The text as a complex semantic-syntactic formation has a number of psycholinguistic characteristics. These include integrity (semantic, structural and compositional integrity), as well as the semantic and grammatical coherence of speech. In addition, in the text, considered as a product of speech activity, there are traces of non-verbal behavior of the participants in communication, and it has a high degree of "interpretativeness" (variants of interpretation of the semantic content by the listener or reader).

When analyzing speech activity (RD) as a process of speech communication, the subject of analysis in psycholinguistics is most often statement, which, being a unit of verbal communication, in RD is always correlated with the displayed situation and is “socially” and psychologically (“emotively” and “expressively”) oriented towards participants in verbal communication. Speech communication in most cases is carried out on the basis of the use of not individual words or phrases; the main unit of communication is extended statements, the language form of expression of which is text. The linguistic signs used in speech (words, phrases) show their basic properties only when they are “text-related”, they can only make sense as units connected into a single speech message, that is, when they form texts and transmit them content (64, 69, 165, etc.). In other words, if we want to understand exactly what meaning a given word appears in and how it relates to what is displayed in speech denotation, it should be taken into account that words in speech communication are included in sentences (and through them - in texts) and that, in addition, they are included in the "context" of the displayed situation. Wherein semantics words in the text (their meaning and meaning) can differ significantly from the semantics of isolated words, since only in a detailed statement the word receives its “real” meaning and understanding.

In this regard, the appeal of psycholinguistics to semantics text when analyzing the process of speech communication, it is objective and logical, since speech communication is based on a “multi-channel” connection and complex interaction of language units in the process of their functioning in speech activity (4, 86, 165, etc.). Therefore, when determining the meaning-content of linguistic units of one level, it is necessary to refer to units of a higher level. The text acts in this case as the ultimate (highest) unit of communication at the sign level. All this makes it necessary to always analyze its “textual continuum” when determining the semantics (semantic, content side) of speech.

In addition, behind the special interest shown by psycholinguistic scientists to the text, there is certainly an interest in the problems of linguistic consciousness. At the same time, linguistic consciousness is understood in domestic psycholinguistics as “an internal process of planning and regulating external activity with the help of linguistic signs” (18, p. 109; 60, etc.). Behind the interest in linguistic signs, and primarily in the text, there is an interest in the linguistic personality and image of the world in the mind of a person, since in each text (both authorial and in the form of retelling) a linguistic personality, an individual who owns the system of a given language, is manifested.

An important category of text is connectivity. Expanded speech (RRW) is coherent if it is a complete sequence of single statements (sentences) related to each other in meaning and grammatically within the general intention of the author.

Semantic Connectivity RRW(text) is a semantic connection of its constituent elements based on the commonality of the content of successive fragments of the text and individual, primarily related, phrases. It can be carried out without the use of externally expressed means of communication. When perceiving the text, such a connection is confidently recreated by the recipient based on the fact that the denotate objects(objects, phenomena, events) are "adjacent" in the space and time continuum (After the operation, his eyes began to see better. He stopped wearing glasses); and also due to the presence of common "presuppositions" in the producer and recipient - knowledge about the subject of speech, etc. (18, 165, etc.).

In the linguistic and psycholinguistic literature devoted to the theory of text, the following criteria for the connectivity of a detailed speech message are distinguished: semantic connections between parts (fragments) of the text, logical connections between successive sentences, semantic connections between parts of the sentence (words, phrases) and completeness of the expression of the speaker's thought (completeness). displaying the subject of speech, conveying the main "idea" of the text, etc.). Researchers point to such factors of coherence of the whole message as consistent disclosure themes in successive segments of the text, the relationship of thematic and rhematic elements (“given” and “new”) inside and in adjacent sentences, the presence of a semantic connection between all the structural components of a detailed speech statement (34, 141).

Formal connection - this is a connection between text segments, implemented through the signs of the language. It is based on the obligatory presence of coherent elements in the external language structure of the text. Any properly organized text is a semantic and structural unity, the parts of which are closely interconnected both semantically and syntactically. To see this, it suffices to turn first of all to the sentences that make up the text. Even a simple analysis reveals a variety of semantic and syntactic connections between them. These interphrasal connections form first level text organization.

In linguistics interphrase is defined as a syntactic and semantic connection between sentences, STS, paragraphs, chapters and other parts of the text, organizing its semantic and structural unity (141, 206, etc.).

As indicated above, there are relationships between sentences of the text that are determined by the tasks of speech communication, i.e. semantic connection. This connection is provided by appropriate lexical and grammatical means. Just as not all words can be combined into one sentence, so not all sentences can be combined into one coherent text. For example, suggestions Vitya went for a swim. Silicate glue sticks sheets of paper very firmly. Proper nouns are capitalized cannot be combined into text. They are so heterogeneous in their semantics that they cannot be united by semantic relations (L.I. Loseva).

In a coherent extended statement, not only adjacent sentences are combined with each other, but also those separated by others. The connection between adjacent (adjacent) sentences is called contact, and between non-contiguous distant. The first type of connection “creates” a text with a serial, “chain” connection of sentences, the second one is mandatory for texts with a parallel connection of its segments (sentences and STS). In the texts of the "mixed" type, both types of connection are always present. Let's take an example.

Cab Iona Potapov all white as a ghost. He is bent as far as it is possible for a living body to bend, sits on the goats and won't move. fall down on him a whole snowdrift, then even then, it seems, is he did not find it necessary to shake off the snow ... His little horse too white and motionless. His immobility, angularity of forms and stick-like straightness of legs she is even up close it looks like a cheap gingerbread horse.(A.P. Chekhov)

In this fragment of the text there are five sentences connected by contact and distant connection with the help of personal and possessive pronouns, synonyms, lexical repetitions. The second sentence is related to the first one. (Iona Potapov - he, the third is in contact with the second (he - on him) and distantly with the first (Iona Potapov - he); the fourth sentence is connected with the third (is he - his horse) and distantly with the second (he won't move) his horse too motionless), the same fourth sentence is connected distantly with the first (Iona Potapov is white - his horse too white).

When analyzing a text, a contact interphrase connection is detected and identified (according to the type of connection) relatively easily; this type of analysis, as a rule, does not cause serious difficulties for students. Distant communication is perceived much more difficult, therefore, when analyzing the text, it needs a special explanation from the teacher.

Interphrase communication, carried out by repeating words, is called a "chain connection", expressed by lexical or synonymous repetition. The type of extended speech utterance is defined as "a text with a chain, sequential connection of predicates" (81, 236). If the repeated word acts as a subject in both sentences, then the connection has the form "subject - subject"; if in one sentence it is the subject, and in another object, then this is a connection "subject - object"; connections are also possible: "addition - addition", "addition - subject" and others (141, 199 and others).

Contact and distant connections play an important role in the organization of the text, they unite all its parts into one semantic and structural whole. The structural and semantic integrity of the text is largely ensured (“created”) by the semantic and grammatical connection between the individual utterances-sentences that form the text. Depending on the type of connection between sentences, there are three main types of text organization: texts with consistent(or "chain") connection of sentences, texts with parallel connection of individual statements and texts "mixed" type, built on the basis of the simultaneous use of both parallel and serial connection of sentences.

The essence and nature of the distant connection is fully revealed only when analyzing the whole text. Compared to contact communication, it is more complex and the means of its expression are more diverse. Distant communication connects the most informative parts of the text, creating its semantic and structural basis, forming its integrity. In texts taken from works of art, distant interphrase communication deserves special attention. Usually those fragments in which we are talking about the same person, phenomenon, etc., are interconnected by a distant connection and begin with a paragraph. Let us give an example of a text in which a distant connection is quite clearly manifested.

Bell something rang to the bells, the bells answered him affectionately. tarantas shrieked, started, the bell cried, the bells laughed. The coachman, getting up, lashed the restless trailer twice, and troika thudding along the dusty road. The town slept. On both sides of the wide street, houses and trees were black, and not a single light was visible. across the sky strewn with stars, in some places narrow clouds stretched, and where dawn was soon to begin, stood a narrow crescent moon; but neither the stars, of which there were many, nor the crescent, which seemed white, cleared up the night air. It was cold, damp, and smelled like autumn...

Troika left the city. Now on both sides only wattle fences and solitary willows were visible, and in front everything was shrouded in darkness. Here in the open the crescent seemed larger and the stars shone brighter. But it smelled of dampness; the postman sank deeper into his collar, and the student felt an unpleasant chill run first around his legs, then over the bales, over his hands, over his face. Troika went quieter; the bell froze, as if he were cold. There was a splash of water, and under the feet of the horses and near the wheels, stars jumped, reflected in the water.

And ten minutes later it became so dark that the mind could not see either the stars or the crescent. This is troika entered the forest.(A.P. Chekhov.)

All facilities interphrase communication can be divided into two groups: 1) means of communication, general both for connecting parts of complex sentences and for connecting independent sentences, and 2) means of communication used only for connecting sentences and called proper interphrase means of communication (141, 199).

