Switzerland is a unique country with centuries of history and culture. Those who have ever been there, of course, received a lot of impressions from the amazing clean nature, unique mountain landscapes, the surrounding cleanliness and the standard of living of people. Of course, many people are also interested in the population in Switzerland, because within a small country there are four groups of people who, as it happened historically, communicate in completely different languages.
The history of the formation of the state and the emergence of nationalities
The date of formation of Switzerland is considered to be the day of its independence, which was proclaimed at the end of the 13th century and is celebrated every year on August 1. Initially, the country was a confederation, until the 17th century. Historically, this was justified by the fact that representatives of four peoples who spoke different languages, represented by two different language groups: Germanic and Romance, participated in the formation of the country.
To this day, one of the official names of the country remains the Swiss Confederation. Later, with the formation and strengthening of statehood, the form of the device was changed to the Federation, which lasted until the 19th century. Later, the federative was transformed into a federal charter. Until now, when communicating with the local population, it is rarely possible to hear from them that they are Swiss. Rather, they will say that they are Lugansk, Zurich, Bernese, Genevan, because there are so many cities and cantons in the country, so many different nationalities represent them.
What is the population in Switzerland
Historically, Switzerland has been home to four main peoples who use their own spoken languages. This is:
Franco-Swiss, predominantly speak French;
The German Swiss, who speak German with their own dialect, represent the largest part of the Swiss population;
Italian Swiss, speak Italian;
Retro Romans, otherwise known as Romanches or Ladins, use
German remains the dominant language, as 65% of the population of Switzerland is represented by Germanic speakers
Let's take a look at some statistics. In 2014, the population of Switzerland amounted to 8,137,600 inhabitants, among which there are both Swiss and foreigners who have recently received citizenship of the country or have. million people. The coefficient of natural is approximately 1.1, which is the average level for Europe. The population of Switzerland is increasing mainly due to the influx of immigrants.
"Restigraben" - invisible border
More recently, the definition of Rostigraberi appeared in the media - this is the name of the line (conditional border) that stretches from the north of Switzerland to the very south of the country. This concept conditionally divided the population in Switzerland into:
West (French speakers);
East (speaking German).
The very name "restigraben" in translation means "a moat covered with fried potatoes." Resti is one of the local dishes that is most popular in Bern. It represents the French fries so beloved by the Germans. And this dish is associated directly with the Swiss Germans, who in the eyes of the rest of the inhabitants look gloomy and laconic, but practical in every way. It is about these people that the eastern population of Switzerland says that they can be relied upon in serious matters at any moment.
The invisible border that runs through the whole country gave its name to the peoples living in the east and west. So, for example, the Franco-Swiss call their neighbors "Zasarins", that is, people living on the other side of the Sarin River. In turn, the eastern population of Switzerland - the Germans - call the river in their own way - Zaane.
Great people of a small country
Despite the fact that the territory of Switzerland is relatively small, four nationalities coexist in it at once, who communicate in different languages. Moreover, each of them still has its own special dialect.
Despite this, the population of the country is very close-knit, and the main distinguishing feature of the Swiss is their hard work. Nature did not give the inhabitants of this region a large amount of resources, did not endow them with vast expanses and fields. Therefore, the population of Switzerland has its own special, strong, stubborn character and resourcefulness.
The words "cheese", "watch", "chocolate bars" are associated with this country. But the state is not only famous for this. Such outstanding people were born and worked on its territory, such as:
Albert Einstein.
Carl Jung.
Jean Jacques Rousseau.
Jean Calvin and many other famous personalities who have made a huge contribution to the development of science, art and simply to the formation of human society.
At the beginning of 2011, the population of Switzerland is 7 million 870 thousand 100 people.
Historically and geographically, there has never been a single ethnic community on the territory of Switzerland. Each of the four nationalities of the country (Italo-Swiss, Franco-Swiss, German-Swiss and Romansh) is a separate, long-formed ethnic community. These nationalities differ significantly from each other, both in national identity and cultural identity and even language. But at the same time, every resident of Switzerland pays special attention not only to ethnic and cantonal affiliation, but is also aware of the state community with other nationalities.
