10. The concept of vocabulary, the word.

Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

The WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, separability and integral reproducibility in speech.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages ​​due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD- fixed in the mind of the speaker, the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality.

single and multiple words.

Words are single-valued and polysemantic. Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, these are

• scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
• proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
• recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
• words with a narrow-subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each separate context, some one value is updated. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning, and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the explanatory dictionary in the first place, followed by derivatives.

Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic initially had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have more meanings, apart from the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning "piece of furniture".

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

For example, the word "sediment" has a direct meaning - "solid particles that are in a liquid and deposited on the bottom or on the walls of a vessel after settling", and a figurative meaning - "a heavy feeling that remains after something."

12. HOMONYMS These are words that are different in meaning, but the same in pronunciation and spelling. For example, a club is a "spherical flying smoky mass" (a club of smoke) and a club is a "cultural and educational institution" (a club of railway workers). The use of homonyms in the text is a special stylistic device.

13. SYNONYMS are words that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, assumption - hypothesis - guess - assumption.

Synonyms may differ slightly in sign or style, sometimes both. Synonyms that have the same meaning are called absolute synonyms. There are few of them in the language, these are either scientific terms (for example, spelling - spelling), or words formed using synonymous morphemes (for example, guard - guard).

Synonyms are used to make speech more diverse and avoid repetition, as well as to give a more accurate description of what is being said.

14. ANTONYMS are words that are opposite in meaning.

Antonyms are words that are relative in meaning; you can not put in an antonymous pair of words that characterize an object or phenomenon from different angles (early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.).

If the word is polysemantic, then each meaning has its own antonym (for example, for the word “old” in the phrase “old man”, the antonym is the word “young”, and in the phrase “old carpet” - “new”).

Like synonyms, antonyms are used to make speech more expressive.

15. Discharges of words by origin.

All words in Russian are divided into:

• primordially Russian, which include Indo-Europeanisms (oak, wolf, mother, son), common Slavic pek-sika (birch, cow, friend), East Slavic vocabulary (boot, dog, village), proper Russian vocabulary (mason, leaflet);
• borrowed words, which include borrowings from Slavic languages ​​(finger, mouth - Old Slavonicisms, borscht - Ukrainian borrowing, monogram - Polish borrowing) and non-Slavic languages ​​​​(Scandinavian - anchor, hook, Oleg; Turkic - hut, chest; Latin - audience, administration ; Greek - cherry, lantern, history; German - sandwich, tie; French - battalion, buffet, etc.)

16. Obsolete words and neologisms.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that used to be used very often are now almost inaudible, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more often on the web. Such processes in the language are associated with a change in the life of the society that it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; if society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept stands for.

Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar.

Neologisms are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names. The composition of neologisms is constantly changing, some of them take root in the language, some do not. For example, in the middle of the 20th century the word "satellite" was a neologism.

From a stylistic point of view, all the words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:

• stylistically neutral or common (can be used in all styles of speech without restriction);
• stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “not in their own style” violates the correctness, purity of speech; you need to be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word "hindrance" belongs to the colloquial style, while the word "exorcise" belongs to the book style.

8. In Russian, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:

Common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
- vocabulary of a limited scope of use.

17. Vocabulary of a limited scope of use:

• dialectisms are words that belong to a particular dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects, which include a significant number of original words that are known only in a certain area. Dialectisms can be

1. lexical (known only in the territory of distribution of this dialect): sash, tsibulya,
2. morphological (characterized by a special inflection): I have,
3. phonetic (characterized by a special pronunciation): [tsai] - tea, [hverma] - farm, etc.

• professionalisms are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become common; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science (for example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics)),

jargon - these are words that are used by a narrow circle of people united by a common interest, occupation or position in society; for example, they distinguish youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - shortfall of the landing mark), camp jargon,

argotisms are the same as jargonisms, but they are used as a conventional sign, as an encrypted code, so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words; as a rule, this is the speech of socially closed groups, for example, thieves' slang.

The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of the sound complex of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality fixed in the minds of speakers.

Most words name objects, their attributes, quantity, actions, processes and act as full-fledged, independent words, performing a nominative function in the language (lat. nominatio - naming, denomination). Possessing common grammatical and syntactic meanings and functions, these words are combined into the categories of nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words of the state category. Their lexical meaning is complemented by grammatical ones. For example, the word newspaper denotes a certain subject; the lexical meaning indicates that it is "a periodical in the form of large sheets, usually daily, dedicated to the events of current political and social life." The noun newspaper has the grammatical meanings of gender (feminine), number (this subject is thought of as one, not many) and case. The word read calls the action - "perceive what is written, saying aloud or reproducing to oneself" and characterizes it as real, happening at the moment of speech, performed by the speaker (and not by other persons).

Of the significant parts of speech, pronouns and modal words are deprived of the nominative function. The first ones only point to objects or their signs: I, you, like that, so much; they receive a specific meaning in speech, but cannot serve as a generalized name for a number of similar objects, features, or quantities. The latter express the speaker's attitude to the thought being expressed: Probably, the mail has already arrived.

Service parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) also do not perform a nominative function, that is, they do not name objects, signs, actions, but are used as formal grammatical language means.

The lexical meanings of the word, their types, development and changes are studied by lexical semantics (semasiology) (gr. sЇemasia - designation + logos - teaching). The grammatical meanings of the word are considered in the grammar of the modern Russian language.