The first group includes: conjunctions, particles and introductory modal words; unity of aspect tense forms of verbs-predicates, pronominal and synonymous substitution and others. The actual interphrasal means of communication include: words and phrases, not revealing their semantics within the sentence: lexical repetition, simple uncommon two-part and one-part sentences, separate interrogative and exclamatory sentences and etc.

Functional and introductory-modal words as a means of interphrase communication

Separately formed sentences in the flow of speech can be connected by the same function words as parts of complex sentences, although their functions are different. Consider an example.

I was sure that my unauthorized absence from Orenburg was to blame. I could easily justify myself: not only was horsemanship never forbidden, but still by all means was approved. I could be accused of being overzealous, not disobedient. But my friendly relations with Pugachev could be proved by many witnesses and must have seemed at least very suspicious ...(A.S. Pushkin)

There are four interrelated sentences in this text. The second and fourth uses the same union but. However, in the first case, it connects the predicative parts of a complex sentence, and in the second case, it connects the sentence with the entire previous part of the text. Connecting parts of a complex sentence, union but contrasts the predicate of one part with the predicate of another part (was not forbidden, but was approved). Its function is, as it were, localized within the sentence. The semantic relations expressed by it are definite and concrete. Connecting independent sentences, union but expresses more complex relationships. Its functions extend beyond the sentence in which it is located. The content of the entire fourth sentence is opposed to the content of the three previous sentences.

The general function of conjunctions as means of interphrase communication is to specify the relationship between independent sentences. Union within a compound sentence and usually indicates the temporal connection of events. This can be illustrated by the following example.

For four days the Cossacks fought and fought, fighting back with bricks and stones. But reserves and forces were depleted, and Taras decided to break through the ranks. And the Cossacks had already made their way through, and perhaps once again the faithfully fast horses would have served them, when suddenly, in the middle of the run, Taras stopped and cried out: “Stop! a cradle with tobacco fell out; I don’t want the cradle to go to the enemy Poles!” And the old ataman bent down and began to look in the grass for his cradle with tobacco, an inseparable companion on the seas, and on land, and on campaigns, and at home. In the meantime, a mob suddenly ran up and grabbed him under his mighty shoulders.(N.V. Gogol)

The use of various conjunctions as means of interphrase communication in this text gives the narrative a pronounced expressive and emotional character. Particles and introductory modal words like after all, here, here and, so, therefore, thus, firstly, secondly, finally et al. are also used as means of communication of sentences. They connect the sentence they open either with one of the previous ones, or with a group of sentences. The most commonly used particles after all and here. The use of particles and introductory-modal words as means of interphrase communication depends on the style of speech and on its type (monologue, dialogue), as well as on the theme and idea of ​​the work. scientific particle here used mainly for the introduction of illustrations, examples. So, it is often used in sentences like: Here is a piece of that scene Here are illustrations etc. Sentences with this particle can be connected by causal relationships; at the same time, it gives the semantic connection of sentences a more emotional, energetic character.

One of the most important means of interphrase communication, which determines the overall grammatical coherence of the text, is unity of aspect tense forms of verbs-predicates(9, 26, 199). When describing phenomena of the same semantic plan (landscape, setting, characterization of a person), predicate verbs are usually expressed in forms of the same type and tense (26, 141, etc.). At the same time, when describing the situation, landscape, human habits, signs of phenomena, long-term processes, as a rule, are used imperfective verbs past or present tense. As examples, we give two texts of a descriptive nature, in which imperfective verbs are used in all sentences (in the first text in the past, in the second - in the present tense).

The newly risen sun flooded the whole grove with a strong, though not bright, light; dewdrops shone everywhere, in some places large drops suddenly lit up and glowed; everything breathed freshness, life and that innocent solemnity of the first moments of the morning, when everything is already so bright and still so silent. All that could be heard was that the friable voices of larks over the distant fields, and in the grove itself, two or three birds, without haste, brought out their short knees and seemed to listen later how it turned out for them. The wet earth smelled of a healthy, strong smell, clean, light air shimmered with cool jets. In the morning, on a glorious summer morning, everything radiated, everything looked and smiled in the morning, like the ruddy, freshly washed face of a waking child.(I.S. Turgenev.)

And an autumn, clear, slightly cold, frosty day in the morning, when a birch, like a fairy tree, all golden, beautiful drawn in a pale blue sky when the low sun is already not warm, but glitters brighter than summer, a small aspen grove all sparkles through, as if it were fun and easy for her to stand naked, frost still turns white at the bottom of the valleys, and the fresh wind quietly stirs and drives fallen warped leaves - when joyfully along the river rushing blue waves, rhythmically uplifting scattered geese and ducks; far away mill knocking, half-covered with willows, and, motley in the light air, doves quickly spinning above her...(K.G. Paustovsky)

Pronouns and numerals as means of interphrase communication

Among the means of communication of independent sentences, personal pronouns are the most common. he, she, it, they and possessive him, her, them. In any text, if not the second, then the third, fourth sentence is necessarily associated with the previous one using these pronouns: “Elena’s features have not changed much since the day she left Moscow, but their expression became different: it it was more deliberate and stricter, and the eyes looked bolder.(I.S. Turgenev). Let's consider this feature on the example of a text fragment.

Magpie there is a nickname - white-sided. This is because there are feathers on the sides her completely white. But the head, wings and tail are black, like those of a crow. Tail the magpie has a very beautiful one - long, straight, like an arrow. And feathers On him not just black, but with a greenish tint. An elegant magpie bird and so dexterous, mobile - rarely she is sits quietly, jumps more and more, fusses.

In the above text, the second sentence is combined with the first pronoun in the genitive case with the preposition at (at her) which corresponds to a noun in the same case - magpie(connection - "addition - addition"). The fifth sentence is related to the fourth pronoun is he in the prepositional (On him), related to a noun in the nominative case tail(connection - "subject - object").

Other pronouns, characterized by specific semantic and stylistic functions in the organization of speech, are also used as means of interphrasal communication. Some of them link only contact sentences, others can relate to a large part of the text and link a number of sentences with a common meaning. Yes, demonstrative pronoun This can connect both two sentences and two semantic-syntactic integers (STS); it can apply to the entire text, especially if the work begins with it: It was winter... or ends: It finally came true... etc. Pronoun This can be associated with any proper name, regardless of its gender and number.

demonstrative pronoun such (such, such) as opposed to pronoun This has an added value. Definitive pronoun all performs a function close to that in which it acts within one sentence with homogeneous members. Combined with a demonstrative pronoun this ("all this") attributive pronoun all also refers to the entire preceding or following part of the text.

The garden, more and more thinned, turning into a real meadow, descended to the river, overgrown with green reeds and willows; near the mill dam there was a deep and fishy stretch, a small mill with a thatched roof roared angrily, frogs croaked furiously. On the water, smooth as a mirror, circles occasionally went round and the river lilies trembled, disturbed by the merry fish. On the other side of the river was the village of Dubechnya. A quiet blue stretch beckoned to itself, promising coolness and peace. And now all this - and the reach, and the mill, and the cozy banks - belonged to the engineer!(A.P. Chekhov)

Of the collective numerals, numerals are most often used as means of interphrase communication. both and two. Collective numbers two is seven often used in combination with the definitive pronoun - all three, all six, all five etc. Any numeral used in a sentence without a noun, which it quantitatively determines, is “attracted” in meaning to this noun, as a result of which it turns out to be one of the means of interphrase communication. The same can be said about ordinal numbers.

Actually interphrase means of communication

In addition to the means of communication discussed above, which are common both to parts of a complex sentence and to independent sentences, there are also those that, although used to connect parts of a complex sentence, reveal themselves much more fully as means of interphrase communication. These include words with temporal, spatial, subject and procedural meanings, the semantics of which are not disclosed within a single sentence. Consider the following example:

That night I did not sleep and did not undress. I intended to go at dawn to the fortress gates, from where Marya Ivanovna was to leave, and there to say goodbye to her for the last time. I felt a great change in myself: the excitement of my soul was much less painful for me than the despondency in which I had recently been immersed. With the sadness of parting, vague but sweet hopes, and impatient expectation of dangers, and feelings of noble ambition merged in me. The night passed unnoticed.(A.S. Pushkin)

The text fragment consists of five sequentially interconnected sentences. The second with the first is in a causal relationship, they are interconnected by pronominal repetition (I - I) a certain ratio of forms of verbs-predicates (did not sleep, did not undress - imperfect appearance and intended to go and say goodbye - perfect view); the third sentence is with the second and the first in a resultative-investigative relationship and is connected by the same means (pronominal repetition i - me); the fourth sentence is connected with the third resultative-causal relationship, and the pronominal repetition also acts as a means of communication (I am in me and etc.); the fifth sentence in relation to all the previous ones expresses the resultant-investigative relations (..so the night passed unnoticed), replacing the description of what happened to the narrator; it is connected primarily with the first sentence (lexical repetition this night is the night). In terms of meaning, all five sentences refer (attached) to the adverbial tense of the first sentence.

