Observation as a scientific method of its features. Observation as a method of socio-psychological research

3. Method of observation in psychology. One of the main and most common methods of psychology is the method of observation.

Observation is a method in which phenomena are studied directly under the conditions in which they occur in real life.

The results of observations carried out for research purposes, as a rule, are recorded in special protocols. It is good when the observation is carried out not by one person, but by several, and then the obtained data are compared and generalized (by the method of generalizing independent observations).

Observation- the oldest method of cognition (since the end of the 19th century - in clinical, pedagogical and social psychology, and at the beginning of the 20th century - in labor psychology) - purposeful, organized perception and registration of the behavior of an object. Its primitive form - worldly observations - is used by every person in his daily practice. There are the following types of observation: slice (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes for a number of years) - the beginning of the development of this research strategy was laid by various diaries of observations of the development of the child in the family (V. Stern, V. Prayer, A.N. Gvozdikov ), selective and continuous, and a special type - included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the group under study). The general observation procedure consists of the following processes: defining the task and purpose (for what, for what purpose?); choosing an object, object and situation (what to observe?); choosing an observation method that has the least effect on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information ( how to observe?); the choice of methods for recording the observed (how to keep records?); processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?). The results are recorded either during the observation process or delayed (completeness and reliability suffer due to the observer’s memory)

Research objects can be:

Verbal behavior

Nonverbal behavior

Movement of people

Distance between people

Physical influences

That is, only that which can be objectively registered can act as an object of observation. And only on the basis of the assumption that the psyche finds its manifestation in behavior, the psychologist can build hypotheses about mental properties, based on the data obtained during observation.

Surveillance. Observation can be carried out directly by the researcher, or by means of observation devices and fixing its results. These include audio, photo, video equipment, special surveillance cards.

Classification of observations

By systematic:

Non-systematic observation, in which it is necessary to create a generalized picture of behavior under certain conditions and the goal is not to fix causal dependencies and give strict descriptions of phenomena.

Systematic observation, carried out according to a certain plan and in which the researcher registers the features of behavior and classifies the conditions of the external environment.

For fixed objects:

Continuous observation. The researcher tries to fix all the features of behavior.

Selective observation. The researcher captures only certain types of behavioral acts or behavioral parameters.

Conscious observation. In conscious observation, the observed person is aware that he is being observed. Such observation is carried out in the contact of the researcher with the subject, and the observed is usually aware of the research task and the social status of the observer. However, there are cases when, due to the specifics of the study, the observed person is informed of other than the original goals of observation.

outside surveillance is a way of collecting data about the psychology and behavior of a person by direct observation of him from the side . Internal or introspection It is used when the psychologist sets himself the task of studying the phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly represented in his mind. Free observation does not have a predetermined framework, program, procedure of behavior. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature in the course of the observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer. Standardized Observation– is predetermined and clearly limited in terms of what is observed. It is carried out according to a certain, pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens in the process of observation with the object or the observer himself. At enabled surveillance the researcher acts as a direct participant in the process, the course of which he is monitoring.

Advantages of the Observation Method

Observation allows you to directly capture and record acts of behavior.

Observation allows you to simultaneously capture the behavior of a number of people in relation to each other or to certain tasks, objects, etc.

Observation allows research to be carried out regardless of the readiness of the observed subjects.

Observation allows you to achieve multidimensional coverage, that is, fixation in several parameters at once, for example, verbal and non-verbal behavior.

Disadvantages of the observation method

Numerous irrelevant, interfering factors.

Single occurrence of observed circumstances, leading to the impossibility of making a generalizing conclusion based on single observed facts.

The need to classify the results of observation.

The need for large resource costs (time, human, material).

Small representativeness for large populations.

Difficulty in maintaining operational validity.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Moscow State University

Abstract on the topic:

Observation as a method of sociological research

Subject: Sociology

Moscow, 2008

The essence of observation as a method of sociological research

The main problem of sociological observation is to ensure the greatest possible objectivity of information about the object. The main task of the observer is to consistently and sincerely adhere to the criteria and principles of scientific observation, not to replace them with emotions.

In this regard, the correct conduct of sociological observation implies the observance of two fundamental principles: complementarity and parallel observations. The first proceeds from the fact that the object of observation, under the influence of the observer (in his presence), corrects his behavior, and this must be taken into account in the final interpretation of the results of the study. The second requires the organization of several simultaneous observations with subsequent coordination and analysis of the results.

Observation as a method of sociological research has a number of obvious advantages. Even before developing a research program, a specialist must feel the specifics of the object, familiarize himself with the local practice of distributing authorities, values, social roles, understand the characteristics of the environment, etc.

At the same time, observation is an ordinary and by no means the only method of sociological research, which is associated with the limitations of the method itself.

Note also that not all social phenomena lend themselves to direct observation. For example, it is very difficult to identify non-objectified production interrelations, dependencies, relations by observation. Other methods are also needed for studying: content analysis, survey, etc. In addition, observation is possible only at the moment of the event.

