The Mongol feudal empire was formed as a result of the conquests of Genghis Khan and his successors in the 13th-14th centuries.

At the beginning of the XIII century. On the territory of Central Asia, as a result of a long intertribal struggle, a single Mongolian state arose, which included all the main Mongolian tribes of nomadic pastoralists and hunters. In the history of the Mongols, this was a significant progress, a qualitatively new stage of development: the creation of a single state contributed to the consolidation of the Mongolian people, the establishment of feudal relations that replaced communal-tribal ones. The founder of the Mongolian state was Khan Temuchin (1162-1227), who in 1206 was proclaimed Genghis Khan, i.e. the Great Khan.

The spokesman for the interests of combatants and the emerging class of feudal lords, Genghis Khan carried out a number of radical reforms to strengthen the centralized military-administrative system of state administration, and to suppress any manifestations of separatism. The population was divided into "tens", "hundreds", "thousands" of nomads, who immediately became warriors in military time. A personal guard was formed - the support of the khan. In order to strengthen the positions of the ruling dynasty, all the closest relatives of the khan received large inheritances. A set of laws (“Yasa”) was compiled, where, in particular, arats were forbidden to arbitrarily move from one “ten” to another. Those guilty of the slightest violations of the Yasa were severely punished. There were shifts in the sphere of culture. By the beginning of the XIII century. refers to the emergence of common Mongolian writing; in 1240 the famous historical and literary monument "The Secret History of the Mongols" was created. Under Genghis Khan, the capital of the Mongol Empire, the city of Karakorum, was founded, which was not only an administrative center, but also a center of crafts and trade.

Since 1211, Genghis Khan began numerous wars of conquest, seeing in them the main means of enrichment, satisfying the growing needs of the nomadic nobility, asserting dominance over other countries. The conquest of new lands, the seizure of military booty, the imposition of tribute on the conquered peoples - this promised rapid and unprecedented enrichment, absolute power over vast territories. The success of the campaigns was facilitated by the internal strength of the young Mongolian state, the creation of a strong mobile army (cavalry), well equipped technically, soldered with iron discipline, controlled by skillful commanders. At the same time, Genghis Khan skillfully used internecine conflicts, internal strife in the enemy camp. As a result, the Mongol conquerors succeeded in conquering many peoples of Asia and Europe, capturing vast regions. In 1211, the invasion of China began, the Mongols inflicted a number of serious defeats on the troops of the Jin state. They destroyed about 90 cities and in 1215 took Beijing (Yanjing). In 1218-1221. Genghis Khan moved to Turkestan, conquered Semirechye, defeated Khorezm Shah Mohammed, captured Urgench, Bukhara, Samarkand and other centers of Central Asia. In 1223, the Mongols reached the Crimea, penetrated Transcaucasia, devastated part of Georgia and Azerbaijan, marched along the Caspian Sea to the lands of the Alans and, having defeated them, entered the Polovtsian steppes. In 1223, the Mongol detachments defeated the united Russian-Polovtsian army near the Kalka River. In 1225-1227. Genghis Khan undertook his last campaign - against the Tangut state. By the end of Genghis Khan's life, in addition to Mongolia itself, Northern China, East Turkestan, Central Asia, the steppes from the Irtysh to the Volga, most of Iran and the Caucasus were part of the empire. Genghis Khan divided the lands of the empire between his sons - Jochi, Chagadai, Ogedei, Tului. After the death of Genghis Khan, their uluses more and more acquired the features of independent possessions, although the power of the All-Mongol Khan was nominally recognized.

Genghis Khan's successors Khan Ogedei (reigned 1228-1241), Guyuk (1246-1248), Mongke (1251-1259), Khubilai (1260-1294) and others continued their wars of conquest. Grandson of Genghis Khan Batu Khan in 1236-1242. carried out aggressive campaigns against Russia and other countries (the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Dalmatia), moving far to the west. A huge state of the Golden Horde was formed, which at first was part of the empire. The Russian principalities became tributaries of this state, having experienced the full burden of the Horde yoke. Another grandson of Genghis Khan, Hulagu Khan, founded the Hulagid state in Iran and Transcaucasia. Another grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, completed the conquest of China in 1279, founding the Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1271 and moving the capital of the empire from Karakorum to Zhongdu (modern Beijing).

The aggressive campaigns were accompanied by the destruction of cities, the destruction of priceless cultural monuments, the devastation of vast areas, and the extermination of thousands of people. In the conquered countries, a regime of robbery and violence was introduced. The local population (peasants, artisans, etc.) was subject to numerous taxes and taxes. The power belonged to the governors of the Mongol khan, their assistants and officials, who relied on strong military garrisons and a rich treasury. At the same time, the conquerors sought to attract large landowners, merchants, and the clergy to their side; obedient rulers from among the local nobility were placed at the head of some lands.

The Mongol empire was internally very fragile, it was an artificial conglomeration of multilingual tribes and nationalities that were at different stages of social development, often higher than those of the conquerors. Internal contradictions intensified more and more. In the 60s. 13th century the Golden Horde and the Hulagid state actually separated from the empire. The entire history of the empire is filled with a long series of uprisings and rebellions against the conquerors. At first, they were brutally suppressed, but gradually the forces of the conquered peoples grew stronger, and the capabilities of the invaders weakened. In 1368, as a result of mass popular uprisings, the Mongol rule in China fell. In 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo predetermined the overthrow of the Horde yoke in Russia. The Mongol Empire collapsed, ceased to exist. A period of feudal fragmentation began in the history of Mongolia.

The Mongol conquests caused innumerable disasters to the conquered peoples and delayed their social development for a long time. They had a negative impact on the historical development of Mongolia and the position of the people. The plundered riches were used not for the growth of productive forces, but for the purpose of enriching the ruling class. Wars divided the Mongolian people, depleted human resources. All this adversely affected the socio-economic development of the country in subsequent centuries.

It would be wrong to unequivocally assess the historical role of the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan. His activities were progressive in nature, while there was a struggle for the unification of disparate Mongolian tribes, for the creation and strengthening of a single state. Then the situation changed: he became a cruel conqueror, the conqueror of the peoples of many countries. At the same time, he was a man of extraordinary abilities, a brilliant organizer, an outstanding commander and statesman. Genghis Khan is the largest figure in Mongolian history. In Mongolia, much attention is paid to the elimination of everything superficial, which was associated either with the actual silence or with one-sided coverage of the role of Genghis Khan in history. The public organization "The Hearth of Genghis" was created, the number of publications about him is increasing, the Mongolian-Japanese scientific expedition is actively working to search for the place of his burial. The 750th anniversary of the Secret History of the Mongols, which vividly reflects the image of Genghis Khan, is widely celebrated.