The circumstance of time most often acts as a common temporal basis for all sentences of the text. The number of sentences associated with the circumstance of time may be greater or less depending on the structural and semantic organization of the text. However, the role of the circumstance of time or place, with which the sentences of the text are associated, remains unchanged.

Adverbs of time, nouns with and without prepositions, quantitative-nominal combinations, adverbs and participles, adverbs of time in complex sentences, etc. usually act as means of conveying the chronological sequence of the events described. In the text, they serve as a kind of organizer of the unity of sentences, the main means of connecting sentences in these unities. Let's take an example.

Nikolai Rostov on this day received a note from Boris informing him that the Izmailovsky regiment was spending the night fifteen versts short of Olmutz and that Boris was waiting for him to hand over a letter and money. Rostov especially needed the money now that, having returned from the campaign, the troops stopped near Olmutz ... The people of Pavlograd went feast after feast, celebrating awards received for the campaign Rostov recently celebrated his graduation as a cornet, bought a Bedouin, Denisov's horse, and was indebted to his comrades and sutlers all around. Having received a note from Boris, Rostov and his comrades went to Olmutz.

Approaching the camp of the Izmailovsky regiment, he thought about how he would hit Boris and all his fellow guards with his fired fighting hussars.(L.N. Tolstoy)

At the same time, of all the means of interphrasal communication that convey the chronological development of the events described in the texts, gerunds have the greatest "strengthening power" of both contact and distant sentences:

Usually, she-wolves teach their children to hunt, letting them play with prey; and now, looking at how the cubs were chasing the puppy across the crust and wrestling with him, the she-wolf thought: "Let them get used to it."

having played enough the wolf cubs went into the pit and lay down to sleep. The puppy howled a little with hunger, then also stretched out in the sun. BUT waking up started playing again.(A.P. Chekhov)

Words with spatial meaning and their functional-syntactic equivalents are also often used as a means of interphrase communication. Words with the meaning of space include the corresponding adverbs, as well as nouns in both the nominative and oblique cases, indicating the place or direction of the action. Links with the help of such words can permeate the text from beginning to end, connecting its parts that characterize the described events from the side of their spatial distribution. Such words can organize sentences into complex syntactic wholes, fragments and whole chapters of text-works. For example:

In the middle of a dense forest on a narrow lawn there was a small earthen fortification, consisting of a rampart and a moat, behind which there were several huts and dugouts.

In the yard, a multitude of people, who, by the variety of clothes and by the general armament, could immediately be recognized as robbers, dined, sitting without hats, near the fraternal cauldron. On the rampart near the small cannon the sentry sat with his legs tucked under him; he put a patch in some part of his clothes...

In the hut from which the old woman came out, behind the partition, the wounded Dubrovsky was lying on a camp bed. In front of him on the table his pistols lay, and the saber hung in their heads ...

In the organization of each given text fragment, the leading role is played by words with spatial meaning and their functional and syntactic equivalents, which are the main means of contact and distant communication.

Words with spatial meaning act as one of the most important means of organizing the text as a whole. It is not uncommon for words with spatial meaning to be used in descriptive texts, for example:

Ten steps a dark, cold river flowed: it grumbled, squelched against the pitted clay shore, and quickly rushed somewhere into the distant sea. At the very shore a large barge was darkening, which the carriers call "karbas". Far away on that shore fading and shimmering, lights crawled like snakes: they were burning last year's grass ...(A.P. Chekhov)

The function of the highlighted words with local spatial meaning in the organization of the given text is obvious.

Words with objective meaning and their functional and syntactic equivalents as a means of interphrase communication

Among words with objective meaning, nouns are most often used as a means of communication. They act as spokesmen for one of the essential texts of meaning in the organization - its "objectivity" (forming the subject-semantic organization of the text). As a means of organizing the semantic and structural unity of the text, nouns can be divided into two groups: a) concrete and abstract; b) own and common nouns.

Specific nouns as a means of organizing the text reveal their semantics within a sentence and even a phrase. For example: table, kitchen table, white kitchen table; tie, scout tie, silk scout tie.

Words with an abstract meaning do not always reveal their semantics within a sentence. For example: There are more worries in the house. It happened during the summer holidays. On the other hand, in need of an extended context, abstract words (care, grief, longing, happiness, annoyance, fear, horror, conscience, beauty, caution, patience, joy, cry, groan, noise etc.) can become semantic center groups of related sentences. Consider the following text.

Days passed in Tsybukin's house in worries. The sun had not yet risen, and Aksinya was already snorting as she washed herself in the passage, the samovar was boiling in the kitchen and buzzing, predicting something bad. Old man Grigory Petrov, dressed in a long black frock coat and cotton trousers, in high bright boots, so clean, small, walked around the rooms and tapped his heels, like a father-in-law in a famous song. They opened the shop. When it became light, a racing droshky was brought up to the porch, and the old man valiantly sat on them, pulling his big cap up to his ears, and looking at him, no one would have said that he was already 56 years old.

He was away on business; his wife, dressed in dark clothes and wearing a black apron, cleaned the rooms or helped in the kitchen. Aksinya traded in a shop, and one could hear in the yard ... how angry the customers, whom she offended. Tea was drunk in the house six times a day; four times sat down at the table to eat. And in the evening they counted the proceeds and wrote it down, then they slept soundly.(A.P. Chekhov)

The semantics of the selected word is revealed by a group of interrelated sentences, united intonationally and thematically. The semantic center here is not only the word care, but the entire sentence in which it is included. In this text, all predicates are forms of the past tense. (passed, did not rise, snorted, boiled, buzzed, paced, tapped in the milky glass etc.).

Repetition of words as a means of interphrase communication and actual articulation of a speech statement

The repetition of words as a means of interphrase communication is called lexical repetition.“In order for speech to be clear, logically coherent, we cannot do without the repetition of words, their forms and derivatives of these words, since their use is associated with the structural organization of speech. The importance of lexical repetition lies in the fact that it is an expression of the actual, or semantic, articulation of speech” (141, p. 42). Let's take a short descriptive text as an example.

This is squirrel. Coat at the squirrel redhead, fluffy. Ears at the squirrel sharp, with tassels. Her tail is big and fluffy. Squirrel lives in a hollow She eats nuts, mushrooms.

Almost always, in any sentence, two structural and semantic parts can be distinguished: the first contains what is known from the previous part of the text or is easily guessed from the speech situation (“given”). The second part contains new information, the transmission of which is the main goal of communication (“new”). For example:

We arrived in the city in the morning. At that time there were sports competitions. The column of athletes was moving along Novatorov Street leading to the stadium. The stadium was built recently. It was the first time that big competitions were held there.

Here, the highlighted parts of the text fragment contain the new information for which the statement is made, and the unselected parts contain their given, already known from the previous part of the text. Each sentence of the text is subdivided, as a rule, into given and new; such a semantic division of a sentence is called in linguistics actual division statements (9, 65, 174, etc.).

The importance of the actual articulation of the statement lies in the fact that it helps to detect the communicative orientation of speech, to see what exactly new information constitutes the semantic core of the text; in addition, it allows us to trace the movement of thought from the known to the unknown, the transition from one thought to another in the process of the logical and semantic organization of speech. Mastering the skills of actual division also develops a culture of coherent speech, as it helps to more correctly connect sentences with each other in the flow of speech. It is obvious that in new the core of the statement is enclosed, its basis, the “representation” (display) of which in the text is the goal of communication; without language representation given it is impossible to construct ("organize") the text correctly.

The simplest type of repetition of words as a means of interphrase communication and an expression of actual articulation is the use of the same word or phrase in adjacent phrases. It should be noted that it is impossible to compose a text about two or more persons (objects) without using the method of distant interphrase communication. First, they talk about one subject (person), then about another, then again about the first, then about the second, etc. Parts of the text related to one person and separated by other fragments of the text are connected by a distant connection and stand out in a separate paragraph. So the transformation new previous proposal in given the subsequent sentence is an indispensable condition for organizing entire texts and plays the role of one of the methods of connecting sentences in it (34, 141, 206).

If we take a sentence of any type as the starting phrase of a narrative, then the following phrase can be connected with the first one by repeating any of its significant words. The choice of this word depends on the direction in which the producer intends to continue the further development of the thought presented in the original phrase, and this, in turn, is determined by communicative setting speech.

The repetition of words as a means of interphrase communication in a stylistic sense can be neutral, or it can emphasize the significance of new information, that is, it allows you to more clearly and fully display the text itself. new - what will be discussed further, and focus on it the attention of the listener or reader. Consequently, the repetition of words performs two functions: it is a means of interphrase communication and a stylistic device that focuses the reader's attention on semantics repeated words and content the sentences they are in. Based on the function in the organization of texts, all types of word repetition can be reduced to two options: simple, neutral repetition of words used as a means of interphrase communication, and repetition of a semantic-stylistic nature.