It is also necessary to take into account the peculiar "halo effect" in the observation. Observation itself changes the situation being studied. For example, the presence of an observer quite often leads to the adoption of atypical traits in the behavior of workers striving for some ideal stereotype for fear of "failing" the manager. This also confirms the need to supplement observation with other methods.

Types of observation

The success of observation as a sociological method is largely determined by the type of observation. The following types (types) of observation are distinguished: structured, unstructured, included, external, field, laboratory, systematic, random.

Let's explain their specifics.

Unstructured observation (sometimes called uncontrolled) usually does not have a clear plan. In the course of such observation, the elements of the object under study are not determined, the problem of units of measurement, their quality is rarely raised, and the proportion of redundant information is high. Hope rests mainly on the intuition of the observer, whose goal is to obtain primary information about the object.

Uncontrolled observation is often used in sociological research. It is typical for cases when the general situation is not clear to the sociologist, indicators are not defined, research documents are not developed.

Structured(supervised) surveillance involves:

Development of a system of documents and indicators characterizing the elements of the object selected for observation;

The presence of a developed plan;

Analysis of observers' attitudes regarding the nature and structure of the object under study.

controlled observation serves as the main method of collecting primary information or complements other methods of sociological research. With its help, the main hypotheses are tested, as well as data obtained using other methods.

Not included observation (sometimes called external) is carried out by a researcher who is outside the object and tries to minimize his interference in the course of events. Such observation is practically reduced to the registration of events.

At included observation, the sociologist participates in the processes being studied, interacts with workers, and may even interfere in events. It is desirable, of course, that he fully mastered a specific social role in the team, was spontaneously recognized as its member. At the same time, one must take into account the dialectics of adaptation of one's observer in the work collective. The first phase of such adaptation is almost inevitable, when it is treated with caution. It requires great tact from the observer, the ability to choose and master a secondary social role, to avoid the role of a leader or a microleader, since this changes too much the nature of relationships and relationships typical for a given team.

Differences field and laboratory studies are related to the difference in the conditions for the implementation of observations. Field research is carried out in a natural environment for a given object (in a village, city, etc.). Laboratory research is artificially organized by a sociologist who creates an experimental situation and models its external conditions.

Finally, systematic and random observations differ in the frequency and specificity of the purpose of the research. The former make it possible to reveal precisely the dynamics of the processes under study.

The disadvantage of the method of systematic observation is the difficulty of operationalizing and comparing data for different periods, since there is a risk of making a sociological conclusion based on data of different orders.

Scheme 1.3.1.

Types of observations

Stages of observation

To enhance the effectiveness of observation, it is important not only to choose the type of observation (or combination of types), but also to draw up a research plan that reflects the initial ideas about the characteristics of the object under study and the facts that need to be collected. The plan reflects the timing, determines the means of collecting information. The scale of observation, the breadth of coverage of phenomena depends on the amount of funding, the use of technical means, the staff of observers and data processors.

The main stages of observation are: establishing the object and subject of observation; definition of its goals and objectives; obtaining relevant decisions, establishing contacts; choice of method and type of observation, determination of basic procedures; preparation of technical means and documents; collection of information (direct observation), accumulation of information; fixing the results (brief recording, filling out data registration cards, observation protocol, diary, technical record); control of observation by other sociological data; observation report.

The quality of observation also depends on the time of fixing the results. If the record is made later than the observation process itself, then inaccuracies arise, some of the facts are lost or distorted, although the record itself becomes more ordered and strict. The best option seems to be a quick primary record in a formalized document with predetermined quantitative indicators, followed by processing according to the accepted methodology using computer calculation.

There are fairly strict requirements for the professional training of observers. For example, with observation turned on, the researcher should be not only an intelligent and knowledgeable sociologist, but also simply a tactful, attentive, sociable person with high intellectual speed and adaptive plasticity and culture. The ability to control one's behavior, objectively assessing its advantages and disadvantages, to coordinate the entire range of interests of the work collective with the interests of the sociological group - all these are obvious requirements for the personal qualities of an employee who performs participant observation.

The training of observers includes the development of special knowledge, skills and abilities. The observer must know the theory of sociology, social psychology, special sociology, which is used in a particular study, methods and tactics of observation, materials and documents regulating the activity of the object under study.

To form the skills of an observer, it is advisable to organize a series of practical exercises (observations) in the field or laboratory conditions. This will make it possible to discover the typology of possible or typical mistakes for the observer, to develop useful behavioral observation stereotypes, paperwork skills, etc. Classes should be conducted under the guidance of experienced sociologists. Their main task is the selection of personnel, since not everyone can become a qualified observer. There are natural “contraindications”, for example, for people who are too distracted.