There are a large number of unique people in world history. They were simple children, often brought up in poverty and did not know good manners. It was these people who changed the course of history dramatically, leaving behind only ashes. They were building a new world, a new ideology and a new outlook on life. To all these hundreds of people, humanity owes its present life, because it is the mosaic of past events that has led to what we have today. Everyone knows the names of such people, because they are constantly on the lips. Every year, scientists can provide an increasing number of interesting facts from the lives of great people. In addition, many secrets and riddles are gradually being revealed, the disclosure of which a little earlier could have led to horrific consequences.

Acquaintance

Genghis Khan is the founder of the first great khan of which he was. He rallied various disparate tribes that were on the territory of Mongolia. In addition, he carried out a large number of campaigns against neighboring states. Most military campaigns ended in complete victory. The empire of Genghis Khan is considered the largest of the continental in the entire history of the world.

Birth

Temujin was born in the Delyun-Boldok tract. The father named his son Genghis Khan in honor of the captured Tatar leader Temujin-Uge, who was defeated just before the birth of the boy. The date of birth of the great leader is still not known exactly, since different sources indicate different periods. According to the documents that existed during the life of the leader and his biographer witnesses, Genghis Khan was born in 1155. Another option is 1162, but there is no exact confirmation. The boy's father, Yesugei-bagatur, left him in the family of the future bride at the age of 11. Genghis Khan had to stay there until he came of age, so that the children would get to know each other better. The little girl, the future bride named Borta, was from the Ungirat clan.

Father's death

According to the scriptures, on the way back home, the boy's father was poisoned by the Tatars. Yesugei had a fever at home and died three days later. He had two wives. Both of them and the children of the head of the family were expelled from the tribe. Women with children were forced to live in the forest for several years. They managed to escape by a miracle: they ate plants, the boys tried to fish. Even in the warm season, they were doomed to starvation, as it was necessary to stock up on food for the winter.

Fearing the revenge of the heirs of the great khan, the new head of the Targutai tribe, Kiriltukh, pursued Temujin. Several times the boy managed to escape, but he was eventually caught. They put a wooden block on him, which absolutely limited the martyr in his actions. It was impossible to eat, drink, or even drive the pesky beetle off your face. Realizing the hopelessness of his situation, Temujin decided to run away. At night, he reached the lake, in which he hid. The boy completely sank into the water, leaving only his nostrils on the surface. The bloodhounds of the head of the tribe carefully looked for at least some traces of the escapee. One person noticed Temujin, but did not betray him. In the future, it was he who helped Genghis Khan escape. Soon the boy found his relatives in the forest. Then he married Bort.

The formation of the commander

The empire of Genghis Khan was created gradually. At first, nukers began to flock to him, with whom he carried out attacks on neighboring territories. Thus, the young man began to have his own land, army and people. Genghis Khan began to form a special system that would allow him to effectively manage the rapidly growing horde. Around 1184, the first son of Genghis Khan, Jochi, was born. In 1206, at the congress, Temujin was proclaimed a great khan from God. From that moment on, he was considered the complete and absolute ruler of Mongolia.

Asia

The conquest of Central Asia took place in several stages. The war with the Kara-Kai Khanate ended with the Mongols getting Semirechye and East Turkestan. In order to gain the support of the population, the Mongols allowed Muslims to public worship, which was forbidden by the Naimans. This contributed to the fact that the permanent settled population completely took the side of the conquerors. The population considered the arrival of the Mongols "the grace of Allah", in comparison with the harshness of Khan Kuchluk. The inhabitants themselves opened the gates to the Mongols. It was for this that the city of Balasagun was called the "meek city." Khan Kuchluk could not organize a strong enough resistance, so he fled the city. Soon he was found and killed. Thus, the way to Khorezm was opened for Genghis Khan.

The empire of Genghis Khan swallowed up Khorezm - a large state in Central Asia. His weak point was that the nobility had full power in the city, so the situation was very tense. Muhammad's mother independently appointed all relatives to important government posts, without asking her son. Thus creating a powerful circle of support, she led the opposition against Muhammad. Internal relations became very aggravated when the heavy threat of a Mongol invasion hung. The war against Khorezm ended with neither side gaining a significant advantage. At night, the Mongols left the battlefield. In 1215, Genghis Khan agreed with Khorezm on mutual trade relations. However, the first merchants who went to Khorezm were captured and killed. For the Mongols, this was an excellent pretext for starting a war. Already in 1219, Genghis Khan, together with the main military forces, opposed Khorezm. Despite the fact that many territories were taken by siege, the Mongols plundered cities, killed and destroyed everything around. Mohammed lost the war even without a fight, and, realizing this, he fled to an island in the Caspian Sea, having previously given power into the hands of his son Jalal-ad-Din. After long battles, the khan overtook Jalal-ad-Din in 1221 near the Indus River. The enemy army numbered about 50 thousand people. To deal with them, the Mongols used a trick: by making a detour through the rocky terrain, they struck the enemy from the flank. In addition, Genghis Khan deployed a powerful guard unit of the Bagaturs. In the end, the army of Jalal-ad-Din was almost completely defeated. He, with several thousand soldiers, fled from the battlefield by swimming.

After a 7-month siege, the capital of Khorezm, Urgench, fell, the city was taken. Jalal-ad-Din fought against the troops of Genghis Khan for a long 10 years, but this did not bring significant benefits to his state. He died defending his territory in 1231 in Anatolia.

In just three short years (1219-1221), Muhammad's kingdom bowed to Genghis Khan. The entire eastern part of the kingdom, which occupied the territory from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, was under the rule of the great Khan of Mongolia.

The Mongols conquered the West by the campaign of Jebe and Subedei. Having captured Samarkand, Genghis Khan sent his troops to conquer Muhammad. Jebe and Subedei passed through the entire Northern Iran, and then captured the South Caucasus. Cities were captured by certain treaties or simply by force. The troops regularly collected tribute from the population. Soon, in 1223, the Mongols defeated the Russian-Polovtsian military forces in However, retreating to the East, they lost in the small remnants of a huge army returned to the great khan in 1224, and he was in Asia at that time.

hiking

The first victory of the Khan, which took place outside of Mongolia, happened during the campaign of 1209-1210 against the Tanguts. Khan began to prepare for war with the most dangerous enemy in the East - the state of Jin. In the spring of 1211, a great war began, which claimed many lives. Very quickly, by the end of the year, Genghis Khan's troops owned the territory from the north to the Chinese wall. Already by 1214, the entire territory covering the north and the Yellow River was in the hands of the Mongol army. In the same year, the siege of Beijing took place. The world was obtained through an exchange - Genghis Khan married a Chinese princess who had a huge dowry, land and wealth. But this step of the emperor was only a trick, and as soon as the Khan's troops began to retreat, after waiting for a good moment, the Chinese resumed the war. For them, this was a big mistake, because in a short time the Mongols defeated the capital to the last stone.