Synonymous replacement as a means of interphrase communication

Instead of lexical repetition, synonymous replacement can be used as a means of interphrase communication. In this case, synonyms and synonymous expressions are used, for example: dog - puppy, squirrel - animal, automobile - passenger car etc.

Each new word or turn of speech that replaces lexical repetition adds a new feature to the characteristics of persons, phenomena or objects, thereby performing two functions: on the one hand, it is a means of connecting parts of the text, on the other, it acts as a carrier of “characteristic” features. Consequently, so that the repetition of the same words is not the only means of connecting phrases in independent stories of children (or written works of students), it is necessary, before compiling essays or presentations, to pay special attention to the selection of synonyms that can be used to describe persons, objects, phenomena, etc. d (34, 141). If a retelling or presentation is compiled according to a certain work, then “lexical work” should be carried out on the text of this work: first, analyze the language tools used by the author himself, and then think about what other words or phrases can be used for synonymous replacement. Since proper names are most often repeated in the text, it is logical to pose the question to students: what are the characteristic features of this or that character? Then invite them to find in the text a description of these features in the author's version. “Such preparation for presentation or composition will allow students to avoid annoying repetition of words both in their written works and in oral speech” (141, p. 51).

Functions of various types of sentences in the structural and semantic organization of the whole text

As the linguistic analysis of linguistic (textual) means of speech communication shows, the most common in our speech are two-part common affirmative-declarative sentences with a verbal predicate and complex sentences, of which compound sentences with conjunctions are the most common. and, but and complex subordinate clauses with an explanatory clause, time and place. In some texts, simple two-part sentences predominate, in others - complex ones. Meeting episodically between simple two-part common and complex sentences, non-common two-part sentences either begin the topic of a new narrative, or act as a final in a complex syntactic whole, or combine both. If they complete the presentation of the micro-theme, then they contain a generalization, conclusion, author's assessment, etc. (9, 199, etc.).

A special function in the organization of whole texts is performed by single sentences. In literary texts, one-component sentences are used in the character's speech and are not only a means of interphrase communication, but also a means of linguistic characteristics. One-part sentences act as a means of connecting parts of the text in the author's speech. For example:

Noon. The restaurant is still empty. The waiters are huddled in a corner, talking. Quiet, elegant, clean. In the middle of the restaurant, only one officer is drinking tea, clinking a spoon in a glass, and reading a newspaper.

The cashier, a corpulent woman in a shaggy green sweatshirt, with a smoky shawl on her shoulders, stacks money in piles, fastens them with paper ribbons. She blocked the window in the milky glass partition with abacus.

The nearby window was also blocked with bills. Perspiration breaks out on her porcelain-white face. Head unwell. She, shivering, throws on her shoulders a squirrel board with sewn tails and reluctantly chews sandwiches.

Quiet. Empty. And suddenly a rustle...(I.A. Lavrov)

In the text above, all one-part impersonal sentences perform the same function. On the one hand, they give a semantic generalization of what was said, an addition to it, on the other hand, they indicate the topic for the next statement. As a result, impersonal and other single-component sentences act as a means of organizing the semantic and structural unity of the text.

Nominative proposals differ in that, being at the end of the STS or superphrasal unity expressed by several STSs, they contain in a generalized form a complete microtheme, minimal semantic fragment of the text. Thus, simple two-part non-common and one-part sentences as a means of inter-phrase communication can perform similar functions: they begin to present a micro-topic and, being supplemented by a group of independently designed sentences, combine them into one semantic and structural whole.

Interrogative and exclamatory sentences can also connect parts of the text, while performing various stylistic functions.

And these people, and the shadows around the fire, and the dark bales, and the distant lightning that flashed every minute in the distance - everything now seemed to him unsociable and terrible. He was horrified and in despair asked himself, how and why did he end up in an unknown land, in a company of terrible men? Where is uncle now, oh. Christopher and Deniska? Why don't they drive for so long? Have they forgotten about him? The thought that he was forgotten and abandoned to the mercy of fate made him feel cold and so terrified that several times he tried to jump off the bale and run recklessly, without looking back along the road, but the memory of the dark, gloomy crosses that he would certainly meet on way, and lightning flashing in the distance stopped him ... And only when he whispered: “Mom! mother!" He seemed to feel better...(A.P. Chekhov)

The connection of these interrogative sentences with the preceding "context" is obvious. Last interrogative sentence (Have they forgotten about him?) with a logical emphasis on the predicate, as it were, attracts the semantics of the subsequent sentence (From the thought that he was forgotten and left to the mercy of fate, he felt cold...). Thus, being in the middle of a text fragment (STS), interrogative sentences can be a means of interphrase communication, connecting the next part of the text with the previous one.

exclamatory sentences can also act as a means of connecting sentences commenting on its content. This stylistic device is used in both prose and poetry.

And here comes September!

Slow down your sunrise

The sun shines with a cold radiance,

And its beam in the mirror of unsteady waters

It trembles with unfaithful gold.

(E.A. Baratynsky)

Masterpieces! Masterpieces of brush and cutter, thought and imagination! Masterpieces of poetry! Among them, Lermontov's "Testament" seems to be a modest, but undeniable masterpiece in its simplicity and completeness. In intense grief, courage, finally, in the brilliance and strength of the language, these poems by Lermontov are the purest, undeniable masterpiece.(K.G. Paustovsky)

In text fragments, exclamatory sentences can act as a linguistic "organizer" of subsequent sentences:

What a night! How clean the air

Like a silver leaf slumbers,

Like a shadow of black coastal willows,

How peacefully the bay sleeps

As the wave does not sigh anywhere,

How silent the chest is full.

The semantic meaning of the nominative-exclamatory sentence is revealed here by a chain of sentences commenting on it.

Thus, the main semantic-syntactic functions of declarative, interrogative and exclamatory sentences as means of interphrase communication can be reduced to the following.

Starting a paragraph or STS, they enclose micro-theme narrative, revealed by a chain of interrelated phrases, often constituting a superphrasal unity (or STS). In such cases, the analyzed sentences turn out to be the grammatical and semantic center of the semantic-syntactic whole.

Finishing the STS, declarative or interrogative sentences, as a rule, have a resultative or causal meaning and at the same time create conditions for a smooth transition to the presentation of a new micro-topic and, therefore, are a means of connecting parts of the text.

Interpositive (located inside the text fragment) interrogative and exclamatory sentences are in certain semantic relationships (resultative-effect, cause-and-effect, etc.) with the previous part of the text, and at the same time they “open” the topic of the subsequent narrative.

In the "speech work" on the formation of the skills of coherent detailed statements, the correctional teacher needs to rely on the knowledge of the basic patterns of text construction, such fundamental qualities as structural-semantic integrity and coherence. In the process of learning (with independent compilation or selection of "educational" texts for retelling), it is necessary to take into account the basic semantic and linguistic requirements for the construction of a "correct", normative text. The better the educational text is “built” in semantic, structural and linguistic terms, the more it in itself facilitates the perception and understanding of the content of speech. If certain rules for combining sentences and paragraphs into a single whole are observed, if the paragraphs are clearly drawn up, if the producer uses the appropriate means of communication that organize the text, then such a text is more convenient for perception than a text that is not well organized (65, 252). A clear and adequate display in a detailed statement of the subject of speech (“behind the text”) and understanding of its deep semantic subtext provides an adequate perception and understanding the content of the text (24, 30, 65, etc.).

The process of understanding a speech statement always includes a semantic and linguistic analysis of the text, evaluation and comparison. The psychological mood of the recipient, his desires and previous knowledge organize and direct the processes of memorization and reproduction. In this regard, when analyzing the retelling compiled by the subject, it is important to highlight in its content what corresponds to the real-life objective situation displayed in the text, and what is its creative interpretation (64, 86, etc.). When understanding the text, the recipient needs to combine several separate statements into one semantic whole. An important role in understanding the logical and semantic organization of the text is played by the analysis of the means of interphrase communication described above. At the same time, the so-called "step-by-step perception" of the language material implies both the sequential processing of incoming information and the integration of the meaning of the text.

Let us give a corresponding example taken from the studies of N.I. Zhinkin (73):

Black, lively eyes gazed at her intently.

It seemed that the lips would now open and a cheerful joke would fly off of them, already playing on an open and friendly face.

Attached to a gilded frame, a plaque testified that the portrait of Chinginnato Baruzzi was painted by Karl Bryullov.