The Swiss Confederation was historically created in such a way that different linguistic, cultural and religious groups coexisted on its territory. At that moment, almost ninety-four percent of the country's population were Swiss, but they did not have a common language. The German-Swiss was the largest language group, followed by the French-Swiss, followed by the Italian-Swiss. Also, about one percent of the population of the Swiss Confederation were Ladins and Romansh - Romansh. The national and official languages of that period were German, Italian, French and Romansh.
One of the most important factors in the development of the country's history was the relationship between the "German" and "French" parts of Switzerland. It should be noted that they were never perfect. From the beginning of the nineteenth century, after the densely populated French-speaking regions were annexed to the Swiss lands, and to the present day, conflicts quite often arise between the main nationalities of the country. It got to the point that an imaginary “Roshti-Graben” border was drawn between the German-speaking and French-speaking cultural communities.
In fact, the languages of the peoples inhabiting Switzerland belong to two completely different language groups - Germanic and Romance (Romance, Italian and French). But, despite this fact, there are no sharp contradictions on national grounds in the country. According to the Swiss constitution, all four peoples are considered equal, and their languages are national. The country's paperwork, all the most important laws and similar papers are issued by the state in four languages.
German-Swiss, Italian-Swiss and Franco-Swiss live in fairly compact groups in historically developed territories. German Swiss occupy fifteen cantons in the northern as well as the eastern and central parts of the country. The Franco-Swiss are the main population of the three cantons in the west (Neuchâtel, Geneva and Vaud), as well as the majority of the population of Bern, Valais and Friborg. Italo-Swiss live mostly in the Tesin canton and the two provinces of the Graubünden canton. The Graubünden has also been inhabited by the Romansh for a long time. All these areas with their borders have developed historically. The native languages of the inhabitants within the regions became not only spoken, but also the languages of the press, radio broadcasts and school education.
Thanks to the development of modern transport and industry, which is accompanied by a large number of internal migrations and the expansion of ties between the various ethnic groups of the Swiss, it does a good job of promoting bilingualism. For the most part, this applies to residents of large cities, resort and industrial centers and border areas.
Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of Switzerland, which for a long time represented a union of independent cantons, the consciousness of belonging to a certain territorial area is still often much stronger than ethnicity. Therefore, the Swiss often call themselves not derivatives of nationality, but names depending on the cantonal affiliation - “Wallists”, “Bernese” and so on. The inhabitants of the cantons can also differ in customs, traditional cuisine and even elements of folk clothing.
Most of the Swiss population belong to two religions - Catholicism and Protestantism, among the supporters of which the majority are followers of Calvin.
Ethnic differences in the population of Switzerland are still very clear: each of the four Swiss peoples - German Swiss, Franco-Swiss, Italo-Swiss and Romansh - is a separate ethnic community, distinguished by national identity, language and cultural identity. At the same time, every inhabitant of Switzerland is aware not only of his ethnic and cantonal affiliation, but also of the state community, expressed in a single self-name - and in general terms of their culture.
The Swiss censuses give the composition of the population by language, taking it as the national determinant. According to the last census in 1970, out of a total of 5,189,707 Swiss people (excluding emigrants), 3,864,684 spoke German, 1,045,091 French, 207,557 Italian and 49,455 Romansh dialects.
The languages of the peoples of Switzerland belong to two different language groups: Romance (French, Italian, Romansh) and Germanic (German). Despite the multilingual composition of the population, there are no sharp national contradictions in Switzerland. According to the Swiss constitution, all four peoples are equal, and their languages are recognized as national. State office work, laws common to all of Switzerland are published in four languages.