In 1221, when Samarkand fell, the eldest son of Genghis Khan was sent to Khorezm in order to begin the siege of Urgench, the capital of Muhammad. At the same time, the youngest son was sent by his father to Persia to plunder and seize territory.

Separately, it is worth noting what happened between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongolian troops. The modern territory of the battle is the Donetsk region of Ukraine. The Battle of the Kalka (year 1223) led to a complete victory for the Mongols. First, they defeated the forces of the Polovtsy, and a little later the main forces of the Russian army were defeated. On May 31, the battle ended with the death of about 9 Russian princes, many boyars and warriors.

The campaign of Subedei and Jebe allowed the army to pass through a significant part of the steppes, which was occupied by the Polovtsians. This allowed the military leaders to assess the merits of the future theater of operations, study it and think over a reasonable strategy. The Mongols also learned a lot about the internal structure of Russia, they received a lot of useful information from the prisoners. The campaigns of Genghis Khan have always been distinguished by a thorough one that was carried out before the offensive.

Russia

The invasion of the Mongol-Tatars into Russia took place in 1237-1240 under the rule of Chingizid Batu. The Mongols were actively advancing on Russia, inflicting strong blows, waiting for good moments. The main goal of the Mongol-Tatars was the disorganization of the soldiers of Russia, the sowing of fear and panic. They avoided battles with a large number of warriors. The tactic was to disunite a large army and break the enemy in parts, exhausting him with sharp attacks and constant aggression. The Mongols began their battles by throwing arrows in order to intimidate and distract opponents. One of the significant advantages of the Mongolian army was that the management of the battle was better organized. The controllers did not fight next to ordinary warriors, they were at a certain distance, so as to maximize the viewing angle of military operations. Instructions to the soldiers were given with the help of various signs: flags, lights, smoke, drums and trumpets. The attack of the Mongols was carefully thought out. For this, powerful reconnaissance and diplomatic preparations for battle were carried out. Much attention was paid to isolating the enemy, as well as fanning internal conflicts. After this stage, concentrated near the borders. The advance took place around the perimeter. Starting from different sides, the army sought to get to the very center. Penetrating deeper and deeper, the military destroyed cities, stole cattle, killed warriors and raped women. In order to better prepare for the attack, the Mongols sent out special observation detachments that prepared the territory and also destroyed the enemy’s weapons. The exact number of troops on both sides is not known for certain, as information varies.

For Russia, the invasion of the Mongols was a severe blow. A huge part of the population was killed, the cities fell into decay, as they were thoroughly destroyed. Stone construction stopped for several years. Many crafts have simply disappeared. The settled population was almost completely eliminated. The empire of Genghis Khan and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars into Russia were closely connected, since for the Mongols it was a very tasty morsel.

Khan's empire

The empire of Genghis Khan included a vast territory from the Danube to the Sea of ​​Japan, from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. In its heyday, it combined the lands of Southern Siberia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, China, Tibet and Central Asia. The 13th century marked the creation and flourishing of the great state of Genghis Khan. But already in the second half of the century, the vast empire began to split into separate uluses, which were ruled by the Genghisides. The most significant fragments of the huge state were: the Golden Horde, the Yuan empire, the Chagatai ulus and the Hulaguid state. And yet the empire's frontiers were so impressive that no general or conqueror could do better.

Imperial capital

The Karakoram city was the capital of the entire empire. Literally, the word translates as "black stones of the volcano." It is believed that the Karakorum was founded in 1220. The city was the place where the khan left his family during campaigns and military affairs. The city was also the residence of the khan, in which he received important ambassadors. Russian princes also came here to resolve various political issues. The XIII century gave the world many travelers who left records about the city (Marco Polo, de Rubruk, Plano Carpini). The population of the city was very diverse, since each quarter was isolated from the other. The city was inhabited by artisans, merchants who arrived from all over the world. The city was unique in terms of the diversity of its inhabitants, because among them there were people of different races, religions and mindsets. The city was also built up with many Muslim mosques and Buddhist temples.

Ögedei built a palace which he called "The Palace of Ten Thousand Years of Prosperity". Each Chingizid also had to build his own palace here, which, of course, was inferior to the building of the son of the great leader.

Descendants

Genghis Khan had many wives and concubines until the end of his days. However, it was the first wife, Borta, who gave birth to the most powerful and famous boys to the commander. The heir of the first son of Jochi, Batu, was the creator of the Golden Horde, Jagatai-Chagatai gave the name of the dynasty that ruled over the central regions for a long time, Ogadai-Ugedei was the successor of the Khan himself, Tolui ruled the Mongol Empire from 1251 to 1259. Only these four boys had a certain power in the state. In addition, Borta gave birth to her husband and daughters: Hodzhin-begi, Chichigan, Alagai, Temulen and Altalun.

The second wife of the Merkit Khan, Khulan Khatun, gave birth to a daughter, Dairusuna, and sons, Kulkan and Kharachar. The third wife of Genghis Khan, Yesukat, gave him a daughter, Chara-noinona, and sons, Chakhur and Kharkhad.

Genghis Khan, whose life story is impressive, left behind descendants who ruled the Mongols in accordance with the Great Yasa of Khan until the 20s of the last century. The emperors of Manchuria, who ruled over Mongolia and China from the 16th to the 19th centuries, were also the khan's direct heirs through the female line.

Decline of the great empire

The fall of the empire lasted for a long 9 years, from 1260 to 1269. The situation was very tense, as there was an urgent question of who would receive all power. In addition, it should be noted the serious administrative problems faced by the management apparatus.

The fall of the empire happened for the reason that they did not want to live according to the laws established by their father. They could not live according to the main postulate "On the good quality, the severity of the state." Genghis Khan was shaped by a cruel reality that constantly demanded decisive action from him. The life of a constant tested Temujin, starting from the early years of his life. His sons lived in a completely different environment, they were protected and confident in the future. In addition, we should not forget that they valued their father's possessions much less than he himself.

Another reason for the collapse of the state was the struggle for power between the sons of Genghis Khan. She distracted them from the pressing affairs of the state. When it was necessary to solve important issues, the brothers were engaged in clarifying the relationship. This could not but affect the situation in the country, the world status, the mood of the people. All this led to a general deterioration in the state in many aspects. Dividing the empire of their father among themselves, the brothers did not understand that they were destroying it by dismantling it into stones.