As N.I. Zhinkin, “there are so deep “holes” between the first three sentences in this text that it is not so easy to connect them in meaning. And only in the fourth sentence is everything necessary to tie all four sentences together. But the fourth sentence, taken separately, is also unclear” (73, p. 127). At the same time, according to the researcher, this text is one of the fairly understandable and coherent texts. According to the theory of text construction by N.I. Zhinkin, “textual meaning is the integration of the lexical meanings of two adjacent sentences of the text. If integration does not occur, the next adjacent sentence is taken, and so on until the moment when a semantic connection of these sentences arises” (81, p. 58). Based on this, the meaning of the text, according to N.I. Zhinkin, is born only at the intersection of at least two separate statements (sentences). Accordingly, the text itself appears at the “junction” of two sentences that are juxtaposed in semantic and linguistic (grammatical) terms. Good knowledge of the topic of the text allows the listener to understand (correlate with reality) those pieces of information that were expressed in fairly general terms.

Over the past three decades, a number of experimental studies have been carried out in Russian psycholinguistics on the problem of paraphrase(playback) text(18, 86, etc.).

It turns out that when reproducing the read text, reproducers almost always subject the original text not only to a linguistic (which is quite natural), but also to a semantic transformation. It should be noted that some types of changes occur consistently in all paraphrases, such as word substitutions, omissions, and additions of information. The “verbal group” is most often subjected to language transformation, in which there are omissions mainly of adverbs, adjectives and prepositional constructions. In the retellings of children of senior preschool and primary school age, quite often (at least 50% of all cases of semantic transformation) information is omitted indicating “where”, “when” or “how” this or that action took place (18). Additions to the original text relate to explaining the reasons for the actions of the characters, supplementing information about the results of their actions, about achieving the intended goal; judgments are also added about the internal psychological reaction of characters to ongoing events, etc. At the same time, in 50% of cases, the language modality of the message changes: the passive voice is replaced by an active one or sentences are rearranged so that the internal reaction of the subject of activity (the character of the story) turns into his active action ( 65, 87). The analysis of the retelling helps to detect emotionally colored, personally significant knowledge of the individual - often they are manifested in a detailed description of the motives and actions of the characters of the retelling text. Adequate, close to the original reproduction of texts largely depends on the recipient's acceptance of the author's point of view, on its compliance with his own personal attitudes (17, 74, 236, etc.).

Knowledge of the patterns of text construction is especially important for a correctional teacher in speech therapy work with children with speech disorders. In the course of classes on the formation of skills in these children connected extended statements great attention should be paid to preparatory work (preparation for perception and preliminary analysis of the content of the text - highlighting important semantic links, sequence of events, etc.; special language analysis of the text for retelling or speech sample; speech - lexical and grammatical exercises using special game techniques, activating attention, visual and verbal perception, memory and imagination of the child). Special attention should be paid to mastering learning skills planning extended statements. At the same time, children form ideas about the basic principles of constructing a coherent message: the adequacy of the content, the sequence of presentation, the reflection of the causal relationship of events, etc.

A significant place should be given to the formation of skills in children semantic analysis of the text(singling out the main semantic links - subtopics, microtopics, which are fragments of a speech message that are complete in meaning, definition and analysis denotations - significant structural and semantic elements of a speech statement that serve to designate objects displayed in speech, and predicates - actions with objects, relations between them, events and phenomena that make up the subject content of one or another fragment of the surrounding reality). Accordingly, the skills of semantic analysis of a visually presented subject or plot-event situation (using visual picture material) are also formed. Based on the traces of such an analysis, a plan-program of a future detailed speech statement is drawn up, its main content blocks (text fragments), the sequence of their display in the story-message are determined.

A necessary type of work on the text is the analysis (when retelling) or purposeful selection (in a self-composed story) of language means of displaying the subject of speech. This type of speech work is carried out in the course of linguistic analysis of the text of the work being retold or a speech sample given by the teacher, in the course of special exercises to develop the skills of selecting language means of forming and formulating thoughts.

The exercises include inflection exercises, the selection of the right words and word forms when reading and parsing a text for retelling, when children reproduce a sample story from a picture, etc. Performing such tasks helps children master various means of building coherent detailed statements in the process of conscious speech action with them.

Much attention should be paid to the choice of works for retelling - it is recommended to select them with a clear division into fragments-episodes and a clear logical sequence of events. This facilitates the compilation of a retelling and contributes to the assimilation of certain language means. Attention is also drawn to the cognition of the content, the accessibility of the linguistic - lexical and grammatical - material of the text, taking into account the group of children being taught. The use of highly artistic texts of children's literature allows you to effectively work on the development of a "sense of language" - attention to the lexical, grammatical and syntactic aspects of speech, the ability to evaluate the correctness of statements in terms of their compliance with the language norm. This is especially important in corrective work with children with systemic underdevelopment of speech.

Lexical and grammatical features of the French popular science text. Content. I.Introduction
II. Towards the theory of the text
2.1. The concept of the term. Terminological vocabulary
2.2 Interaction of terminological and commonly used vocabulary
2.3.International vocabulary
2.4. Elements of colloquial speech in popular science text
III. Lexico-grammatical features of a popular science text, on the example of texts from the French popular science magazine “Science et Avenir”
IV.Conclusion
V. References
I. Introduction.

The era of the scientific and technological revolution covers all aspects of the activity of modern society. Can not stand aside and such a sphere of human activity as language. Various forms of scientific and technical and popular science texts are penetrating our lives more and more, for example, in the form of articles in popular scientific journals, various documentation and even articles in public periodicals regarding new scientific achievements. A successful understanding of the achievements of modern technology is impossible without mastering a reliable and accurate communication tool, which is language. An error in understanding or in conveying thought in a given area can lead to losses that are more tangible than the consequences that can arise from a misreading of a literary text.

The purpose of this work is the study of a scientific text, the identification of its linguistic features and technological characteristics, as well as the consideration of its main units, which are terms.

The material for this study was articles from the French journals "Sciences et Avenir", related to various fields of human activity (medicine, physics, computer science and information technology, astronomy, etc.).

II. To the theory of the text.

The versatility of the concept of “text” makes it necessary to single out essential features in it. A text is a work of a speech-creative process that has completeness, objectified in the form of a written document, literary processed in accordance with the type of this document, a work consisting of a name and a number of special units (superphrasal units) united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connection , which has a certain focus and pragmatic attitude. Text as a fact is a message that has its own content, organized according to an abstract model of one of the forms of messages existing in the literary language (functional style, its varieties and genres) and characterized by its distinctive features.

The text as a product of the speech-creative process can be analyzed from the point of view of compliance with certain general patterns, and these patterns should be considered as invariants of the texts of each of the functional styles.

Most texts, in terms of their organization, strive to comply with the norms established for a given functional style. However, there are cases of some deviation from these norms.

At present, there is a tendency in linguistic science when the text itself begins to be considered not as the ultimate unit of a speech act, but as a constituent component of overtext formation.

According to I.R. Galperin: “The researcher of any large object, which, for example, is a text, is threatened by two dangers: on the one hand, the atomization of the facts of the object and, on the other hand, the globalization of the object - underestimation of the study of individual phenomena in their essential characteristics and functions". . The text is an object of large scale, since it assumes as its constituent units larger than sentences. Prevention of these dangers is possible only with a combination of atomization of facts and their globalization, which is prevented by the essential characteristics of the object of study.

Attention to the peculiarities and regularities of the organization of the text as a form of existence of the written version of the language is the result of the cognitive process. Overcoming the centuries-old traditions of considering the written version of a language as the only object of analysis, linguistics, “on the one hand, is forced to describe the structure of non-written languages, and on the other hand, trying to penetrate into the essence of linguistic processes, into the mechanisms of speech generation and its functioning, turned the edge of scientific knowledge into side of oral speech, for some time consigning to oblivion written speech.

Like any new object of study, the text is understood and defined in different ways. According to Halliday, the text is “the basic unit of semantics and cannot be defined as a kind of super-sentence”. Clarifying this too general definition, Halliday comes to the conclusion that the text is an actualization of the potential. A. Greimas approaches the problem of text from the standpoint of generative semantics. For him, the text is a unity that splits into statements and is not the result of their linkage.

The versatility of the concept of "text" obliges to single out in it what is leading, revealing its ontological and functional features. “A text is a work of a speech-creative process that has completeness, objectified in the form of a written document, literary processed in accordance with the type of this document, a work consisting of a name (title) and a number of special units (super-phrasal units), united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connection, having a certain purposefulness and pragmatic attitude”. . From this definition it follows that the text should be understood not as oral speech fixed on paper, always spontaneous, unorganized, inconsistent, but as a special kind of speech creation, which has its own parameters that differ from those of oral speech.

The text has a dual nature - a state of rest and movement. Presented in a sequence of discrete units, the text is at rest, and signs of movement appear implicitly in it. But when the text is reproduced (read), it is in a state of motion, and then the signs of rest appear explicitly in it.

Researchers seek to determine the most general parameters of the text. So, Tsvetan Todorov distinguishes three main categories - parameters, which he respectively calls verbal, syntactic and semantic. The verbal parameter is formed by specific sentences that form the text, the semantic parameter is determined by the relationship of the parts of the text, and the semantic one reflects the global meaning of the text and determines the parts into which the meaning breaks up.