Three peoples - German Swiss, Franco-Swiss and Italo-Swiss live in compact groups in historically developed areas. Germano-Swiss settled in 15 cantons in the north, northeast and in the center of the country; Franco-Swiss make up the main population of the three western cantons - Vaud, Geneva and, as well as a significant part of the inhabitants of the cantons, Valais and; Italo-Swiss live in part of the canton of Tessin and in two adjacent areas of the canton of Graubünden. The most ancient and smallest population of Switzerland - the Romansh live in part of the canton of Graubünden. The boundaries of all these areas have developed historically. The native language of the inhabitants of each ethnic region is the main spoken language within it, as well as the language of the press, school education, radio broadcasts, etc. German Swiss and Italian Swiss speak dialects that differ significantly from the corresponding literary languages. A German, for example, does not always understand a Swiss German. But German-Swiss and Italian-Swiss write in literary languages. Romansh speaks and writes in dialects.
Recently, the intensive development of industry and transport, accompanied by an increase in internal migration and the expansion of contacts between the Swiss, has contributed to the spread of bilingualism, mainly among residents of big cities, tourist and resort centers, as well as in border areas.
The peculiarities of the historical development of the Swiss state, which for a long time represented separate independent cantons, led to the fact that belonging to a certain canton and now often manifests itself much more strongly than ethnicity. Therefore, the Swiss often call themselves not by nationality, but by cantonal affiliation - "Bernese", "Wallis", etc. Residents of various cantons differ in some features in folk clothes, food, customs, they are characterized by local.
Most Swiss belong to two religions - Protestantism (2.9 million people) and Catholicism (2.2 million). Calvin's followers predominate among Protestants.
The cantons, City Basel, Zurich, Bern, Glarus, Neuchâtel, Geneva belong to the Protestant Church. Catholicism is spread over a larger area, but in a less populated part of the country. The cantons Tessin, Friborg, Zolotourn, and Zug remained Catholic after the Reformation. In some cantons (Appenzell, Aargau, Grisons) the number of Catholics and Protestants is almost the same. In recent years, the number of Catholics has increased markedly, due to the higher birth rate in Catholic families, as well as the naturalization of foreigners, most of whom profess Catholicism.
From 1960 to the end of the 1970s, the Swiss population grew by 15%. The cantons of Geneva and Tessin grew especially rapidly, where many foreign workers were sent in the 60s and 70s. In the cantons of the central and northeastern part of Switzerland, the increase was minimal, and in Glarus there was even a decrease in population.
Over the past two decades, the birth rate has been declining, but at the same time, it has also been decreasing. Therefore, there was still a natural increase in the population, although it decreased from 7.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1960 to 3.0 in 1977.
Along with the Swiss, more than 1 million foreigners live in the country, which is U6 of the total population. In some cities - Geneva, Basel, Zurich - the proportion of foreigners among residents increases Y5-Y3. No other European country has such high foreigners in its population. First of all, these are workers recruited for a long period of time to work in industry, construction, and the service sector. In 1978 there were 750,000 foreign workers in Switzerland, mostly Italian, Spanish, but also from Turkey, Greece and Portugal.
In addition to permanent immigration, there is also seasonal immigration. About 200 thousand people come to Switzerland for construction and agricultural work. Almost 100,000 residents of the border regions of Germany and France commute to work in Switzerland every day.
During the years of the economic crisis, about 300 thousand jobs were closed in Swiss industry, and between the number of unemployed in the country is small. in the fact that foreign workers are simply evicted from Switzerland, unemployment occurs.
Foreign workers are especially widely used in the most difficult, unhealthy or dirty work. huddle in barracks, not protected from the arbitrariness of entrepreneurs; if foreign workers openly express protest, dissatisfaction with the working conditions of life, then they are threatened with immediate. In the northern cantons of Switzerland there are frequent cases of hostile antics against foreign workers; at the same time, behind the back of the chauvinistically minded part of the population, there are bourgeois political groups interested in setting the Swiss against immigrants.
The authorities accept to limit the influx of foreigners: naturalization requires living in Switzerland for at least 10 years, having a guaranteed job and housing, being “trustworthy” politically, etc.
The Swiss defends the interests of foreign workers, demands their equality with the Swiss and facilitate the granting of Swiss citizenship to them.