All objects and phenomena of reality have their own names in the language. Words point to real objects, to our attitude towards them, which arose in the process of knowing the world around us. This connection of the word with the phenomena of reality (denotations) is non-linguistic in nature, and yet it is the most important factor in determining the nature of the word as a sign unit.

Words name not only specific objects that can be seen, heard or touched at the moment, but also concepts about these objects that arise in our minds.

The concept is a reflection in the minds of people of the general and essential features of the phenomena of reality, ideas about their properties. Such features can be the shape of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object, etc. The concept is the result of a generalization of a mass of individual phenomena, during which a person is distracted from non-essential features, focusing on the main ones. Without such abstraction, i.e., without abstract representations, human thinking is impossible.

Concepts are formed and fixed in our minds with the help of words. The connection of words with the concept (significative factor) makes the word an instrument of human thinking. Without the ability of the word to name the concept, there would be no language itself. The designation of concepts in words allows us to get by with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one person from a multitude and name any one, we use the word man. To denote all the richness and variety of colors of wildlife, there are the words red, yellow, blue, green, etc. The movement of various objects in space is expressed by the word goes (man, train, bus, icebreaker, and even ice, rain, snow, etc.). ).

Explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language most capaciously reflect the systemic connections of words. They are lists of words of varying degrees of completeness and accuracy that make up the lexical system in all the diversity and complexity of its functioning in the language. So, the word island does not indicate the geographical position, size, name, shape, fauna, flora of any particular island, therefore, abstracting from these particular features, we call this word any part of the land surrounded on all sides by water (in the ocean, sea, on a lake, a river) Thus, those essential features and properties of objects that make it possible to distinguish a whole class of objects from other classes are fixed in words.

However, not all words name any concept. They are not able to express unions, particles, prepositions, interjections, pronouns, proper names. Special mention should be made of the latter.

There are proper names that name singular concepts. These are the names of prominent people (Shakespeare, Dante, Leo Tolstoy, Chaliapin, Rachmaninov), geographical names (Volga, Baikal, Alps, America). By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of ​​a subject that is one of a kind.

Personal names of people (Alexander, Dmitry), surnames (Golubev, Davydov), on the contrary, do not give rise to a definite idea of ​​a person in our minds.

Common nouns (historian, engineer, son-in-law), according to the distinguishing features of professions, the degree of kinship, allow us to get some idea of ​​​​the people named by these words.

Animal names may approach generalized names. So, if the horse's name is Bulany, this indicates its gender and color. Squirrel is usually called animals with white wool (although a cat, a dog, and a goat can be called that). So different nicknames correlate differently with generalized names.

Types of lexical meanings of words in Russian

Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

According to the method of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished. The direct (or main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings:

1. A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs.
2. The colors of soot, coal.
3. Seething, bubbling, evaporating from strong heat (about liquids). These values ​​are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language meant throne, reign, capital.

The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words. Therefore, direct meanings are said to have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.

The figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

So, the word table has several figurative meanings:

1. An item of special equipment or a part of a similarly shaped machine: operating table, raise the machine table.
2. Food, food: rent a room with a table.
3. Department in the institution, in charge of some special range of affairs: information desk.

The word black has such figurative meanings:

Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white: brown bread.

1. Has taken on a dark color, darkened: black from sunburn.
2. Kurnoy (only full form, obsolete): black hut.
3. Gloomy, bleak, heavy: black thoughts.
4. Criminal, malicious: black treason.
5. Not the main one, auxiliary (only the full form): the back door in the house.
6. Physically heavy and unskilled (full form only): menial work, etc.

The word boil has the following figurative meanings: 1. "To manifest itself in a strong degree": the work is in full swing. 2. "To manifest something with force, to a strong degree": seething with indignation.

As you can see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly related to the concept, but approach it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Figurative meanings can retain figurativeness: black thoughts, black betrayal; seethe with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit.

In terms of reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.

However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative such names as a pipe elbow, a teapot spout, a clock, etc. In such cases, one speaks of extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word, of dry metaphors.

Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.

2. According to the degree of semantic motivation, unmotivated meanings (non-derivative, primary) are distinguished, which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the composition of the word; motivated (derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and word-building affixes. For example, the words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. The words canteen, table, canteen, construction, perestroika, anti-perestroika, turn white, whiten, whiteness have motivated meanings, they are, as it were, “produced” from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative stem.

For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to single out their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient family ties of the word with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows you to identify historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with the words live, drink, eye, knot, ear, drag (envelop) Thus, the degree of motivation of a particular meaning words may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with a philological background, while the semantic connections of this word seem lost to a non-specialist.

3. According to the possibility of lexical compatibility, the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free. The first are based only on the subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink is combined with words denoting liquids (water, milk, tea, lemonade, etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the "freedom" of the compatibility of words with unrelated meanings is relative.

The non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and proper linguistic factors. For example, the word win is combined with the words victory, top, but not combined with the word defeat. You can say to lower your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you can’t - “lower your hand” (leg, briefcase).

Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned. The former are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: a sworn enemy, a bosom friend (you cannot swap the elements of these phrases).

The syntactically conditioned meanings of a word are realized only if it performs an unusual syntactic function in a sentence. So, the words log, oak, hat, acting as the nominal part of the compound predicate, get the meanings "stupid person"; "stupid, insensitive person"; "a sluggish, uninitiated person, a muddler." V. V. Vinogradov, who first singled out this type of meanings, called them functionally syntactically conditioned. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are among the figurative meanings.

