466), the Danish king annexed Schleswig and Holstein, which were part of the empire (1460), France - Provence, which was part of the empire (1481), and the Hungarian king Matthias Corwin took away from the emperor even his ancestral possessions - Upper and Lower Austria and Styria. Only towards the end of the reign of Frederick III, the position of his dynasty was significantly strengthened. The collapse of the Burgundian state and the dynastic marriage of the son of Frederick III - Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy brought the Habsburgs the Netherlands, and the marriage of his grandson Charles with the heiress of the Spanish kings, carried out after the death of the old ruler, allowed the Habsburgs to become in the 16th century. the most powerful dynasty in Europe.

The position of imperial and princely power in Germany left its mark on the specifics of development in the XIV-XV centuries. German estate-representative bodies. The assembly of representatives of the "ranks" that were part of the empire, which grew out of the original council of imperial vassals, only at the end of the 15th century. became known as the Reichstag. These imperial assemblies included the representation of electors, other spiritual and secular princes and gentlemen, delegates of the largest imperial and free cities. The chivalry, which lost its former military significance with the development of firearms and mercenaries, did not have an independent corporate representation, the clergy were not allocated to a special curia, and the cities, already extremely incompletely represented, discussed only issues that affected their immediate interests.

The Reichstag was a body with deliberative rights, which served primarily to clarify and maximally agree on the opinions of the social groups represented in it, backed by one or another real force. There was no special institution in Germany to implement the decisions of the Reichstag, just as there was no all-imperial court and all-imperial treasury necessary for these purposes.

More similar to the representative bodies of other European countries were the Landtags, the meetings of representatives of the nobility, clergy, and princely cities that had developed in a number of principalities. They acted, however, still irregularly. Being the bearers of regional centralization in the context of imperial fragmentation, the princes in the XIV-XV centuries. significantly expanded and streamlined the bodies of territorial administration, the organization of financial affairs, the administrative division of principalities into districts, and improved territorial legislation. Princely residences are gradually becoming capitals: such are Munich in Bavaria, Stuttgart in Württemberg, Heidelberg in the Palatinate.

Opposition movements in the cities. Opposition movements of the XIV-XV centuries. were particularly acute in the cities. The main content of the most striking outbreaks of the intra-city struggle of this period was the protests of the townspeople against the dominance of the patriciate. The guilds won in Cologne, Augsburg and a number of other cities, but, as a rule, they were defeated where the leading role in the urban economy was played not by handicraft production, but by export trade, which provided the strength of the merchant class. This happened in the Hanseatic cities.

The oppositional sentiments of the German burghers towards the Catholic Church, its teachings and institutions found expression not only in the support of Ludwig of Bavaria during his conflict with the papacy, but also in the dissemination of the teachings of the greatest German mystics of the 14th century. - Eckart, Tauler and Suze and their followers. The main idea of ​​the mystics was the assertion of the possibility of merging with the god of the human soul, containing a "sparkle" of the divine nature. The danger of this doctrine for the church was that the mystics shifted the main emphasis in interpreting the relationship of man to God from the external forms of the Catholic cult to the development of an individual internal religiosity, and thereby to an increase in the independent role of the individual. Under the influence of mysticism in the Netherlands, and in the XV century. - in the urban environment of Germany and other countries, the movement of "new piety" spread. Its participants, "brothers of common life", criticized the moral decline of the clergy and the futility of scholasticism for practical morality, saw the manifestation of true piety and high morality not in going to a monastery, but in everyday conscientious worldly activities, cared about helping the sick, developing the system of urban schools, correspondence of books, and later - about typography.

One of the most striking manifestations of the opposition of the progressive layers of the burghers, outraged by the orders based on the arbitrariness of the princes in Germany, was the most popular in the 15th - early 16th centuries. political pamphlet "The Reformation of Emperor Sigismund" (1439). It contained demands to carry out radical transformations of the church and secular system. It was about the prohibition of feudal wars, the subordination of the willfulness of the princes to the firm control of the cities, on the basis of which Germany was to follow the path of a centralized state. It was planned to create a single judiciary, a single monetary system, uniformity of customs fees. The tasks of the church were seen in the support of secular power, to which it was supposed to obey. It was planned to reduce the number of monks and remove them from secular affairs. For the sake of improving crafts and trade, an anonymous author demanded the abolition of guild restrictions and large-scale trading and usurious companies, which were accused of planting "monopolies". Among the most important demands of the pamphlet, which asserted the need for active actions of "simple", "small" people for reforms, included proposals for the return of communal lands seized by feudal lords, the abolition of a number of duties and the abolition of the hereditary personal dependence of the peasants. The implementation of reforms should, according to the author, be entrusted only to secular persons.

Peasant movements in the XIV-XV centuries. Acute contradictions in the socio-political life of German society at that time led to the diversity of peasant uprisings. In 1336-1339. in Southwestern Germany and a number of other regions, there were outbreaks of the armleder movement (from the name of leather bracers, a type of defensive equipment for peasants). It was directed against the city usurers, but did not develop into a broad anti-feudal struggle.

Early 15th century was marked by the spread among the German peasants of the methods of anti-feudal struggle "in the Swiss way", that is, armed struggle, inspired by the hopes of creating their own, consisting of free peasants, state association. In 1401-1411. the peasants of the Appenzell region, which directly bordered the Swiss Union, fought against the local abbot, supported by the feudal lords of Austria and Württemberg, and achieved inclusion in the Swiss Union, freeing themselves from the domination of the Habsburgs.

From 1439 to 1445, peasant detachments conducted partisan operations against the multi-tribal cavalry detachments of mercenaries - Armagnacs, who invaded during the Hundred Years War from France to Southwestern Germany (see Chapter 9). The robberies and excesses of foreign invaders caused general indignation, and groups of peasants of 30-40 people, setting up ambushes, unexpectedly attacking the Armagnacs on the roads, depriving them of regular supplies, brought the 50,000th army to hunger, constant fear, disintegration into marauding groups and into eventually forced them out of Germany. It was at this time that in the fight against Armagnacs, the peasants for the first time raised a banner with the image of the Virgin and a peasant's shoe with long cords. "Shoe" became a symbol of independent actions of the peasants. They began to constantly turn to him in their further anti-feudal struggle, including in 1460, when the peasants of the Gegau land in Southwestern Germany rebelled under the banner of the "Shoe".