Death of a great leader

Genghis Khan, whose history is impressive to this day, having returned from Central Asia, passed with his army through Western China. In 1225, near the borders of Xi Xia, Genghis Khan was on a hunt, during which he fell and was badly hurt. By the evening of the same day, he developed a severe fever. As a consequence of this, a meeting of managers was convened in the morning, at which the question of whether or not to start a war with the Tanguts was considered. Jochi was also on the council, who did not enjoy special trust at the top of the government, since he regularly deviated from his father's instructions. Noticing such constant behavior, Genghis Khan ordered his army to go against Jochi and kill him. But due to the death of his son, the campaign was never completed.

Having improved his health, in the spring of 1226 Genghis Khan with his army crossed the border of Xi Xia. Having defeated the defenders, and given the city for plunder, the khan began his last war. The Tanguts were completely defeated on the outskirts of the Tangut kingdom, the path to which became open. The fall of the Tangut kingdom and the death of the khan are very connected, because the great leader died here.

Causes of death

The scriptures say that Genghis Khan's death came after he accepted gifts from the Tangut king. However, there are several versions that have equal rights to exist. Among the main and most likely causes are the following: death from illness, poor adaptation to the climate of the area, the consequences of falling from a horse. There is also a separate version that the khan was killed by his young wife, whom he took by force. The girl, fearing the consequences, committed suicide that same night.

Tomb of Genghis Khan

No one can name the exact burial place of the great khan. Various sources disagree on the hypotheses for a number of reasons. Moreover, each of them indicates different places and methods of burial. The tomb of Genghis Khan can be located in any of three places: on Burkhan-Khaldun, on the northern side of Altai Khan, or in Yehe-Utek.

The monument to Genghis Khan is located in Mongolia. The equestrian statue is considered the largest monument and statue in the world. The opening of the monument took place on September 26, 2008. Its height is 40 m without a pedestal, the height of which is 10 m. The whole statue is covered with stainless steel, the total weight is 250 tons. Also, the monument to Genghis Khan is surrounded by 36 columns. Each of them symbolizes the Khan of the Mongol Empire, starting with Genghis and ending with Ligden. In addition, the monument is two-story, and it houses a museum, an art gallery, billiards, restaurants, a conference room and a souvenir shop. The horse's head serves as an observation deck for visitors. The statue is surrounded by a large park. The city authorities plan to equip a golf course, an open theater and an artificial lake.

Russian lands as part of the Mongol Empire of Genghisides, their right.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. events took place in Central Asia that had a huge impact on the history of China, Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe. These events are associated with the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars and the formation Mongol Empire - a state created in Central Asia by the talented commander Temuchin (Genghis Khan) at the beginning of the 13th century. In a short time, the Mongols conquered a huge territory in Asia and Europe from the Pacific Ocean to the Adriatic Sea and Central Europe. The city of Karakorum became the capital of the empire.

Considering the development of the Mongol-Tatar tribes, it is necessary to take into account the most diverse historical conditions of that era, the internal situation of these tribes, the level of feudal relations that have developed in them, and, finally, economic and political factors.

Mongolian tribes until the end of the XII century. lived on the territory of the modern Mongolian People's Republic. They did not constitute a single nationality, did not have their own statehood and spoke different dialects of the Mongolian language. Among the Mongol tribes during this period, a large tribe of Tatars stood out, who lived in the eastern part of Mongolia. The Mongol-Tatar tribes led a nomadic lifestyle. The most numerous were the steppe Mongols, engaged in cattle breeding and hunting. Forest Mongols were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. The Mongols roamed in large kurens, and each kuren had significant political independence: they waged wars, made alliances, etc.

The Mongols were subsistence farming and produced extremely little food. There was no money circulation, and trade took place in the form of exchange. The development of class relations, the impoverishment of ordinary nomads and the accumulation of wealth in the hands of individual families led to the disintegration of kuren communities into smaller economic associations: villages, yurts, tents of one family.

By the beginning of the XIII century. the Mongol-Tatar tribes switched to the early feudal system, although they still retained the remnants of tribal relations. In the process of mutual clashes between the clans, alliances of tribes were formed. At the head of the tribes were special leaders or leaders, the most powerful, dexterous, rich (nions, rich). They had their own detachments of nukers, who participated with them in raids, hunts, feasts, and helped with advice in decisions.

The fierce struggle between the tribes ended with the formation of the beginning of the XIII century. The Mongolian state, which had a strong military organization. After long and bloody wars, the leader of one of the Mongol tribes, Temujin, conquered the rest of the tribes.

In 1206, at a kurultai - a meeting of representatives of the Mongol nobility - Khan Temuchin (Temujin) was elected Khan of all Mongols, receiving the title Genghis Khan (Great Leader). He managed to create a combat-ready army, in which iron discipline was introduced.

Soon Genghis Khan began to pursue an aggressive policy. In the next five years, the Mongol detachments, united by Genghis Khan, conquered the lands of their neighbors, and by 1215 conquered Northern China. With the help of Chinese specialists taken into the service of the Mongols, an effective administration was created. In 1221, the hordes of Genghis Khan defeated the main forces of the Khorezm Shah, then conquered Central Asia and the Caucasus. In 1223, in the battle on the Kalka River, the advance detachment of the Mongol army defeated the combined forces of the Russian princes. The Russians acted indecisively, not all regiments took part in the battle due to the fact that the princes who led them took a wait-and-see attitude.

In 1237, a huge army of Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, invaded Russian lands. Almost all the principalities were conquered, the cities of Ryazan, Moscow, Vladimir, Chernigov, Kyiv and many others were burned. The Mongols did not reach Novgorod, but soon the Novgorodians were forced to agree to pay a heavy tribute to the Mongol Khan.

In 1241 the Mongols attacked Poland and Hungary. The Poles and the Teutonic Knights were defeated. However, due to the struggle for the Khan's throne, Batu stopped the offensive and went to the southern Russian steppes.

Even during his lifetime, Genghis Khan divided his empire into 4 uluses (regions), headed by his sons. After his death, in the 40s. 13th century uluses gradually turned into independent states. The Western ulus, originally transferred at the beginning of Jochi Khan, occupied a vast territory from the Irtysh to the Danube. In turn, this ulus was divided between the sons of Khan Jochi into two destinies (yurt). On the territory of the western yurt, the possession of the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu Khan, a state was formed, which received the name Golden Horde.

The Golden Horde was founded in 1243. and was an early feudal monarchy that accepted the influence of Chinese political culture and retained many elements of the pre-state culture traditional for nomad Mongols. The social system of the Mongols was characterized by the following features:

- nomadic and semi-nomadic way of life of the population;

- the patriarchal nature of slavery;

- the significant role of tribal leaders;

- hierarchy of nomadic landownership.