N.E. Enquist reduces the linguistic parameters of the text to three main ones - topic (topic), focus (focus) and connection (linkage). The topic is the main content of the text, the focus serves to highlight the marked elements of the text (words, phrases, sentences, stylistic devices), and the connection is a means of combining various segments of the statement. Some linguists single out a positional parameter, motif, temporal parameter, etc. These text parameters undoubtedly represent important characteristics of the text and can be put at the base of the pyramid by its feature.

In accordance with the classification proposed by N.E. Enquist, it can be established that the text is characterized by the presence of the following linguistic parameters:

1. topics (topic) - the main content of the text;

2. focus (focus), which serves to highlight the marked elements of the text (words, phrases, sentences, stylistic devices inherent in the scientific style of speech;

3. links (linkage) - a means of combining different segments of the statement.

The text as a fact of a speech act is systemic. The text is a kind of complete message that has its own content, organized according to an abstract model of one of the forms of messages existing in the literary language and characterized by its distinctive features.

The content in relation to the text acquires its own terminological use, different from the concepts of "meaning" and "meaning". Content as a term of text grammar will refer only to the information contained in the text as a whole; meaning - to a thought, a message contained in a sentence or in a superphrasal unity; meanings - to morphemes, words, phrases, syntactic constructions.

Meaning is not necessarily the result of a mechanical addition of the meanings of the individual components of a sentence. Just as a word, by its meanings, is a “piece of reality,” meaning is a “piece of content.” The meaning realized in the sentence is revealed in the forms of predication specific to these units. “Meaning is by its nature non-communicative or potentially communicative. The content is communicative in its purpose, since it has a sign of completeness.

For a more explicit description of the features of the text and its categories, it is necessary to clarify the concept of predication as applied to the text. Predication is the transposition of facts of language into facts of speech. Outside of predication there is no act of speech, there is only the nomination of certain phenomena, events, actions.

Like any abstract model, the text model cannot cover all the features of the object of study. Naturally, it allows and even predetermines the possible variations of these characteristics, most often taking the most significant of them. In the models of the text, the above distinctive features are manifested in a special way, which can rightfully be assigned the rank of grammatical categories of the text.

All these categories receive their specific forms of implementation. So, for example, the forms of the category of informativeness are narration, reasoning, description (environment, situation, action, nature, personality), etc.; the category of integration is realized: a) in the forms of subordination of some parts of the text to others, forms that coincide and do not coincide with the forms of subordination characteristic of the sentence; b) in stylistic devices; c) synonymous repetitions, etc.; the category of retrospection is revealed both by compositional and lexical means.

Considering text categories as grammatical categories, we have to admit that not all of them are inherent in any text and are not always recognized as present even where they are mandatory.

All categories of text, mandatory and optional, are intertwined and interdependent. The selection of any one of them for the purposes of the study entails its isolation, as a result of which the anthological and paradigmatic characteristics of this category come out more clearly. But as soon as the syntagmatic features of the selected category are observed, other categories of the text come into play. In decomposing the whole into its component parts, we tend to give more importance to the parts than they deserve in the composition of the whole. Moreover, the parts begin to lose their dependence on the whole and acquire a certain degree of independence.

The freedom to choose forms and the expression of personality in large texts also complicate the process of perceiving the integrity of the text and the ways of its integration.

In this regard, it is necessary to clarify the definition of the forms of a popular science text. For the first time, the forms of a popular science text were singled out and characterized by R.A. Budagov. He singled out two main forms of popular science text:

1. an article in a popular science publication (magazine) is characterized, first of all, by a rather large saturation of terms and specialized words, as well as a large number of abbreviations.

2. an article in public periodicals (newspapers) is characterized, first of all, by a much simpler presentation of information (than in popular scientific journals) with minimal use of specialized words and terms. Also, the authors of such articles avoid the frequent use of abbreviations, instead using the full (deciphered) name of the object, for example, a fragment of an article from the newspaper “Le mond”:

“… les chercheurs préféraient voir traduites les publication de la National Security Agency (instead of the NSA).”

At present, due to the rapid penetration of various electronic household devices into our lives, linguists distinguish another form of popular scientific text - various instructions for the operation of household devices. This form of popular science text is characterized by extreme simplicity and unambiguity of presentation, almost completely avoiding the use of any terms, using various substitute constructions instead. For example, a piece of text taken from the instruction manual:

“Lecture and accis direct. Avec cette fonction, la lecture du disque s'effectue depuis une plage donné jusqu'a la dernière plage, puis elle s'arrkte automatiquement. Le SL-PG480A ne peut activer cette fonction qu`au moyen de la télécommande”.

At present, text linguistics is only on the way of recognizing it as a section of general linguistics, so many text categories have not yet received sufficiently clear coverage, and some of them are not recognized as categories at all, although without them it is impossible to imagine the text itself in its typological features.

In scientific prose texts, integration is easy to analyze. In these texts, the category of the continuum comes to the fore, i.e. a continuous flow of information, where even seemingly insignificant acquires a kind of weightiness.

Almost all paragraphs in popular scientific texts begin with the following turns: “En suivant la principe…, Tout d`abord…, Il nous semble également que…, Ainsi…”. These turns not only link one paragraph to another, but are also a means of integrating the entire text:

“…Pour renouer avec la tradition du XIXe siècle oç les scientifiques faisaient des demonstrations en public, cet aréopage a été soumis a une séance d`hypnose par un hypnotiseur de music-hall, Frank Syx.”

The process of integration itself involves the selection of parts of the text that are the most significant for content-conceptual information. Of course, in the speech-creative act, which has found its expression in the text, redundancy of information or fragments that are irrelevant to the main content may appear. It is safe to say that often the reader's eye does not linger on such segments of the text, intuitively feeling irrelevant or unimportant. I.R. Galperin argues that various factors, namely “strong” and “weak” semantic connections between segments of the text, presupposition that appears in connection with knowledge of the subject of observation, the distribution of semantic accents between separate parts of the statement, helps to identify what is subject to integration and what is actually being integrated.

2.1. The concept of the term. Terminological vocabulary.

The main specific feature of the language of scientific literature, from a lexical point of view, is the widespread use of special terminology, i.e. use of terms of a certain branch of knowledge.

It is very difficult to give a clear definition of the term, since there is currently no generally accepted definition of this concept. One of the reasons is that the term is the object of a number of sciences, each of which seeks to highlight the features in the term that are essential from its point of view.

Nevertheless, the definition of a term as the name of a special object or concept can be called the most general. In linguistics, terminology is defined as "a part of the vocabulary of a language, covering special vocabulary used in the field of professional activity of people." O. G. Vinokur concludes that the term is “a word in a special function”. The term is a word of a special language that serves for professional, scientific communication. This word is associated with a concept belonging to a certain field of science and technology, and, in fact, should define the boundary of this concept in accordance with its etymology, since terminus in Latin means “border”, “limit”.

The system of terms, i.e. the terminology of a particular science is created by a person in the process of cognition. In order to reflect the system of concepts of a given science, it is necessary to observe the full correspondence of the sign and the concept, therefore the desire for unambiguity is an indispensable condition for the existence of the term and, therefore, the ideal term is unambiguous.

At the same time, the terminology is not isolated from the general literary language and it reflects the processes that take place in the language. In the actual functioning of the term in speech, the “law of the sign” is not always observed, and this finds its expression in such a phenomenon as the ambiguity of the term.

The ambiguity of the term within the same science manifests itself in different ways. The development of this or that theory in any science also implies the development of the corresponding terminology, which means not only the emergence of new terms within this theory, but also the emergence of different shades of meaning for existing terms. Often the novelty of the author's terminology lies in the rethinking of already existing terms.

Another violation of the “law of the sign” is when a term is borrowed from one field of knowledge and transferred to another to express seemingly similar concepts. This phenomenon is called interscientific terminological homonymy, i.e. complete coincidence of the sound of words that are incompatible in meaning.

2.2. Interaction of terminological and commonly used vocabulary.

The concept of terminological vocabulary and the relationship between terms and common vocabulary causes great controversy among linguists. But despite the disagreements, there are already certain principles that all linguists agree on. Thus, most linguists have come to the conclusion that terminological vocabulary cannot be considered a separate language system, with its own rules of word formation and functioning in the language. Terminological vocabulary has a close relationship with common vocabulary. A number of significant factors give the right to consider common vocabulary as the basis for creating terms; terminological systems contain at their core the rules of the general system of language; it is important to note the fact that the terminology includes a large number of commonly used words. Also, the terminology has grammatical categories in common with the literary language.

A.A. Reformed, considering the term as a unit of terminology, made a conclusion with which many linguists-terminologists agree: “... is, first of all, a word, and therefore, the term must be a normal member of the lexical system of the language”, thereby emphasizing that the term is a full member of the lexical system of language and it is impossible to draw a clear line between terminology and common language. Terminology, as a system, exists as part of the general literary language, and not outside it, being at the same time a linguistic means of expressing the scientific style of the common language. All these arguments give the right to assert that terminology is a component of the language that is with it in relation to the part to the whole.