At the same time, many Swiss travel to foreign countries, usually only for temporary residence. Basically, these are qualified specialists traveling to foreign countries to work at Swiss enterprises. Part of highly qualified personnel is simply lured into
The population of the Swiss Confederation (the total number in 1964 was 5 million 860 thousand people) consists of several nationalities united by common destinies, economic and cultural ties. About 3 million 900 thousand people (68% of the population) are German-Swiss, or Swiss Germans. The main areas of their settlement are the north, northeast and center of the country (the cantons of Zurich, Unterwalden, Uri, Schwyz, Appenzell, Basel). In oral speech, they almost always use the Swiss dialect of the German language, and in writing - the German literary language. Franco-Swiss (about 1 million people, over 18% of all inhabitants) inhabit the western and southwestern parts of the country (the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchâtel, Fribourg). The French language was established here only in the 19th century, replacing the Provencal dialects, which have survived to this day in places, mainly in the remote valleys of Vallis. Italo-Swiss (about 200 thousand people, 3.6% of the population) live in the canton of Ticino. Italian is spoken in the canton of Ticino and in some districts belonging to other cantons. The official and literary language here is Italian, in everyday life the inhabitants speak its dialects. Small groups of Romansh (50 thousand people, less than 1% of the population) in Grisons still retained their language, belonging to the Romance group. The two main groups of its dialects (according to some scholars, two languages) are the dialects of the upper and middle reaches of the Rhine (Rumansch) and Engadine (Ladin). The Rumansh dialect is divided into three dialects - Surselvian, Sutselvian and Sutmiran; The Ladin dialect includes Upper Engadine and Lower Engadine dialects. There is a small religious and fiction literature in the dialects, magazines and newspapers are published.
All four languages are recognized as state and equal, but Romansh, unlike others, does not have its own territory of distribution, which leads to the assimilation of Romansh.
About 10% of the Swiss population are foreigners. Among them are many Italians and Germans.
natural conditions
Switzerland is located in Central Europe. Its area is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. The country borders on France, Italy, Germany, Austria and Liechtenstein. It is a mountainous country with a beautiful peculiar nature. About 60% of its area, mainly the southeast, is occupied by the Alpine mountains. Their average height is 1400 m. Individual peaks - Dufour Peak, Matterhorn - reach heights of more than 4500 m. The central part of the Alps is occupied by the Gotthard massif. Deep gorges, mountain valleys cut through high ridges and rocks. Through the mountain passes (there are about 200 of them), trade routes from Italy to the countries of Central Europe passed from ancient times. The most important of them are Saint Gotthard and Simplon. Due to frequent snowdrifts and landslides, crossing these passes threatened with great dangers. After tunneling here, these passes lost their significance. However, even now snowfalls often impede movement in these areas.
Along the border with France stretches a long chain of Jura mountains. Their average height is 700-800 m. Numerous narrow valleys - clouses crossing mountains have long been used as communication routes. Currently, highways and railways leading to France are laid here.
Between the Alps and the Jura is the Swiss plateau - Mittelland, which occupies more than 30% of the country's surface. This hilly region with low ridges is the most populated and economically developed part of Switzerland.
In the Alps, not far from the Saint Gotthard Pass, the Rhone, Rhine, Inn (a tributary of the Danube), Ticino (a tributary of the Po) originate. These rivers, very turbulent, full of waterfalls, are powerful sources of electrical energy. Numerous lakes give special picturesqueness to the landscape. All major lakes are flowing. The most significant of them are Geneva, Constance, Zurich, Firwaldstet, Neuchâtel.
The climatic conditions of Switzerland are varied. So, on the coast of the Mittelland lakes, the climate is moderately warm (the average temperature in winter is 0 °, in summer -f-18 -419 °). In the valleys of the southern slope of the Alps, the climate is close to Mediterranean. In the Alps above 2000-3000 m there are eternal snows, summers are cool there, and winters are snowy, with strong winds and snowstorms. Snow avalanches (“white death”) bring annual disasters, burying entire villages under them, littering fields and pastures with stones. To combat avalanches, barrier forests are planted, dividers are placed behind the houses - stone wedge-shaped walls - or high mounds of stones are made so that the snow slides over them without damaging the buildings.