The economic basis of the state was feudal production relations, a characteristic feature of which is feudal ownership of land, pastures, and livestock. According to some researchers, this was a class property recognized by ordinary nomads by giving a certain share of the resulting product to their master. Smaller feudal lords (tenants, centurions) depended on larger ones (thousanders, temniks), which determined the nature of the structure of the Golden Horde based on the hierarchy of nomadic land ownership. All land was nominally the property of the Golden Horde Khan, but each landowner, within the limits of the land granted to him, disposed of the nomad camps of people dependent on him, distributed the best pastures at his own discretion. The majority of the Mongol-Tatars preserved semi-feudal relations with numerous remnants of tribal life.

Feudal class, or "white bone"- the top of the Golden Horde society - included the Mongol-Tatar nomadic aristocracy. At the top of the social ladder was the khan and princes (children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, etc.) from the house of Jochi, the first khan of the Golden Horde. With the passage of time, the genus of the Jochids grew greatly. With the adoption of Islam, which allowed polygamy, the number of princes increased and the struggle for power between them intensified.

The second group of the ruling class were Beki (Turkic title) and Nayons(Mongolian title) - the largest feudal lords. Each major Golden Horde landowner received huge incomes from his possessions - 100-200 thousand dinars per year.

The third group of Golden Horde feudal lords was represented tarkhans, middle-class people who occupied relatively low positions in the state apparatus.

Finally, the last group of the ruling class included nukers. They were part of the inner circle of their master and were dependent on him. The number of nukers depended on the wealth and nobility of their leader.

An important role in the Golden Horde state was played by the church with a complex system of church institutions. Religious tolerance was allowed in the Golden Horde, but with the adoption of Islam, the role of the Muslim clergy increased. Its representatives occupied important positions in the state and judicial apparatus. Church organizations had large material resources.

The feudal-dependent population was called "black bone” and consisted of nomadic pastoralists, farmers and city dwellers. Nomadic pastoralists - Karachu lived in ails, led individual households, owned cattle and grazed it on pastures owned by the landowner. The economic duties of pastoralists were generated by a general despotic system. For example, paying duty with milk, nomadic pastoralists had to bring mare's milk to their master "every third day." Karachu also carried out military service, kept officials and military units, provided them with transport for movement. When dividing military booty, they received a small part of it.

The peasant population in the settled agricultural regions of Central Asia, the Crimea, the Volga region, etc. were called sobanchi and urtakchi. Sobanchi are communal peasants dependent on the landowner. They cultivated the master's land with their inventory, carried duties from vineyards, outbuildings (barns, threshing floor), paid duties from ditches. Urtakchi - impoverished members of the peasant community, deprived of land and inventory. They worked on the master's land for a share of the products (half, one third, a quarter).

In the XIII - XIV centuries. in the Golden Horde there is a revival of urban planning. The Golden Horde cities arose as administrative and political settlements, determined by the needs of the state. However, most of them were destroyed as a result of Timur's campaigns. During 1395 - 1396. the urban planning culture of the Golden Horde was completely destroyed and could no longer be revived.

The urban population consisted mainly of artisans, small traders and merchants and was quite numerous. According to some scholars, associations of artisans existed in the Golden Horde cities. Numerous officials who worked in the executive, administrative and tax apparatus also lived in the cities.

At the very bottom of the social ladder were slaves. Their number in the Golden Horde was extremely large. Captivity was the source of slavery. The slave trade flourished in the Golden Horde.

However, slaves were usually turned into dependent peasants, shepherds and artisans. For example, the son of a slave was most often attached to the ground as a sobanchi or urtakchi.

Political system. The highest authorities and management. Genghis Khan divided the entire state into 4 uluses (destinies), each of which was headed by one of his sons.

Khan. At the head of the Golden Horde was a khan from the clan of Genghis, who had strong despotic power. The military structure, to which the administrative division of the country was adapted, permeated it from top to bottom. He was elected kurultai - congress of the Mongolian aristocracy. The capital of the state was originally the city of Sarai-Batu, built in 1254 on the Volga.

Travelers who arrived in the Golden Horde from Europe torn apart by feudal unrest, first of all, were amazed that "the khan has amazing power over everyone." Khans were surrounded by the top of the nomadic aristocracy, which directed and controlled their activities. Kurultai - a congress of the Mongol-Tatar nobility - was convened to resolve the most important issues (election of a khan, planning campaigns, hunting, etc.). Its convocation was usually timed to coincide with religious holidays. Kurultai was an advisory body. He made decisions pleasing to the khan. However, in most cases, the khan resolved issues on his own, in a narrow circle of court nobility. Women (khatuni) - representatives of the ruling elite were present at the kurultai and took an active part in its work.

The central apparatus consisted of the head of state (khan), the court nobility, the administrative apparatus, various departments and the judicial apparatus. Sofas (offices) acted as the central bodies of sectoral administration in the Golden Horde state. An important official was the vizier - the nominal head of the government.

Among the highest officials, sources name four ulus emirs (rulers). The eldest of the emirs was called beklyaribek (commander-in-chief of the troops) and was considered the first person in the state after the khan.

In the system of central administration, the position of bakoul, who was in charge of supplying the troops, was of great importance. Temniks (commanders of ten-thousandth detachments) were subordinate to Bakouls. Thousanders (commanders of thousands of detachments) were subordinate to temniki, and centurions and foremen were subordinate to the latter. Among other officials, the sources mention customs officers, falconers, stationmasters, etc.

Local governments were in the hands of the Mongol-Tatar feudal nobility. Local rulers were Darugs and Baskaks, who had their own offices with a staff of officials.

The Golden Horde ruled the conquered peoples cruelly. For example, on the territory of Russia, a Baskak military-political organization was created, consisting of foremen, centurions, thousanders and temniks. The Baskaks kept order in the country, checked the payment of tribute and the performance of other duties in favor of the Golden Horde. Forcibly, special military detachments were formed, partly staffed from the local population. They were commanded by the Mongol-Tatars. These military contingents were placed at the disposal of the Baskaks who lived in the principalities and exercised control over these principalities. The Baskaks were subordinate to the "great" or chief Baskak, who was in Vladimir. The local nobility was also involved in the management of the conquered peoples.

The military organization of the Golden Horde had a decimal character. The entire population was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands, darkness (10 thousand). The nature of the occupations of the Mongols (nomadic cattle breeders) also determined the main branch of their troops - the numerous highly mobile cavalry, which was divided into light and heavy. Rams, mobile siege towers and other structures were used as siege equipment.

Preservation of tribal adhesion, iron discipline, good organization and high mobility of the cavalry masses, skillfully staged reconnaissance and surprise attacks, vast combat experience and flexible tactics gave the steppes an advantage over the inactive feudal militias of settled peoples and allowed them to win victories over them.