As part of the syntactically conditioned meanings of the word, there are also structurally limited meanings, which are realized only under the conditions of a certain syntactic construction. For example, the word whirlwind with the direct meaning "gusty circular motion of the wind" in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case receives a figurative meaning: whirlwind of events - "rapid development of events".

4. According to the nature of the functions performed, lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is the nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the emotional-evaluative (connotative) feature is predominant. For example, in the phrase tall man, the word tall indicates great growth; this is its nominal value. And the words lanky, long in combination with the word man not only indicate great growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and are among the expressive synonyms for the neutral word high.

5. By the nature of the connections of some meanings with others in the lexical system of the language, the following can be distinguished:

1. autonomous meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and designate mainly specific objects: a table, a theater, a flower;
2. correlative meanings that are inherent in words that are opposed to each other on some grounds: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age;
3. deterministic meanings, i.e., those “which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants ...” For example: nag (cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse); beautiful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).

Thus, the modern typology of lexical meanings is based, firstly, on the conceptual and subject relations of words (i.e., paradigmatic relations), secondly, word-formation (or derivational) relations of words, and thirdly, the relationship of words to each other. friend (syntagmatic relations). The study of the typology of lexical meanings helps to understand the semantic structure of the word, to penetrate deeper into the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.

1. See Ulukhanov I. S. Word-building semantics in Russian and the principles of its description M., 1977 P. 100–101
2. Shmelev D.N. Meaning of the word // Russian language: Encyclopedia. M., 1979. S. 89.

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Questions for self-examination

1. What is the lexical meaning of a word?
2. What branch of the science of language studies the lexical meaning of a word?
3. What words perform a nominative function in speech? What does it consist of?
4. What words lack nominative function?
5. What does the term "concept" mean?
6. What is the connection between the concept and the word?
7. What words do not represent concepts?
8. What types of lexical meanings of words stand out in modern Russian?
9. What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word?
10. What is the motivated and unmotivated meaning of words?
11. What is the difference between free and non-free meanings of words?
12. What are the features of phraseologically related and syntactically determined meanings of words?
13. What distinguishes the autonomous meanings of words?
14. What are relative meanings of words?
15. What are the deterministic meanings of words?

Exercises

3. Select the words in the sentences that have free (nominative) and non-free (phraseologically related and syntactically determined) meanings.

1. Leisure for me to sort out your faults, puppy! (Cr.) 2. Now I have been given leisure forever. (Sim.) 3. Soldiers are sleeping, who have leisure. (TV). 4. Cranberry - creeping marsh plant with red sour berries. 5. That's cranberry! 6. Again there were rumors, speculation, and this spreading cranberry was talked about everywhere. 7. The white birch under my window was covered with snow, like silver. (Ec.) 8. White work is done by white, black work is done by black (M.). 9. He is not a tenant in this world. 10. The tenant came late and did not disturb the hostess. 11. The girl slept off her face, lost weight. 12. The heat subsided. 13. Well, goose! 14. The noisy geese caravan stretched south. (P.) 15. This is not the first time this goose has been here. 16. Blue fog, snow expanse. (Es.). 17. She is a blue stocking, not a woman.

4. Select words in the text that have nominative, phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned meanings.

Senya was lying on the sofa, all gray, wrinkled, time seemed to be already a burden to him. ... - I do not believe! No I do not believe! – What are you talking about? Ryazantsev asked. - I do not believe that in old age a person should reproach himself for what is wrong, not how he lived his youth. Why not? - That's why! What right does an old man who seems to be no longer a tenant, what right does he have to judge a young, living one? ..

They agreed that they would write a book together, because Senya alone would not have time to finish it. When Senya was very ill, lying on his couch and shouting that he was not being treated by doctors, veterinarians, Ryazantsev told him: “Listen, Senya, we need to finish the book this year.” And Senya's thoughts came in complete, sometimes even in perfect order. ... When later consciousness began to come to him only from time to time, even then he cared most about the book. Nothing else could be expected from him, but suddenly Senya began to express judgments that were unusual for him. Said once:

- We barely know each other.

- Who are we? Ryazantsev asked.

– People... Radio, television, cinema – all this shows us in breadth. Quantitatively. Externally. But we are losing one primitive - the good old genre, tested for centuries - the genre of friendly conversation. As if people do not lose in this ... Bear in mind.

It was possible to say to the Seine: “Remember,” he left, Ryazantsev remained in this life.

(S. Zalygin.)

5. Indicate in the text the words that perform the nominative function and lack it; words denoting and not denoting concepts, as well as pointing to single concepts. Indicate, in addition, words that have different types of meanings: direct and figurative, motivated and unmotivated, free and not free, nominative and expressive-synonymous. Highlight words with autonomous, correlative and deterministic meanings.

1. The book began to be printed. It was called "In defense of the disadvantaged."

The typesetters tore the manuscript to pieces, and each typed only his own piece, which began with half a word and made no sense. So, in the word "love" - ​​"liu" remained with one, and "bov" went to another, but it did not matter, since they never read what they were typing.

- So that it was empty for him, this scribbler! Here is an anathema handwriting! - said one and, grimacing with anger and impatience, covered his eyes with his hand. The fingers of the hand were black with lead dust, dark leaden shadows lay on the young face, and when the worker coughed and spat, his saliva was painted in the same dark and dead color.

2. Books stood in colorful rows on the shelves, and no walls were visible behind them; books lay in high piles on the floor; and behind the store, in two dark rooms, lay all the books, books. And it seemed that the human thought bound by them silently shuddered and rushed out, and there had never been real silence and real peace in this realm of books.