However, any qualification of an observer does not negate the need to develop instructions for conducting research. They should indicate:

The sequence of stages and procedures of observation;

Criteria for evaluating the actions of the observed;

Method of fixing information;

The instruction contains a task for the observer, on the basis of which a trial study is carried out, followed by a discussion of the discovered errors. It is reviewed by an experienced sociologist, who determines the degree of readiness of the observer and his ability to work with the instruction. There are options for changing candidates or changing instructions in accordance with the proposals of the candidate. Pilot research provides a unique opportunity to take into account the most typical errors, inaccuracies, exaggerations for a particular observation, to make a kind of individual map of the observer. In the future, it is possible to select observers according to the card file.

Scheme 1.3.2

Method of observation (information is extracted by the researcher in direct connection with the object)

Peculiarities	Advantages	disadvantages
Simultaneity of an event and its observation	Perception of human behavior in real conditions. Efficiency of information	Locality, the particular nature of the observed situation, the impossibility of its repetition
The data about the object was obtained “from outside”. Holistic perception of the situation	Objectivity, specificity of data. The unity of the emotional and rational in the perception of the situation. Expanding the possibility of intuition in understanding and explaining phenomena	Limitation of obtaining data on the goals and motives of behavior. Difficulty identifying symptoms
Dependence of data on observer settings	The validity of the position in the perception of facts. Using the experience of the observer in identifying problem situations. Flexibility of research facilities	Subjectivity, distortion, errors in the registration of signs (emotional state, low qualification, incorrect methodological attitudes of the observer)
The influence of the observer on the object	Approximation of the object to the experimental situation. The object is “configured” to identify problems, analyze them, and demonstrate opportunities	The possibilities of generalization are limited by the distortion of the natural state of the object
The influence of the object on the observer, his perception of the situation	Accurate understanding of the meaning of actions, people's behavior due to identification with the values, goals of the group	Distortion in perception due to “infection” with stereotypes of the group in the observed object. Passivity of a method bound to the state of an object

Scheme 1.3.3.

Types of observations

Observer position	Level of standardization of procedures	Environment requirement	Time regulation	Use of technical means	Social level of the object
Doesn't interact with group members	Programmed - with registration of signs in special cards	Laboratory - with given parameters of the observed situation	Systematic - with a given regularity sign registration	Audio-visual - film, photo, TV, radio	Communities, groups (regional, ethical, functional)
"Private trader" - partially enters into communication	Partially standardized - using protocols or diaries	Laboratory-field - with separate limitations of the observed situation	Episodic - with an unspecified regularity of registration	Registrars, breeders	Collectives, institutional groups
Fully included in group activities	Uncontrolled - with a diary entry	Field - natural observation	Random - non-programmed fixation	Computers	Small, non-institutional groups
Turns on incognito				Without the use of technical funds - manual processing	Personality
“Self-observer” - registers the facts of his actions, states

Observer training stages

Familiarization with the content of the observation program, with instructions, tools, technical means.

Parsing, commenting on units, categories of observation, their criteria in accordance with the observation program, explanation of conventional, code designations.

trial observation, rehearsal of observation in the laboratory or in the field, correction of the actions of observers.

Outfit-task. Issuance of instructions, tools, tasks for conducting observation.

The control selective for the work of observers.

Characteristic performance of the task, assessment of the reliability of the data of the observer.

Qualities, knowledge, skills of the observer

General theoretical training- knowledge of sociology, social psychology.

Special object knowledge. Awareness about the goals, content, nature of the activity of the observed object. Knowledge of its structure, main problems. (Achieved by acquaintance in the literature, in a conversation with industry experts, during a special briefing.)

Specific precise knowledge of tasks observations (worked out during the briefing, self-examination exercises, tests).

attention span on the selected parameters of the object, RAM.

Analytic thinking, the ability to single out individual features in the process of perceiving an object.

Ability to distribute attention to simultaneous changes in the situation. The ability to respond to multiple signals. (It is possible to respond to five to seven parameters of the observed situation.)

Noise immunity. Physical endurance. Emotional stability. The ability to maintain self-control in the face of a sharp change in the situation, not to interfere in the observed situation. Role orientation to a temperament close to the type of phlegmatic. Patience and perseverance in maintaining the position of the observer.

Punctuality. Accurate adherence to the tasks set, timely registration of data, accuracy in filling out methodological documents.

self control. The criticality of assessments of one's actions, the ability to correct, restructure actions.

Sociability(for included observation). The ability to get in touch with strangers, to maintain communication (but at the same time not to arouse interest in oneself from the observed).

Tact and moral responsibility. The observer must not harm those he observes. In accordance with professional ethics, he should use the information received only for scientific purposes and not disclose it.

technical literacy when using technical means of observation.

Typical mistakes in applying the observation method in sociological research

Observation begins without a specially prepared program, it is carried out randomly.

The identified signs of observation are not related to the problem situation and the research hypothesis.

The composition of the registered signs of observation in the observation card did not include frequently repeated and quite significant properties of the observed situation.