The mountain valleys have a sunny dry climate. There are numerous sanatoriums, boarding houses for the sick and tourists. The driest region of Switzerland - Middle Vallis - is artificially flooded. Dry air is brought by mountain warm winds - hair dryers. During the action of the hair dryers, a night watch is set up, which ensures that, in order to avoid a fire, no one lights a fire in the street.
Vegetation depends on the elevation of the area. Up to 1800-2000 m there is a strip of forests: below - deciduous (oak, beech, chestnuts, ash, elm), starting from a height of 1350 m - coniferous (pine, spruce, etc.). The total area occupied by forests is about 25% of the entire territory of the country. Above the forests and to the borders of eternal snow, alpine meadows and shrubs spread. The animal world rich in the past is almost exterminated. Wild animals (bears, foxes, deer, etc.) are preserved mainly in hard-to-reach mountainous regions and reserves. The predominant type of soils on the plateau is brown forest, and in the valleys - alluvial.
Switzerland is poor in minerals. Iron ore reserves are small. Its largest deposits are located near Basel. Hard and brown coal is available in small quantities; deposits of rock salt, phosphorites, peat and raw materials for building materials are of some importance.
BRIEF HISTORICAL OUTLINE
The territory of modern Switzerland, as shown by archaeological excavations, was inhabited in the Paleolithic. In the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods, the population of these places built pile settlements, the remains of which have been found in many Swiss lakes.
At the end of I millennium BC. e. a significant part of the country (between the Rhine, the Jura and the Alps) was occupied by the Celtic tribes - the Helvetians, after whom Switzerland is sometimes called Helvetia. To the east of them lived the Rets. The question of their origin is still unclear. The development of the culture and economy of the local population was influenced by the conquest of Swiss lands by the Romans (I century BC).
From the 3rd century n. e. Germanic tribes invaded here. The western part to the Aare River by the middle of the 5th century. occupied by the Burgundians, who gradually merged with the Romanized Celtic population. Romance dialects developed here. It is now part of modern French Switzerland. Modern Italian Switzerland was connected in ethnic and cultural relations with Lombardy and experienced the same fate with it. The north and east of Switzerland was occupied by the Alemans, they gradually penetrated into the interior of the country. This later led to the establishment of the German language, or rather its Swiss dialect, in the center and east of the country. In the isolated mountain valleys of the Graubünden, settlements of romanized rhetes have been preserved.
The conquest of Switzerland by the Franks (late 5th - early 6th century) and its inclusion in the Frankish kingdom of Charlemagne (VIII century) intensified the Germanization of its population.
Under the Treaty of Verdun (843), the eastern and central parts of Switzerland were annexed to the East Frankish, and the western - to the Lorraine kingdoms. At the beginning of the XI century. all the lands of Switzerland became part of the Holy Roman Empire.
Economic and cultural ties between the individual parts of Switzerland at that time were almost non-existent. The southwest gravitated toward France, the southeast and north, including the Romansh regions, were closely connected with the German states, Ticino with Lombardy. However, these areas, located on the outskirts of the German, French and Italian states, did not play a significant role in their history. Later, this contributed to the state isolation of these areas.
The Swiss cities of Zurich, Bern, Basel played a big role in European trade. They received the rights of imperial cities.