The gray-bearded gentleman with a noble expression spoke respectfully to someone on the phone, cursed in a whisper: "idiots!", and shouted.

- Bear! - and when the boy entered, he made an ignoble and ferocious face and shook his finger. - How many times do you have to scream? Scoundrel!

The boy blinked his eyes in fear, and the gray-bearded gentleman calmed down. With his foot and hand, he pushed out a heavy bundle of books, wanted to lift it with one hand - but immediately could not and threw it back on the floor.

- Take it to Yegor Ivanovich.

The boy took the bundle with both hands and did not lift it.

- Live! shouted the gentleman.

The boy picked it up and carried it.

- Why are you crying? asked a passerby.

The mouse was crying. Soon a crowd gathered, an angry policeman came with a saber and a pistol, took Mishka and books and drove them all together in a cab to the station.

– What is there? asked the police officer on duty, looking up from the paper he was compiling.

- An unbearable burden, your honor, - the angry policeman answered and poked Mishka forward.

The police officer approached the bundle, still stretching as he walked, putting his legs back and sticking out his chest, heaved a deep sigh and slightly lifted the books.

- Wow! he said with pleasure.

The wrapping paper was torn at the edge, the police officer folded it back and read the title "In Defense of the Dispossessed."

The concept of the lexical meaning of a word

The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of the sound complex of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality fixed in the minds of speakers.

Most words name objects, their attributes, quantity, actions, processes and act as full-fledged, independent words, performing a nominative function in the language (lat. nominatio- naming, name). Possessing common grammatical and syntactic meanings and functions, these words are combined into the categories of nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words of the state category. Their lexical meaning is complemented by grammatical ones. For example, the word newspaper denotes a certain subject; the lexical meaning indicates that it is "a periodical in the form of large sheets, usually daily, dedicated to the events of current political and social life." Noun newspaper has the grammatical meanings of gender (feminine), number (this subject is thought of as one, not many) and case. Word I read calls the action - "perceive what is written, saying aloud or reproducing to oneself" and characterizes it as real, occurring at the moment of speech, performed by the speaker (and not by other persons).

Of the significant parts of speech, pronouns and modal words are deprived of the nominative function. The first only indicate objects or their signs: I, you, such, so much; they receive a specific meaning in speech, but cannot serve as a generalized name for a number of similar objects, features, or quantities. The second express the attitude of the speaker to the expressed thought: Probably mail has already arrived.

Service parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) also do not perform a nominative function, that is, they do not name objects, signs, actions, but are used as formal grammatical language means.

Lexical meanings of a word, their types, development and changes are studied by lexical semantics (semasiology) (gr. semasia- designation + logos- teaching). The grammatical meanings of the word are considered in the grammar of the modern Russian language.

All objects and phenomena of reality have their own names in the language. Words point to real objects, to our attitude towards them, which arose in the process of knowing the world around us. This connection of the word with the phenomena of reality (denotations) is non-linguistic in nature, and yet it is the most important factor in determining the nature of the word as a sign unit.

Words name not only specific objects that can be seen, heard or touched at the moment, but also concepts about these objects that arise in our minds.

The concept is a reflection in the minds of people of the general and essential features of the phenomena of reality, ideas about their properties. Such features can be the shape of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object, etc. The concept is the result of a generalization of a mass of individual phenomena, during which a person is distracted from non-essential features, focusing on the main ones. Without such abstraction, i.e., without abstract representations, human thinking is impossible.

Concepts are formed and fixed in our minds with the help of words. The connection of words with the concept (significative factor) makes the word an instrument of human thinking. Without the ability of the word to name the concept, there would be no language itself. The designation of concepts in words allows us to get by with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one person from many people and name anyone, we use the word Human. To denote all the richness and variety of colors of wildlife, there are words red, yellow, blue, green etc. The movement of various objects in space is expressed by the word goes (man, train, bus, icebreaker and even - ice, rain, snow and under.).

Explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language most capaciously reflect the systemic connections of words. They are lists of words of varying degrees of completeness and accuracy that make up the lexical system in all the diversity and complexity of its functioning in the language. Yes, the word Island does not indicate the geographical location, size, name, shape, fauna, flora of any particular island, therefore, abstracting from these particular features, we call this word any part of the land surrounded on all sides by water (in the ocean, sea, lake , river) Thus, in words those essential features and properties of objects are fixed, which make it possible to distinguish a whole class of objects from other classes.

However, not all words name any concept. They are not able to express unions, particles, prepositions, interjections, pronouns, proper names. Special mention should be made of the latter.

There are proper names that name singular concepts. These are the names of prominent people ( Shakespeare, Dante, Leo Tolstoy, Chaliapin, Rachmaninoff), geographical names ( Volga, Baikal, Alps, America). By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of ​​a subject that is one of a kind.

personal names of people Alexander, Dmitry), surnames ( Golubev, Davydov), on the contrary, do not give rise to a certain idea of ​​a person in our minds.

Common nouns ( historian, engineer, son-in-law) according to the distinguishing features of professions, degrees of kinship allow you to get some idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe people named by these words.

Animal names may approach generalized names. So, if the horse's name is Bulany, this indicates its gender and suit, Belka usually called animals that have white hair (although this can also be called a cat, a dog, and a goat). So different nicknames correlate differently with generalized names.

Vocabulary is a very important part of language science. She learns words and their meanings. It's no secret: the richer the language stock of a person, the more beautiful and figurative his speech. Most new words can be learned by reading. It often happens that a new word is found in a book or magazine, in which case a dictionary of lexical meanings will help, it is also called explanatory. The most common are those issued by V.I. Dalem and S.I. Ozhegov. It is they who are trusted by the modern science of language.