There are no restrictions on the conditions of observation, and the observers encountered fundamentally different situations during the study.

Only evaluative or only descriptive categories of observation are introduced.

There is an ambiguity in the terminological designation of the categories of observation; different classes of features fall into the same category of observation.

Methodological documents have not been prepared and tested, and in the course of data collection there were difficulties in registering signs.

Persons who have not undergone special training were selected as observers. The observers were not instructed, the observation procedure was not rehearsed with them.

The coding of the signs of the observation card does not correspond to the data processing program.

Audiovisual means of surveillance are not adjusted to the surveillance procedure.

Observation- this is a purposeful, organized perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. The task of the observer, as a rule, is not connected with interference in "life" by creating special conditions for the manifestation of the observed process or phenomenon.

Observation differs from passive contemplation of the surrounding reality in that it: a) is subordinated to a specific goal; b) is carried out according to a specific plan; c) equipped with subject means for carrying out the process and fixing the results.

Observation is an active form of sensory cognition, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about objects, or test initial assumptions associated with them. Observation is historically the first scientific method of psychological research.

The term "observation" is used in three different senses: 1) observation as an activity; 2) observation as a method; 3) observation as a technique.

Seeing how activity relates to certain areas of public practice. The operator of the power system observes the readings of the instruments, the shift attendant inspects the equipment according to a certain plan, the doctor examines the patient, the investigator observes the behavior of the suspect, etc. In contrast to observation as a scientific method, observation as an activity is aimed at serving practical activities: observation is necessary for the doctor to diagnosis and clarification of the treatment process; to the investigator - to put forward and verify versions and solve the crime; the power system operator - to make a decision on the distribution of electricity flows.

Seeing how method science includes a system of principles of cognitive activity, provisions on the essence and specifics of psychological observation, on its capabilities and limitations, on instrumental equipment and varieties of human activity in the role of an observer. Observation as a method of psychology is distinguished by its universality, i.e., applicability to the study of a wide range of phenomena, flexibility, i.e., the ability to change the “field of coverage” of the object under study as necessary, to put forward and test additional hypotheses in the course of observation. To conduct an observational study, minimal hardware is required.

The specificity of observation as a scientific method of psychology lies in the type of relationship to the object of study (non-intervention) and the presence of direct visual or auditory contact between the observer and the observed. The main characteristics of observation as a method of psychology are purposefulness, regularity, dependence on the theoretical ideas of the observer.

Seeing how technique(observation technique) takes into account the specific task, situation, conditions and instruments of observation. The method of observation is understood as a socially fixed, clearly stated for others, objectively presented system for collecting and processing empirical data, which is adequate to a clearly defined range of tasks. In foreign psychological literature, a synonym for "observation technique" is "observation technique". The observation methodology contains the most complete description of the observation procedure and includes: a) the choice of a situation and an object for observation; b) the program (scheme) of observation in the form of a list of signs (aspects) of the observed behavior and units of observation with a detailed description of them; c) method and form of recording the results of observation; d) a description of the requirements for the work of an observer; e) description of the method of processing and presentation of the received data.

Object and subject of observation. object external observation can be an individual, a group of people or a community. The object of observation is characterized by uniqueness, non-repeatability, very short or very long duration of mental phenomena.

The main problem that arises in the conduct of observation is the effect of the presence of the observer on the behavior of the observed. To minimize this impact, the observer should “become familiar”, i.e., be more often present in the environment, do some business, and not focus on what is being observed. In addition, it is possible to explain the presence of the observer by some purpose acceptable for the observed, or to replace the human observer with recording equipment (video camera, voice recorder, etc.), or to observe from an adjacent room through glass with one-way light conduction (Gesell's mirror). The modesty, tact, good manners of the observer weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.

There is also a reception included observation when the observer is a real member of the group. However, this technique entails an ethical problem - the duality of the position and the inability to observe oneself as a member of the group.

Subject observations can only be external, exteriorized components of mental activity:

– motor components of practical and gnostic actions;

- movements, movements and stationary states of people (speed and direction of movement, contact, shocks, blows);

– joint actions (groups of people);

- speech acts (their content, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of the lexical, grammatical, phonetic structure);

- facial expressions and pantomime, expression of sounds;

- manifestations of some vegetative reactions (redness or blanching of the skin, changes in the rhythm of breathing, sweating).

When conducting observation, the complexity of an unambiguous understanding of the internal, mental through observation of the external arises. In psychology, there is a multiplicity of connections between external manifestations and subjective mental reality and a multilevel structure of mental phenomena, so the same behavioral manifestation can be associated with various mental processes.

Observer position in relation to the object of observation can be open or hidden. The included observation can also be classified as open or covert, depending on whether the observer reports the fact of observation or not.