Judicial institutions in the Golden Horde had a pronounced class character. The supreme judicial power belonged to the khan. On the ground, justice was administered by the governors of regions and military units.

There was a special judicial body - divan-yargu, which was headed by the chief judge. The lower instances of judicial institutions were local courts headed by a yarguchi (judge), who considered less dangerous cases.

With the adoption of Islam, Muslim judges appeared - qadis. When making decisions, they were guided by Sharia law (i.e. the norms of Muslim law).

The Horde reached its peak in 1313, after Khan Uzbek came to power as a result of an internecine feudal war. Under him, Islam became widespread in the Golden Horde. The Uzbek army numbered more than 300 thousand soldiers. With its help, he subjugated the Blue Horde (the eastern part of the empire) and strengthened his power over all the conquered lands, including Russia.

The beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde is attributed to the 70s. XIV century, and in the second half of the XV century. The Horde finally disintegrated into several independent states.

In the traditional view of the European reader, Mongolian laws are exclusively associated with the famous Yasa code, established in 1206 by the “great world conqueror” Genghis Khan. Meanwhile, even after the collapse of the Genghisid empire in the second half of the 13th century, the life of Mongolian legislation did not stop. A unique find - the discovery in 1914 in abandoned ruins of a miraculously preserved armful of birch bark sheets covered with old Mongolian inscriptions - led to the discovery of a remarkable monument of Mongolian law of the late 16th - early 17th centuries, "Eighteen Steppe Laws".

Main sources of law The Golden Horde were:

1) letters, paizi, labels, orders to local rulers and other documents - the result of the legislative activity of the Golden Horde khans;

2) to the very beginning of the XII century. includes a record of Genghis Khan's instructions on various issues of the state and social system, known in literature under the name "Yasa" ("Yasa of Genghis Khan", "Great Yasa"). It was the only written source of Mongol law in the 12th century. The nature of these instructions vividly illustrates the despotic power of Genghis Khan. Of the 36 excerpts of the Yasa that have come down to us, 13 deal with the death penalty.

3) Secret legend (monument of law of later origin).

4) Sharia (according to Sharia, cases of religious crimes were considered).

5) Customary law of the Mongolian tribes.

The norms of the "Great Yasa" were casual in nature and largely expressed religious prescriptions and prohibitions. For example, severe punishments threatened those who jumped over a fire, a table, a cup, washed clothes, returned along the same road along which they set off. Under pain of death, it was forbidden to pass through the place where the headquarters of the khan was located, the same punishment threatened for lowering a hand into the flowing water.

In general, Yasa recognized the following groups of offenses as crimes subject to punishment: against religion, morality and established customs; against the khan and the state; and against the life and interests of the individual.

For criminal law The characteristic feature of the Golden Horde was the extreme cruelty of punishments for committed crimes. Failure to comply with the laws of Iasi was often punishable by death or self-mutilation. So, one of the most commonly used varieties of the death penalty was: "slaughter like a ram." They could also be sentenced to death for deliberate deceit, killing a person, violating the rules for slaughtering animals for food, for witchcraft and a number of other acts.

For petty theft, the perpetrator was subjected to corporal punishment, he had to return the stolen or reimburse its value.

Military crimes and crimes against the authorities were punished with particular cruelty, in order to intimidate. Against the conquered peoples, extrajudicial reprisals were often used by military detachments. So, in 1293, the Mongols invaded North-Eastern Russia and, as the chronicler noted, "they created the whole earth empty."

The main goal of punishment, in the understanding of Yasa, was the physical destruction of the offender. Therefore, the death penalty plays an important role in this code. Yasa recognizes the temporary isolation of the offender through imprisonment, deportation, removal from office, as well as intimidation through pain or fines. In some cases, not only the offender himself, but also his wife and children are subject to punishment.

The death penalty was prescribed for almost all types of crimes. She followed a large part of the crimes against religion, morality or established customs; for most crimes against the khan and the state; for certain crimes against property; for the third bankruptcy; for horse stealing - in the case when the thief could not pay a fine.

Punishment through imprisonment and deportation was provided for the violation of Yasa by members of the khan's family. Each officer of a military unit was subject to demotion if he could not cope with his official duties. Warriors and hunters were punished by inflicting pain for minor offenses against military discipline. Murder was punishable by a fine. For the theft of a horse, the offender was subjected to repression, a fine, or even the death penalty.

Civil law. Evidence for the civil law of Yasa is scarce. This, perhaps, is explained not only by the incompleteness of the existing fragments, but also by the fact that such relations were regulated by a generally accepted generic law. However, one important article regarding inheritance was included in the Yasa: "Nothing is taken from a deceased person who does not have an heir in favor of the khan, but his property must be given to the person who cared for him."

Commercial Law. It is known that Genghis Khan paid great attention to trade. Keeping commercial routes safe for international trade was one of the important goals of his policy. Therefore, it is natural to assume that Yasa contained some kind of statute regarding trade. However, among the fragments there is only one part of the commercial legislation that has survived: “If anyone takes the goods on credit and goes bankrupt, then takes the goods again and goes bankrupt again, and then takes the goods again and goes bankrupt, then he must be sentenced to death after his third bankruptcy."

Inheritance and marriage and family relations based on customary law and tradition. The eldest son inherited most of the property, and the yurt, utensils and the rest of the cattle remained with the younger son, who, even after marriage, continued to live with his parents. The law required the groom to pay a ransom to the bride's parents; after the death of the husband, the property was managed by the main wife until the sons came of age. Many girls got married at a mature age, as the groom had to save money for a long time to buy his bride.

From all that has been said, it can be seen that the Great Yasa was basically a strict law, with cruel provisions intended to keep the people calm. As a monument of feudal law, the Great Yasa asserted the absolute power of the Mongol Khan over his subjects. However, an analysis of these legal norms indicates that it was more severe than other codes of Eastern countries. Thus, Babylonian laws under Hammurabi or ancient Chinese laws were severe to the point of cruelty. Describing the punitive system of Yasa, V.A. Ryazanovsky wrote: "The death penalty is applied very often, but Yasa also knows the payoff from execution for murder, theft, and, probably, for some smaller crimes and misdemeanors." Yasa does not know crippling punishments and a qualified death penalty. If we compare the punitive system of the Yasa with the indicated Eastern systems, as well as with medieval European criminal law, then, of course, the Great Yasa cannot be called an exclusively severe code.

Higher judicial branch belonged to the khan, on the ground justice was administered by the governors of the uluses and the local judges (yarguchi) appointed by them, in the army - by the unit commanders. There was also a supreme judicial body - Yarga sofa. With the adoption of Islam appeared cadi- local judges who made decisions on the basis of Islamic law (Sharia).