Vocabulary wealth of the Russian language

The language, including Russian, is a developing phenomenon. New cultures, inventions of science and technology appear, one civilization replaces another. Of course, all this is reflected in the language. Some words appear, some disappear. It is the vocabulary that reacts vividly to these changes. All this is the richness of the language. K. Paustovsky gave a very colorful explanation of the totality of words, saying that for each surrounding phenomenon or object there is a corresponding “good” word, or even more than one.

Scientists have proven that for one person to understand another, it is enough to have 4-5 thousand words in stock, but this is not enough for beautiful, figurative speech. The Russian language is one of the most beautiful, so it is simply necessary to use its wealth. Moreover, knowledge of individual words with their interpretations is not enough (for this, you can simply learn a dictionary of lexical meanings). It is much more important to know words related in meaning, their figurative meaning, to understand and use antonyms, to use homonymous units.

Lexical meaning of the word

The word is the most important unit of any language. It is from them that combinations and subsequently sentences are made, with which people communicate with each other. How to distinguish one word from another? With the help of phonetics. Lexical meaning will also help with this. This is what separates the words. They can denote, for example, objects, people or living beings ( table, teacher, wolf); natural phenomena ( wind, frost), actions ( run, watch), features ( beautiful, pink).

Over the centuries, words can change their lexical meaning. Take for example the word garden. Until the 20th century, this word also meant a garden. In modern times, the lexical meaning has changed: garden now it is a fenced area where vegetables are grown.

There are words whose lexical meaning is a certain image that is easy to imagine and depict: wood, cupboard, flower. For others, it is very abstract: love, grammar, music. The lexical meaning of the Russian language is summarized in explanatory dictionaries. There are several ways of interpretation: words that are identical in meaning. For example, path - road. Some dictionaries offer a detailed explanation: way- a specific place in space through which they move.

Why you need to know the lexical meaning

It is very important to know the lexical meaning - this will save you from some spelling mistakes. For example:

• Trying on wedding dresses is a tedious but enjoyable process.
• She was always good at reconciling enemies.

In the first example, the word “try on” is used in the meaning of “try on”, so the root should be written e. In the second sentence, it is about the world, so the letter is required and fundamentally.

Lexical meaning differs not only words, but also morphemes. Yes, attachment at- is used when it comes to the incompleteness of the action, close proximity, approximation or attachment; pre- in cases where the highest degree of something is meant ( funny - very funny, but: move (attachment), sit down (incompleteness), seaside (close to the sea).

There are also roots that have different lexical meanings. These are like - poppy-/-mok-; -equals-/-exactly-. If the word means immersion in liquid, you should write - poppy- (dip cookies in milk), another thing is the meaning of “pass, absorb liquid”, in this case writing is required - mok- (wet feet). Root - equals- should be written when talking about equality ( the equation); -exactly- used in the sense of something smooth, even ( trim bangs).

Single and multiple words

The richness of the words of the Russian language consists of those units that have several or only one lexical meaning. These are single and multiple words. The first has only one interpretation: birch, scalpel, Moscow, pizza. As can be seen from the examples, the group of unambiguous words includes proper names, recently emerged or foreign words, also narrowly focused. These are all kinds of terms, the names of professions, the names of animals.

There are many more polysemantic words in the language, that is, those that have several meanings. As a rule, interpretations unfold around a certain feature or meaning. The explanatory dictionary will tell you that the word is polysemantic. The meanings of such tokens are listed below the numbers. Let's take the word "earth" as an example. It has several interpretations:

1. One of the planets in the solar system.
2. Land - opposition to the concepts of "water" and "sky".
3. The soil is a fertile layer that allows you to grow all kinds of crops.
4. Territory owned by someone.
5. For some countries it is a federal unit.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word

All polysemantic words can contain a direct or figurative interpretation. If the task “Explain the lexical meaning of words” is encountered, you need to look into the explanatory dictionary. There, next to the value, it will be indicated whether it is direct or figurative. The first is the main one; the second was formed on the basis of the main one according to the principle of similarity.

For example, consider the word "hat". First, its main meaning is a headdress with small fields. Based on the similarity, a figurative interpretation was formed: the upper part of an object, expanded and flat - mushroom cap or nail.

It is the figurative meanings that give speech a special figurativeness; on their basis, such tropes as a metaphor are created (hidden comparison: sheaf of hair), metonymy (adjacency of signs: silverware) and synecdoche (the part is used instead of the whole: the peasant was actually a slave).

Sometimes there are cases when only a figurative meaning appears in the language, and to complete a task, such as “Determine the lexical meaning of words”, you will need not only an explanatory, but also an etymological dictionary. For example, this was the case with the adjective "red". Its direct meaning "beautiful" is preserved only in ancient toponyms ("Red Square") or folklore (proverbs).

Homonyms

The meanings of words can be compared, contrasted. The program studies such relationships for grades 5-6. The lexical meaning of homonyms, synonyms and antonyms is very interesting. Consider all these types of words.

Homonyms are those words that are identical in pronunciation or spelling, but their meaning is completely different. Yes, the words carnations(flowers) and carnations(pointed rods for fastening materials) are spelled the same and pronounced differently. Another example: braid- type of hairstyle, and braid- agricultural implement. Homonyms can also be grammatical. So, in the phrases "flood the oven" and "bake pies." Word bake is a noun in the first case and a verb in the second. Do not confuse the concepts of homonymy and ambiguity. The first does not imply any similarity between concepts, while the second is based on the principle of similarity of some feature.