The connection of terminology as a component of the language with the literary language is manifested primarily in the following:

In connection with the development of science, there is a need for new names, which is realized through the literary language;

The reverse process, the penetration of terminology into the literary language;

Phenomenon, when a word occupies an intermediate position between a term and a commonly used word.

In the first case, we are talking about the semantic method of terminology formation. This method is based on narrowing the meaning of a commonly used word or on transferring the meaning of this word. Thus, the word takes on a second meaning. The specific meaning of a word (i.e. whether this word is taken as a term or not) is determined by the environment of this word (context), in the case of a term, its meaning is revealed when it is placed in the appropriate “terminological field”.

The second case: the first meaning of the word is a terminological meaning, all other meanings are commonly used. Such a phenomenon is called semantic derivatives of a word (term). The meaning of this phenomenon lies in the generalization of the special meaning of the term in the process of use. At the same time, the scope of the use of the word is expanding.

A term, like a word, can have both terminological and commonly used meanings. In this case, the terminological meaning of such a word will be realized only in the context of a scientific (popular science) text, when the word becomes a member of the terminological vocabulary.

2.3.International vocabulary in a popular scientific text.

Another feature of the language of popular science literature is the presence in it of vocabulary called international. International vocabulary occupies a large place in scientific and socio-political texts. Along with words of everyday meaning, it includes words expressing scientific, technical and socio-political concepts, which constitute its main part.

Two words are taken as an international pair, in which there is a complete or partial external (graphic and phonetic) similarity and semantic correspondence to each other, for example: agiter - agitate, preparer - prepare, direction - direction, detecteur - detector, etc.

The semantic relations between the compared international words can be as follows:

Full semantic match; complete mismatch of values; partial mismatch of values. 2.4. Elements of colloquial speech in a popular scientific text.

For the language of popular scientific prose, the use of some elements of colloquial speech is also characteristic.

As is known, the semantic boundaries of a word in colloquial speech are less clearly defined than the corresponding synonyms in the field of literary and book vocabulary. This is one of the reasons for the impossibility of using colloquial vocabulary in the language of scientific presentation. There are a number of other features of colloquial speech that make us look at colloquial elements in a scientific text as a phenomenon that is not functionally justified by the specifics of scientific presentation:

“Vendredi 16 December 1994. Quelque part dans Paris, je suis en train de rédiger ce papier sur la DAO, la délinquance assisté par ordinatuer.” .

However, the authors of scientific articles systematically resort to the use of colloquial vocabulary and syntax. The contradiction between colloquial and bookish is resolved by narrowing the scope of the use of elements of colloquial speech by introducing them into the narrow framework of traditional use in a certain genre variety of scientific prose. The motivated use of colloquial vocabulary and syntax in scientific prose does not mean the disappearance of the bookish/colloquial opposition, it is only one of the manifestations of the assimilation of other style elements in scientific prose.

The syntactic structure of a simple sentence, which is not typical for scientific prose, acts as an element of colloquial speech in a scientific message. However, the use of this structure is subject to certain communicative tasks. Their “singling out” does not serve the purpose of violating established norms, but of accentuating those parts of the statement that need to be emphasized.

Stylistic marking of simple syntactic structures is used in scientific prose for:

Messages of the most significant thought (argument, argument, fact) of the author;

for example: “…Ce projet existe: il s`appelle Teledisc…”.

“Utilisons l`analogie des bateaux sur une revière….”,.

Introduction of a number of arguments, reasoning, anticipating a detailed disclosure of the idea;

for example: “... D`autre part, ces galaxies avaient galement des mouvements désordonnés…”.

“Le bilan n`a pas йtе facile a dresser….”.

Emphasizing the finality of the conclusion, its indisputable nature;

for example: “En quelque sorte, une remise a l`heure des pendules biologiques”,

Sweden transfer;

for example: “…Et avec trois sortes de bossons: photons, gluons et Z, les particules d`interaction…”.

The formulation of the result of the experiment;

A paragraph, consisting of a number of complex sentences and ending with a simple sentence, is a structure characteristic of the syntactic structure of modern written scientific and popular speech:

Such a combination of both plans of syntax - oral colloquial and written book - is observed in those cases when the author of a scientific article resorts to the use of inserts, which are a kind of cliché of oral colloquial speech. An insert is a technique for introducing additional messages, passing remarks, etc. into a sentence.

The role of inserts that directly convey the feelings of the author can be such expressions as: je pense que, je crois que, etc.

Steady turns of this kind contribute to the syntagmatic dissection of speech: in the course of presentation, they contribute to a clear distinction between those provisions that are stated by the author as an established pattern, and provisions that are hypotheses.

In the scientific literature, insertions (such as “personal pronoun or noun in the nominative case + verb in the indicative mood”) are used to:

Refer to the work of several predecessors;

Joke at your observations.

In addition, it should be noted that there is currently a significant reduction in the use of the first person pronoun. Impersonality or indefinitely - personality as a means of expressing generalization is a specific feature of modern French scientific - popular literature.

Thus, whatever the degree of stylistic looseness of certain genres of scientific prose, the use of elements of colloquial speech in them is always subject to a consistent organization of linguistic material in connection with the goals of functional use.

III. Lexico-grammatical features of a popular science text, on the example of texts from the French popular science magazine “Science et Avenir”.

Based on the definition of text, it can be established that all articles are text, since they have its leading features:

These are works of the speech-creative process. They have perfection. Objectified in the form of a written document and literary processed in accordance with the type of this document. Consists of the title (“L`ultime du quark dйtйctе?”, “Cyberflycs contre pirates informatiques”, “Hypnose l'heure du veritе”, “Le temps yastique des galaxies”, “Une autoroute еlectronique dans l'espace”) and a series special units (super-phrasal units) united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connection. It has a certain focus and a pragmatic attitude.

All texts are characterized by the following parameters:

Syntactic, determined by the relationship of parts of the text;

Schemantic, reflecting the global meaning of the text, defining semantic parts.

Based on the analysis of the above texts, we can conclude the following: the main stylistic feature of a popular science text is an accurate and clear presentation of the material with the almost complete absence of all those expressive elements that give speech emotional richness, the main emphasis is on logical, and not on emotional - the sensual side of the presentation. The author of a popular science article seeks to exclude the possibility of arbitrary interpretation of the essence of the subject being presented, as a result of which in popular science literature there are almost no expressive means such as metaphors, metonymy and other stylistic figures that are widely used in works of art to give speech of a lively, figurative nature, for example, a fragment of a popular science text:

“... Depuis 1619, la mécanique celíste est formelle: Keppler, qui en a formulé les trois lois essentielles sur la base de traveaux de Newton, assure, que l`orbite elliptique d`un satellite est parcourue d`autant plus vite qu`il se trouve pris de la Terre…”

As can be seen from the example, the authors of scientific works avoid the use of these expressive means, so as not to violate the basic principle of the popular science language - the accuracy and clarity of the presentation of thought. This leads to the fact that the scientific and technical text seems somewhat dry, devoid of elements of emotional coloring. Only sometimes the authors of popular science articles resort to the use of expressive means inherent in fiction in order to emphasize the commonness or sign of a phenomenon or object. This technique allows you to avoid excessive dryness of the stated scientific - popular text, giving the text some elements of emotional coloring:

“…Bёtien du “hacking”, etudiant justement les ritueles de la DAO, je me retrouve brutalement accusé de délinquence informatique!”.

Also, it should be noted that for all its stylistic remoteness from the living spoken language, rich in a variety of expressive means, the scientifically popular text still includes a number of combinations of a technical nature that are more or less neutral in color, for example:

De plein traction - full traction
Réseau and haute tension - a high voltage network.

An analysis of the language of scientific prose shows that the vocabulary of a modern popular science text consists of the following categories of lexical units:

Words of the general literary language in the meaning adopted in the general literary language. These are primarily function words: prepositions - dans, a, de, avec, etc.; unions - lequel, que, parce que, ou, etc.; pronouns - ce, cette, etc.. Words of the general literary language, which are used in a scientific text, as a rule, in a narrow, special meaning. These are words such as ktre, avoir, pouvoir, etc. Words characteristic of scientific texts, and only occasionally used in non-scientific texts as borrowings, for example: Analiser, classifiquer, élément, systime. Symbols, histograms, diagrams, mathematical expressions and other types of non-verbal scientific semiotics. Quite a wide use of abbreviations.

For example, consider a piece of text:

“Sans parler de services secrets: dans les affaires de delinquence, la DST, la Stati, le KGB, le FBI, la CIA ou le Mossad sont fréquemment cité..” .

This example clearly shows the frequent use of abbreviations, and the following feature of such use of abbreviations should be noted: nowhere earlier in the text does the author of the article give a decoding of the abbreviations used. This is due to the fact that although the scientifically popular text is designed for the general reader, it is focused on the reader who has an idea about the topic of the article, and therefore is familiar with the most commonly used abbreviations adopted in this field of knowledge.