Trial was open and competitive. Punishment was imposed only if the accused "is convicted of the act and confesses." In addition to testimonies, oaths, duels, torture was used, the principle of mutual responsibility and group responsibility was used.

Mongolian law applied only to the Mongols; in the conquered lands, the former local legal norms were in force.

In the first half of the XIII century. most of the Russian principalities, including Novgorod and Pskov, were in a position Tributaries of the Horde. The Russian lands were forced to pay the Mongols the heaviest tribute, but retained their statehood, church and administration. The collection of tribute was carried out by the Grand Duke, whose right was secured Khan's label. The label gave the right not only to the title of Grand Duke, but also to political and military support from the Golden Horde. Some Russian princes used this situation to increase their influence on other principalities.

On the territory of Russia, the power of the Horde was represented by special officials - Basques. They controlled the collection of tribute, carried out population counts, punitive, police and other functions. The main Baskak was under the Grand Duke.

The Mongols in Russia left in power, as their vassals, not only the Grand Duke, but also other local princes. This was done to make it difficult to unite the Russian principalities. In some southern regions, the direct rule of the Horde was introduced.

The Muscovite state adopted some features of the administrative administration used by the Mongols. This was reflected in the system and procedure for taxation, the organization of the army, the financial department, etc.

The Golden Horde khans opposed veche democracy. The city militia was disbanded. Some democratic elements (veche) survived only in Novgorod and Pskov.

The Russian princes applied the strict order established by the Mongols in the administrative sphere, in the field of taxation and military affairs. The entire population of the principalities and lands was rewritten and heavily taxed. The power of the Grand Duke gradually replaced such political institutions as veche, election, an agreement between the prince and the people, etc.

The Mongols, following the Chinese model, established some institutions in Russia: a postal (pit) service, customs ( tamga- duty on transported goods).

In general, Mongol rule had a negative impact on the development of the Russian state and law. It separated Eastern Russia from Western Europe, part of the Russian people ended up on the lands occupied by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. To get rid of foreign oppression, the Russian people had to wage a fierce struggle, which naturally slowed down its political and legal development.

Those who study history will definitely come across a section devoted to a huge state founded by nomads led by Genghis Khan and his successors. Today it is hard to imagine how a handful of steppe people could defeat highly developed countries, take cities hidden behind powerful walls. However, the Mongol Empire existed, and half of the then known world was subordinate to it. What kind of state was it, who ruled it and why was it special? Let's find out!

Preface to the Mongol Conquests

The Mongol Empire was one of the largest and most powerful in the world. It arose at the beginning of the thirteenth century in Central Asia due to the unification of the Mongol tribes under the firm hand of Temujin. In addition to the emergence of a ruler capable of subjugating everyone to his will, the success of the nomads was favored by climatic conditions. According to historians, in the 11-12 centuries, a lot of precipitation fell in the eastern steppe. This led to an increase in the number of livestock, as well as a rapid increase in the population.

But towards the end of the twelfth century, weather conditions change: droughts cause the reduction of pastures, which can no longer feed the numerous herds and surplus population. A fierce struggle for limited resources begins, as well as invasions of settled tribes of farmers.

Great Khan Temujin

This man went down in history as Genghis Khan, and the legends about him still excite the imagination. In fact, his name was Temujin, and he had an iron will, lust for power and determination. He received the title of "Great Khan" at the kurultai, that is, at the congress of the Mongolian nobility in 1206. Yassa is not even laws, but records of the commander's wise sayings, stories from his life. Nevertheless, everyone was obliged to follow them: from a simple Mongol to their commander.

Temujin's childhood was difficult: after the death of his father Yesugei-bagatur, he lived in extreme poverty with his mother and the second wife of the pope, several brothers. All their livestock was taken away, and the family was driven out of their homes. Over time, Genghis Khan will brutally get even with the offenders and become the ruler of the largest empire in the world.

Mongol Empire

The Mongol empire, which began to form during the life of Genghis Khan after a series of his successful campaigns, reached amazing proportions under his successors. The young state of nomads was very viable, and its army was really fearless and invincible. The basis of the army was the Mongols, united by ancestry, and the conquered tribes. A unit was considered a dozen, which included members of one family, yurts or villages, then stons (consisting of a clan), thousands and darkness (10,000 warriors). The main force was the cavalry.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the northern parts of China and India, Central Asia, and Korea were under the rule of nomads. The tribes of the Buryats, Yakuts, Kirghiz and Uighurs, the peoples of Siberia and the Caucasus submitted to them. The population was immediately overlaid with tribute, and the soldiers became part of an army of many thousands. From more developed nations (particularly from China), the Mongols adopted their scientific achievements, technology, and the science of diplomacy.

Reason for success

The formation of the Mongol Empire seems illogical and impossible. Let's try to find the reasons for such a brilliant success of the army of Genghis Khan and his associates.

1. The states of Central Asia, China and Iran were going through hard times at that moment. Feudal fragmentation prevented them from uniting and repulsing the conquerors.
2. Excellent hiking preparation. Genghis Khan was a good strategist and tactician, he carefully thought out the invasion plan, carried out reconnaissance, pitted peoples against each other and fanned civil strife, if possible, put close people at the main military posts of the enemy.
3. Genghis Khan avoided open battle with a large enemy army. He exhausted his strength, attacking individual parts, appreciating his warriors.

After Temujin's death

After the death of the legendary Genghis Khan in 1227, the Mongol Empire lasted another forty years. During his lifetime, the commander divided his possessions between his sons from his elder wife Borte into uluses. Ogedei got North China and Mongolia, Jochi - lands from the Irtysh to the Aral and Caspian Seas, the Ural Mountains, Chagatai - all of Central Asia. Later, another ulus was given to Hulagu, the grandson of the great khan. These were the lands of Iran and Transcaucasia. In the early years of the fourteenth century, the possessions of Jochi were divided into the White (Gold) and Blue Hordes.

The unified Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan, after the death of the founder, found a new great khan. They became Ogedei, then his son Guyuk, then Munke. After the death of the latter, the title passed to the rulers of the Yuan dynasty. It is noteworthy that all the khans of the Mongol Empire, as well as the Manchu emperors, were descendants of Genghis Khan or married princesses from his family. Until the twenties of the twentieth century, the rulers of these lands used Yassa as a code of laws.

In the XIII century. in Asia and Eastern Europe, as a result of the ten-year Mongol conquests, a special military-political association was formed - Eke Mongol ulus. This Great Mongol State was largest power in world history: in its heyday, it embraced lands from the Mediterranean to the Yellow Seas. Despite its size, the state was an early statehood of a special nomadic type. The people who founded it were mainly engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. Many tribal unions united in the empire were also nomads. Features of public life gave very special features to the military-political system of the entire state.