Synonyms

Synonyms are words with the same lexical meaning. For example, the words "friend, buddy, comrade, shirt-guy" have the meaning of a close, trusted person. However, synonyms still differ in shades of meaning. Friend, for example, denotes a particularly close person.

Synonyms also have different stylistic coloring. So, shirt-guy used in colloquial speech. As a rule, synonyms are words of one part of speech, however, they can be stable combinations. Knowing the phenomenon of synonymy helps to avoid spelling errors. So, to find out the correct spelling of the particle not with nouns or adjectives, you must follow the algorithm: "determine the lexical meaning and try to find a synonym without not: enemy - enemy".

Antonyms

Antonyms are words that differ diametrically in lexical meaning: friend - enemy; go - run; deep - shallow; up down. As you can see, the phenomenon of antonymy is characteristic of any parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. The use of such words gives speech a special expressiveness, helps to convey especially important thoughts to the listener or reader, therefore very often words that are opposite in meaning are found in folk sayings - proverbs. For example, "Softly spreads, but hard to sleep." In this case, "soft - hard" are antonyms.

As you can see, the Russian language is very diverse, so the topic of word interpretation has been studied for several years. In addition, it is included in the main school exams, where it occurs, for example, the task "Explain the lexical meaning of words" or "Choose a synonym / antonym / homonym for the word" and so on.

Types of lexical meanings of words in Russian

In this article, we will consider the types of lexical meanings of words and present their most famous classification created by V. V. Vinogradov.

What is lexical meaning?

As you know, a word has two meanings - grammatical and lexical. And if the grammatical meaning is abstract and inherent in a large number of words, then the lexical meaning is always individual.

It is customary to call the lexical meaning the correlation of objects or phenomena of reality fixed in the mind of a native speaker with a certain sound complex of a language unit. That is, the lexical meaning denotes the content inherent in a particular word.

Now we will analyze on the basis of which the types of lexical meanings of words are distinguished. And then consider one of the most popular classifications.

Lexical value types

The semantic correlation of various words of the Russian language makes it possible to identify various types of lexemes. To date, there are many systematizations of such values. But the classification proposed by V. V. Vinogradov in his article entitled "The main types of lexical meanings of words" is considered the most complete. We will analyze this typology further.

By correlation

By nomination (or correlation), it is customary to distinguish two meanings of a lexeme - direct and figurative.

Direct meaning, it is also called the main or main one, is a meaning that reflects the phenomenon of reality, the real world. For example: the word "table" refers to a piece of furniture; "black" is the color of coal and soot; "boil" means to boil, seethe, evaporate from heating. Such semantics is permanent and is subject only to historical changes. For example: "table" in ancient times meant "reigning", "throne" and "capital".

The main types of lexical meanings of a word are always subdivided into smaller ones, which we proved in this paragraph, speaking of direct and figurative meanings.

Returning to the main theme, we can add that words in the direct meaning less than others depend on the context and other words. Therefore, it is believed that such meanings have the least syntagmatic coherence and the greatest paradigmatic conditionality.

portable

The types of lexical meanings of words were identified on the basis of live Russian speech, in which a language game is often used, part of which is the use of words in figurative meanings.

Such meanings arise as a result of the transfer of the name of one object of reality to another on the basis of common features, similarity of functions, and so on.

Thus, the word got the opportunity to have several meanings. For example: "table" - 1) in the meaning of "piece of equipment" - "table of the machine"; 2) in the meaning of "food" - "get a room with a table"; 3) in the meaning of "department in the institution" - "round table".

The word “boil” also has a number of figurative meanings: 1) in the meaning of “manifestation to a high degree” - “work is in full swing”; 2) excessive manifestation of emotions - "boil with indignation."

Portable meanings are based on the convergence of two concepts with the help of various kinds of associations, which are easily understood by native speakers. Very often, indirect meanings have great figurativeness: black thoughts, seething with indignation. These figurative phrases are quickly fixed in the language, and then fall into explanatory dictionaries.

Figurative meanings with pronounced figurativeness differ in their stability and reproducibility from metaphors invented by writers, publicists and poets, since the latter are strictly individual in nature.

However, very often figurative meanings lose their imagery for native speakers. For example, “handles of a sugar bowl”, “knee of a pipe”, “strike of a clock” are no longer perceived by us as figurative phrases. This phenomenon is called extinct imagery.

Types of lexical meanings of words by origin

Depending on the degree of semantic motivation (or by origin), the following are distinguished:

• Motivated words (secondary or derivative) are derived from derivational affixes and meanings of the word-derivative stem.
• Unmotivated words (primary or non-derivative) - they do not depend on the meaning of the morphemes that make up the word.

For example: the words “build”, “table”, “white” are unmotivated. The motivated words are “construction”, “desktop”, “whiten”, since these words were formed from unmotivated ones, in addition, the primary source words help to understand the meaning of the newly formed lexemes. That is, "to whiten", derived from "white", means "to make white."

But not everything is so simple, the motivation of some words does not always manifest itself so clearly, as the language changes, and it is not always possible to find the historical root of the word. Nevertheless, if an etymological analysis is carried out, it is often possible to find an ancient connection between seemingly completely dissimilar words and explain their meanings. For example, after an etymological analysis, we learn that the words “feast”, “fat”, “cloth”, “window”, “cloud” come from “drink”, “live”, “twist”, “eye”, “drag” respectively. Therefore, it is not always possible for a non-specialist to distinguish an unmotivated word from a motivated one the first time.