A person-observer has a selectivity of perception, which is determined by his attitudes, the general direction of his activity. A certain attitude activates perception, sharpens sensitivity to significant influences, however, an overly fixed attitude leads to bias. The general orientation of activity can serve as an incentive to overestimate some facts and underestimate others (teachers pay attention to cognitive activity, trainers - to body features, dexterity of movements, tailors - to tailoring, etc.).

There is also the phenomenon of the projection of one's own "I" on the observed behavior. Interpreting the behavior of another person, the observer transfers his own point of view to him. Individual characteristics of the observer (primary modality of perception - visual, auditory, etc., ability to concentrate and distribute attention, memory capacity, cognitive style, temperament, emotional stability, etc.) also have a significant impact on the result of observation. A good observer needs special training in observation, which allows you to somewhat reduce the influence of individual characteristics.

Depending on the situation, field observation, laboratory observation and provoked observation in natural conditions are distinguished. Field the observation is carried out in the natural conditions of the life of the observed, the distortion of behavior in this case is minimal. This type of observation is very time-consuming, since the situation of interest to the researcher is hardly controllable and, therefore, observation is most often of an expectant nature. Laboratory observation is carried out in a more convenient situation for the researcher, but artificial conditions can greatly distort human behavior. provoked observation is carried out in natural conditions, but the situation is set by the researcher. In developmental psychology, this observation approaches a natural experiment (observation during the game, during classes, etc.).

2.2. Organization of psychological observation

By way of organizing distinguish between non-systematic and systematic observation. Unsystematic observation is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology. For the researcher, it is important here to create some generalized picture of the phenomenon under study, the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions. Systematic observation is carried out according to plan. The researcher identifies some features of behavior and fixes their manifestation in various conditions or situations.

There are also continuous and selective observation. At continuous observation, the researcher captures all the features of behavior, and when selective pays attention only to certain behavioral acts, fixes their frequency, duration, etc.

Different ways of organizing surveillance have their own advantages and disadvantages. So, with non-systematic observation, random phenomena can be described, therefore, it is preferable to organize systematic observation under changing conditions. With continuous observation, it is impossible to record the entire observed, therefore, in this case, it is desirable to use equipment or involve several observers. Selective observation does not exclude the influence of the observer's position on its result (he sees only what he wants to see). To overcome this influence, it is possible to involve several observers, as well as alternately test both the main and competing hypotheses.

Depending on the goals Research can be divided into exploratory research and research aimed at testing hypotheses. search engine research is carried out at the beginning of the development of any scientific field, is carried out extensively, aims to obtain the most complete description of all the phenomena inherent in this field, to cover it entirely. If observation is used in such a study, then it is usually continuous. Domestic psychologist M.Ya. Basov, the author of a classic work on the method of observation, designates the goal of such observation as “to observe in general”, to observe everything that an object manifests itself with, without selecting any specific manifestations. Some sources call this observation expectant.

An example of an exploratory study based on observation is the work of D.B. Elkonina and T.V. Dragunova. The general goal of this study was to obtain a description of all manifestations of neoplasms in the mental development of a child in adolescence. Systematic, long-term observation was carried out to identify the actual behavior and activities of adolescents during lessons, preparation of homework, circle work, various competitions, behavioral features and relationships with friends, teachers, parents, facts related to interests, plans for the future, attitude towards oneself , claims and aspirations, social activity, reactions to success and failure. Value judgments, conversations of children, disputes, remarks were registered.

If the purpose of the study is specific and strictly defined, the observation is built differently. In this case it is called researcher, or selective. At the same time, the content of the observation is selected, the observed is divided into units. An example is the study of the stages of cognitive development conducted by J. Piaget. To study one of the stages, the researcher chose manipulative games of the child with toys that have a cavity. Observations have shown that the ability to insert one object into another occurs later than the motor skills required for this. At a certain age, the child cannot do this because he does not understand how one object can be inside another.

By use of surveillance Distinguish between direct and indirect (with the use of observation instruments and means of fixing the results) observation. Surveillance equipment includes audio, photo and video equipment, surveillance maps. However, technical means are not always available, and the use of a hidden camera or voice recorder is an ethical problem, since the researcher in this case encroaches on the inner world of a person without his consent. Some researchers consider their use unacceptable.

By way chronological organization distinguish between longitudinal, periodic and single observation. Longitudinal observation is carried out over a number of years and involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study. The results of such observations are usually recorded in the form of diaries and broadly cover the behavior, lifestyle, habits of the observed person. periodic observation is carried out for certain, precisely specified periods of time. This is the most common type of chronological organization of observation. single, or single, observations are usually presented as a description of a single case. They can be both unique and typical manifestations of the phenomenon under study.

Fixing the results of observation can be carried out in the process of observation or after some time has passed. In the latter case, as a rule, completeness, accuracy and reliability in recording the behavior of the subjects suffer.

2.3. Observation Program

The program (scheme) of observation includes a list of units of observation, the language and form of description of the observed.