There were almost no large estates based on corvee labor in Switzerland, with the exception of church farms. Usually feudal lords leased their lands to peasants. In the mountain pastoral regions, a significant stratum of the free peasantry remained, united in self-governing communities. Pastures, forests, reservoirs remained the property of the communities. The communities, the so-called forest cantons, located around Lake Firwaldstet - Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden - became the historical core of the Swiss Union, later named after one of these cantons - Schwyz. In the XIII century. Great importance was acquired by the Saint Gotthard route passing through these cantons, connecting Italy through the Alps with other countries of Central Europe, which strengthened the economic role of the forest cantons. However, they soon had to face the claims of the great feudal lords of the Habsburgs, who seized a lot of land in Switzerland in various ways. The heavy tax and administrative oppression of the Habsburgs laid an unusual burden on the inhabitants of the forest cantons. The attempts of the Habsburgs to seize the St. Gotthard road rallied the local population against them. On August 1, 1291, representatives of the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden entered into an "eternal" defensive alliance. The treaty of 1291 is considered to be the beginning of the Swiss Union.
The formation of the Swiss Union, the successful struggle of the Swiss against the Habsburg yoke are embodied in folk tales, in poetic legends about William Tell and other fighters for the independence of Switzerland.
During the XIV century. The Swiss Union won a number of victories over the Habsburgs (the battles of Morgarten in 1315, Sempach in 1386, Nefels in 1388). Cities interested in the Saint Gotthard trade route and in defense against the feudal lords joined the Swiss Union in order to use its advantageous economic position and military strength. After joining the Union of Lucerne, Zurich, Bern, Glarus and Zug at the end of the XIV century. The Union of the Eight Old Lands was formed. By the end of the XV century. Switzerland, which already included 13 cantons, actually became an independent country, but formally it was part of the German Empire. Switzerland received official independence only by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
From the beginning of the XVI to the end of the XVIII century. no new members were admitted to the confederation. However, the expansion of the territory of the Swiss Union continued through the seizure of lands whose position in the Union was subordinate.
The successful struggle of the Swiss against the Habsburgs created glory for the Swiss infantry. European sovereigns from the XIII century. began to willingly hire the Swiss to their service. This played into the hands of the social elites of the mountain cantons, who profited from the supply of military force. From the second half of the XV century. Swiss mercenaries began to play an important role in the troops of European states. Professional mercenarism drove away the most productive part of the population from the country and hindered the growth of national self-consciousness.
The cantons, which formed the historical core of Switzerland, played a leading role in the Union for a long time. However, in the XV century. their influence began to decline noticeably. The contradictions between them and the industrial cantons grew ever stronger. Added to this were the contradictions between the full-fledged cantons and the dependent lands, between the city and the rural district under its yoke, between the patriciate, the merchant class and craft workshops in the cities. Exacerbation of class contradictions at the beginning of the XVI century. culminated in the Reformation movement. Protestant currents - Zwinglianism and Calvinism - came out with the demands of a "cheap church", against the magnificent Catholic rituals. The first of them was centered on Zurich and was associated with the name of the Zurich priest Ulrich Zwingli. The founder of the second was the Frenchman Jean Calvin. Geneva, which at that time was not part of Switzerland, became the center of Calvinism. These currents, especially Calvinism, were of great importance for the development of the reform movement in other European countries. Many figures of the Reformation paid attention to the origin of the Swiss state, made attempts to justify its unity from an ethnic point of view.
The Reformation divided the Swiss Union. Most of the cantons, including the forest ones, remained Catholic. Four cantons, whose centers were the largest cities of Zurich, Basel, Bern and Schaffhausen, adopted Protestantism. Protestants from other countries began to gather here, fleeing persecution. They brought to Switzerland new branches of craft - dressing of silks, velvet, etc. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the manufacturing industry developed intensively in the form of "scattered manufactory". The production of cotton fabrics, watches, jewelry, etc., developed.
After the conquest of Switzerland by France in 1798, it was declared a single "Helvetian" republic. Here, for the first time, a central government was established.
In 1815, the Congress of Vienna recognized the existence of Switzerland as a union of 22 cantons (with the addition of three new cantons - Geneva, Wallis and Neuchâtel) and declared it a permanently neutral state. The laws on the centralization of the country were abolished. The cantons could conclude independent agreements with foreign states. The role of the reactionary sections of the Catholic clergy increased in the country, especially in the forest cantons. These cantons, representing the least economically developed part of Switzerland, were supporters of the decentralization of the country and the preservation of the independence of individual cantons.