Types of lexical meanings of words by compatibility

Depending on the lexical compatibility of meanings, words can be divided into:

• Free - are based on only subject-logical connections. For example: “drink” can only be combined with words that denote liquid (tea, water, lemonade, etc.), but can never be used with words like “running”, “beauty”, “night”. Thus, the combination of such words will be regulated by the subject compatibility or incompatibility of the concepts that they denote. That is, "freedom" in the compatibility of such words is very conditional.
• Non-free - such words are limited in their ability to lexically combine. Their use in speech depends both on the subject-logical factor and on the linguistic one. For example: the word "down" can be combined with the words "eyes", "look", "eyes", while these words cannot be correlated with other lexemes - they do not say "down your leg".

Non-free types of lexical meanings of words in Russian:

• Phraseologically related - are realized exclusively in stable (or phraseological) combinations. For example: a sworn enemy - a sworn friend is not used, unless it is the author's language game.
• Syntactically conditioned - is implemented only in those cases when the word is forced to perform an unusual function for it. For example, the words "hat", "oak", "log" become predicates, characterizing a person as narrow-minded, stupid, muddled, insensitive, lack of initiative. In fulfilling such a role, the word always acquires figurativeness and is classified as a type of figurative meanings.

Syntactically conditioned meanings also include those dictionary constructions that can be realized only under certain syntactic conditions. For example: "whirlwind" takes on a figurative meaning only in the form of a genus. n. - "whirlwind of events."

By function

Types of transfers of the lexical meaning of words can be distinguished depending on the nature of the functions performed:

• Nominative - the name comes from the word "nomination", and denotes the naming of objects, phenomena and their qualities.
• Expressive-semantic - in such words, the connotative (emotional-evaluative) becomes the predominant seme.

An example of a nominative word: "tall person" - this phrase informs the listener that the person who is given the characteristic is tall.

An example of an expressive-semantic word: in the same case as described above, the word "tall" is replaced by the word "lanky" - this is how a disapproving, negative assessment of this growth is added to the information about high growth. Thus, the word "lanky" is an expressive synonym for the word "tall".

By the nature of the connection

The main types of lexical meanings of Russian words, depending on the nature of the connection in the lexical system of some meanings with others:

• Correlative meanings are words that are opposed to each other on some basis: good - bad, far - close.
• Autonomous meanings are relatively independent words denoting specific objects: a chair, a flower, a theater.
• Deterministic meanings are words determined by the meaning of other words, as they are their expressive or stylistic variants: the word “nag” is determined by the word “horse”, “beautiful”, “magnificent” - “good”.

findings

Thus, we have listed the types of lexical meanings of words. Briefly, we can name the following aspects that formed the basis of our classification:

• Subject-conceptual connections of words or paradigmatic relations.
• Syntagmatic relations or the relation of words to each other.
• Derivational or word-forming connections of lexemes.

Thanks to the study of the classification of lexical meanings, one can better understand the semantic structure of words, understand in more detail the systemic relationships that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern language.

What is lexical meaning? Need to give examples!

Sasha Markhakshinov

Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant, helping to distinguish one object from another. The lexical meaning reveals the signs by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that distinguish this object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs”, that is, those signs that distinguish a giraffe from other animals are listed.

Pavel kiyamov

Evgeny Dzerzhinsky

The lexical meaning of a word is its content, i.e., the correlation between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of speakers. lexical meaning of a word A direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. A figurative meaning is such a meaning that does not arise as a result of direct correlation with the object, but through the transfer of direct meaning to another object due to various associations . Examples: nose - the organ of smell, located on the face of a person, the muzzle of an animal (direct); - front part of the vessel, aircraft (portable); - bird's beak (portable); - toe (boot toes).

The lexical meaning of a word is its content, i.e., the correlation between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of speakers. lexical meaning of a word A direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. A figurative meaning is such a meaning that does not arise as a result of direct correlation with the object, but through the transfer of direct meaning to another object due to various associations . Examples: nose - the organ of smell, located on the face of a person, the muzzle of an animal (direct); - front part of the vessel, aircraft (portable); - bird's beak (portable); - toe (boot toes).

Kiseleva tatiana

The lexical meaning of a word is its content, i.e., the correlation between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of speakers. lexical meaning of a word A direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. A figurative meaning is such a meaning that does not arise as a result of direct correlation with the object, but through the transfer of direct meaning to another object due to various associations . Examples: nose - the organ of smell, located on the face of a person, the muzzle of an animal (direct); - front part of the vessel, aircraft (portable); - bird's beak (portable); - toe (boot toes).

What is the lexical meaning of the word??? rule =(

Irina Robertovna Makhrakova

The lexical meaning of a word is its interpretation, it is what the word means.
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● selection of synonyms;


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Words can have one meaning - they are called single-valued, and can have several meanings (two or more) - they are called polysemantic.
Values ​​can be direct - these are primary, initial values, or they can be figurative - these are secondary values ​​that arise on the basis of transferring primary values ​​to other objects, signs, actions.


Examples of interpretation of the lexical meaning of the word:
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Alexandra wild

The lexical and grammatical meanings of the word differ.
The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of the word with certain phenomena of reality.

All words of the language have a lexical meaning, but the meanings of independent and auxiliary parts of speech differ. Independent parts of speech call objects, actions, signs, quantities (man, run, fast, twelve), and service parts express the relationship between words in a phrase and sentence or introduce additional semantic shades into the sentence (on, in, through, because, because , whether, -ka).