Choice of observation units. After choosing the object and situation of observation, the researcher faces the task of conducting the observation and describing its results. Before observing, it is necessary to single out certain aspects of the object's behavior, individual acts accessible to direct perception from the continuous flow of the object's behavior. The selected units of observation should be consistent with the purpose of the study and allow interpretation of the results in accordance with the theoretical position. Units of observation can vary considerably in size and complexity.

When using categorized observation, it is possible to quantify observed events. There are two main ways to obtain quantitative estimates during observation: 1) the observer's assessment of the intensity (severity) of the observed property, action - psychological scaling; 2) measurement of the duration of the observed event - timing. Scaling in observation is carried out by the method of scoring. Three to ten point scales are usually used. The score can be expressed not only as a number, but also as an adjective (“very strong, strong, medium”, etc.). Sometimes a graphic form of scaling is used, in which the score is expressed by the value of the segment on the straight line, the extreme points of which mark the lower and upper scores. For example, the scale for observing the behavior of a student at school, developed by J. Strelyau to assess the individual characteristics of a person, involves an assessment of ten categories of behavior on a five-point scale and very accurately defines reactivity as a property of temperament.

For timing in the process of direct observation, it is necessary: a) to be able to quickly isolate the desired unit from the observed behavior; b) establish in advance what is considered the beginning and what is the end of a behavioral act; c) have a chronometer. However, it should be remembered that the timing of activities, as a rule, is unpleasant for a person, interferes with him.

Methods for recording observations. General requirements for recording observations were formulated by M.Ya. Basov.

1. The record must be factual, that is, every fact must be recorded in the form in which it actually existed.

2. The record must include a description of the situation (subject and social) in which the observed event occurs (background record).

3. The record must be complete in order to reflect the reality being studied in accordance with the purpose.

Based on the study of a large number of records by M.Ya. Basovs proposed to distinguish three main ways of verbal fixation of behavior: interpretive, generalizing and descriptive, and photographic recordings. The use of all three types of records allows you to collect the most detailed material.

Recording non-standardized observations. In an exploratory study, preliminary knowledge about the reality under study is minimal, so the observer's task is to record the manifestations of the object's activity in all their diversity. This is photographic record. However, it is necessary to include elements of interpretation in it, since it is almost impossible to reflect the situation “impartially”. “One or two well-aimed words of a researcher are better than a stream of long descriptions, where “you can’t see the forest for the trees,” wrote A.P. Boltunov.

Usually, in the course of exploratory research, the form of observation records is used in the form continuous protocol. It must indicate the date, time, place, situation of observation, social and objective environment, and, if necessary, the context of previous events. A continuous protocol is an ordinary sheet of paper on which the record is kept without headings. For the record to be complete, good concentration of the observer is necessary, as well as the use of conditional abbreviations or shorthand. A continuous protocol is used at the stage of clarifying the subject and situation of observation; on its basis, a list of units of observation can be compiled.

In a long-term field study conducted by the method of non-standardized observation, the recording form is diary. It is carried out during many days of observations in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for subsequent processing of records. To maintain the accuracy of observations for a long time, the accuracy and uniformity of terminology should be observed. Diary entries are also recommended to be kept directly, and not from memory.

In a covert participant surveillance situation, data recording usually has to be done after the fact, since the observer does not have to reveal himself. In addition, as a participant in events, he cannot record anything. Therefore, the observer is forced to process the material of observations, summing up and generalizing homogeneous facts. Therefore, the observation diary uses generalizing descriptive and interpretation notes. However, at the same time, some of the most striking facts are reproduced by the observer relatively photographically, without processing, “as such and the only ones” (M.Ya. Basov).

Each entry in the observation diary should include a short introduction to better understand the behavior that has become the subject of recording. It reflects the place, time, situation, situation, state of others, etc. Along with the introduction, a conclusion can also be attached to the record, which reflects the changes in the situation that have occurred during the observation (appearance of a significant person, etc.).

While maintaining complete objectivity when recording data, the observer then must express his attitude to the described phenomena and his understanding of their meaning. Such entries should be clearly separated from observational entries and are therefore made in the margins of the diary.

Recording standardized observations. For categorized observations, two recording methods are used - notation in symbols and standard protocol. At character entries each category can be assigned designations - letters, pictograms, mathematical signs, which reduces the recording time.

Standard protocol is used in cases where the number of categories is limited and the researcher is only interested in the frequency of their occurrence (N. Flanders' system for analyzing the verbal interaction between a teacher and a student). This form of recording the results of observation has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the accuracy and completeness of the fixation of manifestations, the disadvantages are the loss of the “living tissue of interaction” (M.Ya. Basov).