F. Engels in his work “The Civil War in Switzerland” writes about this old Switzerland: “... it defended its isolation from the rest of the world, its local customs, fashions, prejudices, all its local narrow-mindedness and isolation” 1 . The enmity between the advanced Protestant cantons (Geneva, Basel, Zurich, Neuchâtel, Vaud, etc.) and the seven backward Catholic cantons (Uri, Schwyz, Zug, Wallis, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Friborg), which concluded an alliance (Sonderbund), ended in civil the war of 1847 overthrew the cantonal governments of the Sonderbund; the Jesuits, who had previously had great influence, were expelled from Switzerland, most of the church property was confiscated by the state, and civil education was introduced instead of religious education.
The Constitution of 1848 was a well-known step forward towards the centralization of the country. In it, for the first time, the population of Switzerland was called the Swiss nation. The Constitution of 1874 (which is still in force with amendments), as well as a number of laws issued at the beginning of the 20th century. (centralization of military affairs, the introduction of a unified civil code, etc.), strengthened the central government and limited the rights of the cantons.
The "perpetual neutrality" of Switzerland, officially recognized by the Congress of Vienna, was later repeatedly confirmed at international conferences. For several centuries the country has not been involved in wars. Neutral democratic Switzerland in the XVIII-XX centuries. served as a refuge for political emigrants, including Russian revolutionaries. The Russian Section of the First International and the Emancipation of Labor group (1883) were founded in Switzerland. VI Lenin lived in exile in Geneva, Zurich and Bern.
After the First World War, the reactionary spirit of the Swiss bourgeoisie intensified. The Swiss government took a hostile stance towards the Soviet state. At present there are centers of various reactionary organizations in Switzerland.
On the other hand, as a neutral state, Switzerland naturally became the center of international meetings. Very often the cities of Switzerland, especially Geneva, are chosen as the venue for convening international conferences and exhibitions. The residence of the League of Nations was located here, and at present the European branch of the UN operates here, which, however, Switzerland refused to join, considering it incompatible with neutrality (it is only a member of the economic and cultural organizations of the UN).
Political system
Switzerland is a bourgeois federal republic - a confederation of 22 cantons, of which three are each divided into two independent semi-cantons. Most of the modern cantons are historically developed regions. Their boundaries often do not coincide with the linguistic ones. Thus, the cantons of Bern, Solothurn, Wallis have a mixed French-German-speaking population, and the canton of Graubünden has Romansh, Italian and German. Until now, the Swiss have retained the consciousness of belonging to a particular canton. Although under the federal constitution the cantons are considered sovereign states with their own governments and constitutions, they do not have the right to secede from the Swiss Union. The highest authority in Switzerland is the Federal Assembly. It consists of two chambers - the National Council and the Council of Cantons. Exercising supreme executive power! government - the Federal Council, consisting of seven people headed by the president. The presidency is occupied by each of the members of the council for a period of one year. The age limit for participation in elections is 20 years. Women have the right to vote only in the cantons of Geneva, Vaud and Neuchâtel. The attempts of the progressive forces in Switzerland to achieve suffrage for all women run into stubborn resistance from the reaction. The Catholic Conservative Party, which enjoys great influence among the petty burghers and the peasantry of the Catholic regions, is waging a particularly vigorous struggle against the granting of suffrage to women.
In several Swiss cantons and semi-cantons (Glarus, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Innerrhoden and Auserrhoden), local authority (election of officials, legislative activity) belongs to Landsgemeinde- a meeting of all adult men. These gatherings take place in the open air every year at the end of April or the beginning of May. Apologists for Swiss democracy idealize this ancient institution in every possible way, emphasizing its supposedly true democracy. In reality, these meetings are run by large landowners, clerics, using this institution for their own purposes. The bourgeois parties, which have various means of putting pressure on the voters, turn in favor of the bourgeoisie the so-called people's initiative, that is, the right to change the constitution at the request of a certain number of voters by means of a referendum.