The grammatical meaning of a word is its characteristic tick in terms of belonging to a certain part of speech, as well as the meaning of the grammatical form.

The lexical meaning of a word is contained in the basis of the word, the grammatical meaning is in affixes.

For example, the lexical meaning of the word "house" is "a residential building, as well as (collected) people living in it", and the grammatical meaning will be that it is a noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, that it can be defined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.

1. What is the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word? 2. Tell us about single-valued and polysemantic words; direct and n

1. What is the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word? 2. Tell us about single-valued and polysemantic words; direct and figurative meanings of the word. 3. What expressive means of the language do you know, based on the figurative meaning of the word?

Irina Robertovna Makhrakova

The LEXICAL MEANING of a WORD is its interpretation, this is what the word means.
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The lexical meaning of words is explained in explanatory dictionaries. There are several ways to interpret words:
● by describing an object, attribute, action, etc.;
● selection of synonyms;
● using antonym / antonyms;
● selection of single-root words.
Words can have one meaning - they are called UNIVERSAL, and can have several meanings (two or more) - they are called MULTIPLE.
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VALUES can be DIRECT - these are the primary, original meanings of words, or they can be PORTABLE - these are secondary meanings that arise on the basis of transferring primary meanings to other objects, signs, actions.


PORTABLE MEANINGS OF WORDS - the basis of such visual means of language as METAPHOR, METONYMY, PERSONATION, so that the use of words in a figurative meaning gives speech, the language of works of art brightness, figurativeness, expressiveness.
An example of the interpretation of the lexical meaning of a word:
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EXCEPT THE LEXICAL SIGNIFICANCE, the words of significant parts of speech have a GRAMMATICAL meaning. This is the meaning of number, gender, case, person, for example:
● the ending -IT in the verb SEES expresses the grammatical meaning of the singular, 3rd person;
● the ending -A in the verb LOOKED expresses the grammatical meaning of the singular, feminine, and together with the formative suffix -L- also the meaning of the past tense;
● the ending -У in the noun COUNTRY expresses the grammatical meaning of the feminine, singular, nominative case;
● The ending -YMI in the adjective MYSTERIOUS expresses the grammatical meaning of the plural, the accusative case.

Anton Ulyanchenko

The lexical meaning of a word is essentially its definition,
Grammatical is the function that this word carries in a sentence (for example, it is a subject, predicate, object)

Single-valued words - words with one meaning, polysemantic - with many meanings. For example, cough is a one-to-one word, for example, and a shoe is a multi-valued word (both shoes and a buffer for stopping trains)

Direct meaning - words and expressions taken literally. For example: creak a table.
The figurative meaning of the word is what is perceived as a metaphor, not literally. For example, reluctantly.

(neologisms);

professional words (professionalisms);

dialect words (dialects, dialectisms);

slang words

• professional jargon;
• thieves' jargon (slang).

There are other groups, the study of which is beyond the scope of the school curriculum. On our site there is an article about the Russian language and a selection of words on various topics.

Single and multiple words

The same words of the Russian language can name different objects, signs, actions. In this case, the word has several lexical meanings and is called polysemantic. A word that denotes one object, sign, action and, accordingly, has only one lexical word is called unambiguous. Polysemantic words are found in all independent parts of speech, except for numerals. Examples of polysemantic words: forge a chain and ice a pond, a leaf of a tree and a sheet of paper, a silver tray and a silver age.

Direct and figurative meanings of words

Words in Russian can have direct and figurative meanings. The direct meaning of the word serves to designate a specific object, attribute, action or quantity of an object. The figurative meaning of the word, in addition to the already existing basic meaning (direct), denotes a new object, sign, action. For example: gold bars (direct meaning) and golden hands / words / hair (figurative meaning). The figurative meaning is sometimes called indirect, it is one of the meanings of a polysemantic word. In Russian, there are words whose figurative meaning has become the main one. For example: the nose of a person (direct meaning) and the bow of a boat (figurative → direct meaning).

Homonyms

Words of the Russian language of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning, are called homonyms. Examples of homonyms: crane (lifting and plumbing), environment (habitat and day of the week), boron (pine forest and chemical element). Classification, types of homonyms, as well as examples of words are given in a separate article - homonyms.

Synonyms

Words of the Russian language of one part of speech, denoting the same thing, but having different shades of lexical meaning and use in speech, are called synonyms. For a polysemantic word, synonyms can refer to different lexical meanings. Examples of words that are synonyms: big and large (adjectives), build and construct (verbs), land and territory (nouns), boldly and bravely (adverbs). Good and understandable material about synonyms and examples of the difference in their lexical meaning are given on the website of the dictionary of synonyms.

Antonyms

Words of the Russian language of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning are called antonyms. For polysemantic words, antonyms can refer to different lexical meanings. Examples of words that are antonyms: war - peace (nouns), white - black (adjectives), high - low (adverbs), run - stand (verbs). Materials with examples and explanations are available on the antonym dictionary website.

Paronyms

Words of the Russian language that are similar in spelling and sound, but have a different semantic meaning, are called paronyms. Paronyms have morphological division, lexical-semantic division. Examples of words that are paronyms: put on - put on (verbs), ignorant - ignorant (nouns), economic - economical (adjectives). Definition, classification and examples are given in the dictionary of paronyms.

Group comparison

* The lexical meaning of words from the paronymic series is different. It can be similar, opposite or simply different (neither similar nor opposite).