The result of the observation is a "behavioral portrait". This result is very valuable in medical, psychotherapeutic, consultative practice. The main parameters in compiling a behavioral portrait based on observation are as follows:

1) individual features of appearance that are important for the characteristics of the observed person (style of clothing, hairstyles, how much he strives in his appearance to “be like everyone else” or wants to stand out, attract attention to himself, whether he is indifferent to his appearance or attaches particular importance to it, what elements of behavior confirm this, in what situations);

2) pantomime (posture, features of gait, gestures, general stiffness or, conversely, freedom of movement, characteristic individual postures);

3) facial expressions (general facial expression, restraint, expressiveness, in which situations facial expressions are significantly animated, and in which they remain constrained);

4) speech behavior (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconism, stylistic features, content and culture of speech, intonational richness, the inclusion of pauses in speech, the pace of speech);

5) behavior in relation to other people (position in the team and attitude to it, ways to establish contact, the nature of communication - business, personal, situational communication, communication style - authoritarian, democratic, self-oriented, with an orientation to the interlocutor, positions in communication - “on an equal footing”, from above, from below, the presence of contradictions in behavior - a demonstration of various ways of behavior that are opposite in meaning in situations of the same type);

6) behavioral manifestations (in relation to oneself - to appearance, personal belongings, shortcomings, advantages and opportunities);

7) behavior in psychologically difficult situations (when performing a responsible task, in conflict, etc.);

8) behavior in the main activity (game, study, professional activity);

9) examples of characteristic individual verbal cliches, as well as statements that characterize the outlook, interests, life experience.

2.4. The use of observation in psychological and pedagogical research

The widespread use of the observation method for studying the mental development of children is due to the characteristics of the object of study. A small child cannot be a participant in psychological experiments, unable to give a verbal account of his actions, thoughts, emotions and actions.

The accumulation of data on the mental development of infants and young children made it possible to bring them into certain systems.

Development tables A. Gesell cover four main areas of child behavior: motor skills, language, adaptive and personal-social behavior. Data obtained through direct observation of children's responses to common toys and other objects are complemented by information provided by the child's mother. The American psychologist A. Anastasi, in his authoritative manual on psychological testing, notes the lack of standardization of these developmental tables, but points out their usefulness as an adjunct to medical examinations carried out by pediatricians and other specialists.

Method E. Fruht fixes the development of a child aged 10 days to 12 months in the following categories: 1) visual orienting reactions; 2) auditory orienting reactions; 3) emotions and social behavior; 4) hand movements and actions with objects; 5) general movements; 6) understanding of speech; 7) active speech; 8) skills and abilities.

For each age, a list of categories (from two to seven) and a description of the reactions characteristic of this age are given. For example, for the age of 1 month: general movements - lying on the stomach, trying to raise and hold the head (for 5 s); immediately raises his head after stroking his back, holds it for 5 s and lowers it. For the age of 3 months: general movements - lies on the stomach, leaning on the forearms and raising the head high (for 1 min), immediately raises the head high, leaning on the forearms, the chest is raised, the legs lie calmly, maintains this position for 1 min; holds the head in an upright position (in the arms of an adult); keeps head straight for 30 s. With support under the armpits, it firmly rests on a solid support with legs bent at the hip joint; when touching the support, straightens the legs at the knee joint and rests with both feet.

This scheme is not aimed at making a diagnosis, but only allows you to recognize the overall picture of development and pay attention to some alarming symptoms.

1) physical development, which covers both general movements, such as walking, climbing, and more subtle ones, such as coordinating eye and hand movements when drawing and sculpting;

2) communication and speech development. These include expressive speech and understanding; 3) social development and play - include relationships with adults and children, how the child plays, his interests, the ability to concentrate on these activities; 4) autonomy and independence - the ability to do without the help of adults during eating, dressing, using the toilet, as well as the ability to help adults, participate in group activities and carry out current assignments; 5) behavior. Sometimes included under heading 3 (social development) or 4 (independence), but this section is necessary to record the difficulties and problems of the child.

The structure of the development card is a list of points for each direction of development. If a skill or skill is formed, then an icon is put in the card, if the data is uncertain - “?”. There are no results at the end. This is a way to “photograph” a baby at some point in development in order to plan further measures for his upbringing, as well as for comparison with future “pictures” of the same child.

Psychologists and speech therapists use the results of a child's development to compare with the average for children of a given age. Educators tend to compare later developmental outcomes with earlier ones. If a child has developmental deviations, they are usually expressed in a decrease in the rate of development. For such children, special development cards are needed, which indicate more detailed stages and steps that the child goes through before he learns certain skills. They are not always marked as milestones for healthy children.

When choosing a development card, you should not strive to find a perfect sample - one hardly exists. Precisely formulated points in the card are less important than systematic observation of the child. The regularity of observations is called by D. Lashley the "method of time samples" and means making observations over pre-marked time intervals. All entries relating to one "slice" must be entered on the card within one week. If this is not possible, follow-up should be postponed.