Early states based on associations of nomadic tribes, in which large clans, organizing themselves into a special military-religious hierarchy, acquired the appearance of a proto-state without cities and temples (as was typical for ancient Eastern society), emerged in Central Asia already at the turn of the 1st millennium BC. n. e. One of the longest existing power of the Xiongnu peoples(III century BC-II century AD), disintegrated at the beginning of the Great Migration of Nations. Largely on its basis and tradition arose Turkic Khaganate(VI-VII centuries) in the Caspian and Altai steppes. Strong state traditions were formed here (granting supreme power to several co-rulers, decimal organization of the army, a system of internal regions with their governors, etc.), which became common for the surrounding nomadic peoples.

At the end of the XI-XII centuries. in the direction of the formation of early statehood, the social development of the Mongol-Tatar tribes*, which occupied the regions of Eastern Mongolia and the steppes of Transbaikalia, proceeded. The internal social hierarchy within large clans (obohs) was significant: the heads of clans bore the honorary titles of bakhadur (heroes), setsen (wise), taishi (princes). The bulk of the birth, except for the combatants, was considered a "black bone" and was in a humbled position. The stratum of slaves was significant, and entire enslaved families could be slaves. Nomadic life contributed to the special strength of the clan organization, and the constant need to wage wars with neighbors, including with the powerful North China state, formed a high degree of combat readiness of the Mongolian tribes.

* "Mongols" and "Tatars" were not only their own names for nomadic tribes, but also in general the designation of "barbarian nomads" among the nearest great civilization - the Chinese.

In the middle of the XII century. under the influence of natural and foreign policy factors * the Tatar-Mongolian tribes made the first attempts to unite. But the military-political union under the leadership of Khan Kobul turned out to be short-lived and broke up around 1161.

* English scientist O. Latimer at the beginning. 20th century showed the relationship between the military and nomadic activity of the Mongols and the state of the natural environment (drought in the steppes). This concept was continued by the works of L. N. Gumilyov on nomadic peoples. In turn, Gumilyov constructed a special concept of the state of historical passionarity, under the influence of which the active formation of nomadic states and their conquest allegedly took place.

Incomparably more successful was the attempt to unite, which was headed by a native of the Taijiuit tribe. Temujin (1162-1227). After defeating the nobility of his own tribe, Temujin became the ruler of a small horde (proto-state), which took shape in 1180. Recognition of his supremacy was accompanied by the first steps in the internal administrative and military organization: a decimal structure of the horde and its military units was introduced, the ruler’s guard was created - 150 warriors, several specialized ranks were established for the military and palace affairs of the leader.

In the next twenty years, Temujin's horde subjugated most of the Mongol tribes. Military successes and the advanced ideological and religious idea of ​​conquering the world rallied the tribal nobility around Temujin. At the general congress (kuriltai) of 1206, he was proclaimed the supreme ruler under the name Genghis Khan with a special title. At the same time, the decimal organization of the nomadic army was adopted, transferred to the entire tribal system. The ruler established the post of supreme judge; he was instructed to be in charge of the distribution of land to the inheritances of military leaders, who, in turn, distributed them among small clans and warriors. So tribal relations began to transform into military-feudal relations at the expense of the conquered territories.

By 1218, the peoples of the Great Steppe had submitted to the Mongols, mainly because the conquests were under the slogan of a new “unification” and the creation of a “State of Heaven”. By 1220, Central Asia had been conquered, an advance to Iran and Transcaucasia began. After the death of Genghis Khan, the emerging empire began to acquire a new unity: a division into regions-uluses was made between the heirs, while maintaining the power of the great khan. In 1235-1241. the Volga region and the Russian lands were conquered, the advance to Poland and Central Europe began. At the same time, although with temporary setbacks, China was being conquered, which gradually became the center of the empire. It was completed by 1275. The capital of the empire was moved from the steppe Karakorum to Beijing (1264). Under the influence of traditional Chinese bureaucratic statehood, with the help of Chinese advisers, a new all-imperial administration and principles of government were formed.

After a temporary strip of retreats and failures, caused, among other things, by palace unrest and the struggle between the heirs of the Genghisides for power, the conquests continued in Western Asia and the Middle East. In place of the crushed states of the Transcaucasus, Syria, the remnants of the Arab Caliphate, a new part of the empire was formed - state of the ilkhans. In Asia Minor, Byzantium retained only part of its possessions.

By the second half of the XIII century. the Mongol empire, continuing to expand, outgrew the possible boundaries of a single state. Separate regions - uluses - were only nominally subordinate to the great khan. The disintegration of the Great Horde into separate states began, parallel to the conquests. Some of them preserved the traditions of the nomadic military empire (the Golden Horde in Eastern Europe), others - the state of the Ilkhans - adopted Iranian-Arab traditions; the basis of the empire - the state of Yuan - gradually merged with the Chinese state. The adoption of Islam by the western uluses played a dividing role, while the historical Mongols remained adherents of Nestorian Christianity, and in China - Buddhists. After 1307, even the nominal recognition of the power of a single khan by all parts of the empire ceased. A destructive role was played by numerous national and popular uprisings against the rule of the Mongols. In 1368, the army of the new Chinese emperor crushed the central Mongol state, pushing the Mongols back to the historical steppes. After 1370, the unified Mongol empire ceased to exist, although the individual states that had developed in it, having been transformed politically, religiously and culturally, survived until the 15th-16th centuries.

Military-political system

The most important feature of the nomadic empire as a specific type of early, medieval statehood was that its single organization, in essence, was reduced to a military one. The military organization, in turn, was formed together by an imperious subordination, which, although it had a state-political character, affected the very, very top of the empire. There was no real general administration of a unified Mongol empire.

Throughout the empire, as a rule, the Mongols themselves were placed as the highest leaders. Locals were appointed to purely bureaucratic positions - and not from the nobility and not from the military. Civil officials were exempted from all state duties.

There were semi-state, semi-sacred posts in the empire supreme shaman and supreme judge who were personally elected by the kaan. However, in general, religious administration, as well as local courts, were carried out according to local traditions and laws. The Mongols were distinguished by a high degree of religious tolerance, keeping intact the system of religious cults in the conquered country. The preservation of judicial organizations also relied on one of the state precepts of Genghis Khan. Its implementation, according to the great conqueror, was able to strengthen the statehood of the empire: “Study different laws, compare, adapt to them. For different cases, experienced, learned people are needed. That person is above the multitude of multitudes of people who knows the laws of the state.