D. Lashley's method of observing "difficult" behavior. The author believes that in order to understand the problem of the child, one should conduct an observation and then conclude how serious it is. It is fairly easy to identify three main aspects of observation: 1) frequency - how often the problem occurs; 2) duration - how long the "difficult" behavior lasts in each case, or how long per day such behavior looks typical; 3) intensity - the problem is simple, fairly serious or very serious. Separately, it should be said about the frequency of observations. You can observe the child for several days, or you can simply count the number of manifestations of "difficult" behavior. Frequency calculation in relation to such behavior sometimes brings unexpected results. Adults may decide that the child is naughty most of the day, and after observation it turns out that there are long periods during the day, or even whole days, when the child is not at all "difficult".

Thus, on the basis of observation, it is possible to conduct both fundamental research in the field of child development and a huge number of applied research that helps to reveal and explain various phenomena of child development. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for the teacher, as it allows him to better understand his pupils.

Observation

Observation is a descriptive psychological research method, which consists in purposeful and organized perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. Observation is an organized, purposeful, fixed perception of mental phenomena with the aim of studying them under certain conditions.

General information

Together with introspection, observation is considered the oldest psychological method. Scientific observation has been widely used since the end of the 19th century in areas where the fixation of the characteristics of human behavior in various conditions is of particular importance - in clinical, social, educational psychology, developmental psychology, and since the beginning of the 20th century - in labor psychology.

Observation is used where the intervention of the experimenter will disrupt the process of human interaction with the environment. This method is indispensable when it is necessary to obtain a complete picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in its entirety.

The main features of the observation method are: - direct connection between the observer and the observed object; - partiality (emotional coloring) of observation; - the complexity (sometimes - the impossibility) of repeated observation. In the natural sciences, the observer, as a rule, does not influence the process (phenomenon) being studied. In psychology, there is a problem of interaction between the observer and the observed. If the subject knows that he is being observed, then the presence of the researcher influences his behavior. The limitations of the method of observation gave rise to other, more "perfect" methods of empirical research: experiment and measurement. [Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. - St. Petersburg. 2000]

Subject of observation

The object of observation is an individual or a group of individuals. The subject is the physical manifestations of the phenomenon of interest to the researcher:

* Verbal behavior

o Length of speech

o Speech intensity

* Non-verbal behavior

o Expression of the face, eyes, body,

o Expressive movements

* Movement of people

* Distance between people

* Physical impacts

o Touch

o Etc. Etc.

That is, the object of observation can only be that which can be objectively registered. Thus, the researcher does not observe the properties of the psyche, he registers only those manifestations of the object that are available for fixation. And only on the basis of the assumption that the psyche finds its manifestation in behavior, the psychologist can build hypotheses about mental properties, based on the data obtained during observation.

Surveillance

Observation can be carried out directly by the researcher, or by means of observation devices and fixing its results. These include audio, photo, video equipment, special surveillance cards.

Classification of observations

Observation is a purposeful, organized and in a certain way fixed perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called the description of the object's behavior. Surveillance is used when it is either impossible or inadmissible to interfere with the natural course of the process. It can be: 1. Direct and indirect, 2. External and internal, 3. Included (which can be open and closed) and not included, 4. Direct and indirect, 5. Continuous and selective (according to certain parameters), 6. Field (in everyday life) and laboratory.

According to the systematic distinction

* Non-systematic observation, in which it is necessary to create a generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or a group of individuals under certain conditions and does not aim to fix causal dependencies and give strict descriptions of phenomena.

* Systematic observation, carried out according to a certain plan and in which the researcher registers the features of behavior and classifies the conditions of the external environment.

Non-systematic observation is carried out in the course of field research (used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, social psychology). Result: creation of a generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or a group under certain conditions. Systematic monitoring is carried out according to a specific plan. Result: registration of behavioral features (variables) and classification of environmental conditions.

Observation is opposed to experiment. This opposition is based on two assumptions:

* Passivity of the observer - the observer does not change the surrounding reality.

* Directness - the observer fixes in the protocol what he sees.

For fixed objects

* Continuous observation. The researcher tries to fix all the features of behavior.

* Selective observation. The researcher captures only certain types of behavioral acts or behavioral parameters.

Stages of observational research

1. Definition of the subject of observation, object, situation.

2. Choice of the method of observation and data recording.

3. Create an observation plan.

4. Choice of method for processing results.

5. Actually observation.

6. Processing and interpretation of the received information.

Advantages of the Observation Method

* Observation allows you to directly capture and record acts of behavior.

* Observation allows you to simultaneously capture the behavior of a number of people in relation to each other or to certain tasks, objects, etc.

* Observation allows you to conduct research regardless of the readiness of the observed subjects.

* Observation allows you to achieve multidimensional coverage, that is, fixation on several parameters at once - for example, verbal and non-verbal behavior

* Efficiency of obtaining information

* Relative cheapness of the method

Disadvantages of the observation method

* Departure from the purpose of observation (Obtaining facts that do not correspond to the goals of the study)

*Past research experience influences subsequent observation facts