From the point of view of grammatical phenomena, a popular scientific text is characterized by the following features:

The use of the definite article in the singular as a generalizing element:

“La sécurité des systimes éléctroniques ne dépend pas seulement de la technique…”

In popular science texts, the most general concepts are often concretized in constructions that have the meaning of time or date (for example, “la science du XX siècle”). The same meaning can be conveyed by phrases, which consist of the name of a general concept and its temporary sign: la recherche actuelle.

The popular scientific text is almost completely devoid of expressive coloring, therefore, in the French popular scientific text, such moods as Subjonctif and Conditionel are very rare. But the tenses of the indicative mood are widely used: Present, Pass composé, Pass simple and Plus - que - parfait.

So, after conducting a comparative analysis of French scientific - popular texts, it is necessary to summarize all the distinctive and identical features of these texts in relation to literary texts:

All the studied articles are texts, according to the definition of the text, and have all the leading features of the text, namely: completeness, literary processing, according to the type of this genre, have headings, are united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connection and have a certain focus; all texts have basic linguistic parameters: topic, focus, connection; In all the analyzed texts, there is a wide use of the main informative unit of the scientific text - the term.

It should be noted the following dependence of the amount of terminology used on the subject of the text: the largest amount of terminology, among all the texts reviewed, includes texts related to topics related to information technology (about 64% of special terminology, of which about 48% is borrowed vocabulary.).

In the same way, all the texts reviewed can be characterized, depending on the subject: (percentages are approximate)

Subject

Speech is a channel for the development of intellect,
the sooner the language is learned,
the easier and more complete the knowledge will be assimilated.

Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin,
Soviet linguist and psychologist

Speech is conceived by us as an abstract category, inaccessible to direct perception. Meanwhile, this is the most important indicator of a person’s culture, his intellect and, a way of knowing the complex relationships of nature, things, society and transmitting this information through communication.

Obviously, both learning and already using something, we make mistakes due to inability or ignorance. And speech, like other types of human activity (in which language is an important component), is no exception in this respect. All people make mistakes, both in and in oral speech. Moreover, the concept of speech culture, as an idea of ​​"", is inextricably linked with the concept of a speech error. In fact, these are parts of one process, which means that, striving for perfection, we must be able to recognize speech errors and eradicate them.

Types of speech errors

First, let's look at what speech errors are. Speech errors are any cases of deviation from the current language norms. Without their knowledge, a person can live normally, work and communicate with others. But the effectiveness of the actions taken in certain cases may suffer. In this regard, there is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. And in situations where our personal success depends on it, this is unacceptable.

The author of the classification of speech errors below is Doctor of Philology Yu. V. Fomenko. Its division, in our opinion, is the simplest, devoid of academic pretentiousness and, as a result, understandable even to those who do not have a special education.

Types of speech errors:

Examples and causes of speech errors

S. N. Zeitlin writes: “The complexity of the mechanism for generating speech acts as a factor contributing to the occurrence of speech errors.” Let's consider special cases, based on the classification of types of speech errors proposed above.

Pronunciation errors

Pronunciation or pronunciation errors occur as a result of violation of the rules of orthoepy. In other words, the reason lies in the incorrect pronunciation of sounds, sound combinations, individual grammatical structures and borrowed words. They also include accentological errors - violation of the norms of stress. Examples:

Pronunciation: “of course” (and not “of course”), “poshti” (“almost”), “plot” (“pays”), “precedent” (“precedent”), “iliktric” (“electric”), “colidor” (“corridor”), “laboratory” (“laboratory”), “thousand” (“thousand”), “right now” (“now”).

stress: “calls”, “dialogue”, “contract”, “catalog”, “overpass”, “alcohol”, “beetroot”, “phenomenon”, “chauffeur”, “expert”.

Lexical errors

Lexical errors - violation of the rules of vocabulary, first of all - the use of words in unusual meanings, distortion of the morphemic form of words and the rules of semantic agreement. They are of several types.

The use of a word in an unusual sense. This is the most common lexical speech error. Within this type, there are three subtypes:

• Mixing words that are close in meaning: "He read the book back."
• Mixing words that sound similar: excavator - escalator, ear - colossus, Indian - turkey, single - ordinary.
• Mixing words that are similar in meaning and sound: subscriber - subscription, addressee - addressee, diplomat - diplomat, well-fed - well-fed, ignorant - ignorant. "Cashier for business trips" (necessary - seconded).

word writing. Error examples: Georgian, heroism, underground workers, winder.

Violation of the rules of semantic agreement of words. Semantic agreement is the mutual adaptation of words along the line of their real meanings. For example, you cannot say: I raise this toast", since "raise" means "move", which is not consistent with the wish. “Through the door wide open” is a speech error, because the door cannot be both ajar (slightly open) and wide open (wide open) at the same time.

This also includes pleonasms and tautologies. Pleonasm is a phrase in which the meaning of one component is entirely included in the meaning of another. Examples: “May month”, “traffic route”, “address of residence”, “huge metropolis”, “to be on time”. A tautology is a phrase whose members have the same root: “The task was set”, “One public organization acted as the organizer”, “I wish you long creative longevity”.

Phraseological errors

Phraseological errors occur when the form of phraseological units is distorted or they are used in an unusual meaning. Yu. V. Fomenko distinguishes 7 varieties:

• Changing the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “While the essence and the case” instead of “While the court and the case”;
• Truncation of a phraseological unit: “It was just right for him to hit the wall” (phraseologism: “hit his head against the wall”);
• Expansion of the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “You turned to the wrong address” (phraseologism: contact the address);
• Distortion of the grammatical form of a phraseological unit: "I can't stand to sit with my hands folded." Correct: "difficult";
• Contamination (association) of phraseological units: “You can’t do everything idly by” (a combination of phraseological units “sleeveless” and “idly folded”);
• The combination of pleonasm and phraseological unit: "A random stray bullet";
• The use of phraseological units in an unusual meaning: "Today we're going to talk about the film from cover to cover."

Morphological errors

Morphological errors are the incorrect formation of word forms. Examples of such speech errors: “reserved seat”, “shoes”, “towels”, “cheaper”, “one and a half hundred kilometers”.

Syntax errors

Syntax errors are associated with a violation of the rules of syntax - the construction of sentences, the rules for combining words. There are a lot of varieties of them, so we will give only a few examples.

• Wrong match: “There are a lot of books in the closet”;
• Mismanagement: "Pay for the fare";
• Syntactic ambiguity: "Reading Mayakovsky made a strong impression"(did Mayakovsky read or did you read Mayakovsky's works?);
• Structural displacement: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention.” Correct: “The first thing I ask you is attention”;
• Extra correlative word in the main sentence: "We were looking at those stars that dotted the whole sky."

Spelling mistakes

This type of error occurs due to ignorance of the rules of spelling, hyphenation, abbreviation of words. characteristic of speech. For example: “The dog barked”, “sit on chairs”, “come to the railway station”, “Russian. language", "gram. mistake".

Punctuation errors

Punctuation errors - incorrect use of punctuation marks with.

Stylistic mistakes

We devoted a separate topic to this topic.

Ways to correct and prevent speech errors

How to prevent speech errors? Your speech work should include:

1. Reading fiction.
2. Visiting theaters, museums, exhibitions.
3. Communication with educated people.
4. Constant work on improving the culture of speech.

Online course "Russian language"

Speech errors are one of the most problematic topics that receive little attention in school. There are not so many topics in the Russian language in which people most often make mistakes - about 20. We decided to devote the course "" to these topics. In the classroom, you will get the opportunity to work out the skill of competent writing using a special system of multiple distributed repetitions of the material through simple exercises and special memorization techniques.

Sources

• Bezzubov A. N. Introduction to literary editing. - St. Petersburg, 1997.
• Savko I. E. Basic speech and grammatical errors
• Sergeeva N. M. Speech, grammatical, ethical, factual errors ...
• Fomenko Yu. V. Types of speech errors. - Novosibirsk: NGPU, 1994.
• Zeitlin S. N. Speech errors and their prevention. – M.: Enlightenment, 1982.

Terminological minimum : text, text linguistics, text theory, text (speech and thought) activity, informativeness, cohesion, superphrasal unity, sentence, paragraph.

The term "text" in scientific research in recent years is one of the most controversial: considering that the text can be considered from the point of view of the information contained in it (the text is, first of all, informational unity); from the point of view of the psychology of its creation, as a creative act of the author, caused by a specific goal (the text is a product of the subject's verbal and mental activity); from a pragmatic standpoint (a text is a material for perception, interpretation); Finally, one can characterize the text in terms of its structure, speech organization, and style.

Traditionally, in linguistics, the term “text” (lat. textus - fabric, plexus, structure; coherent presentation) denotes not only a written, fixed one way or another text, but also any “speech work” created by someone of any length - from a one-word replica to whole story, poem or book.

Text as a phenomenon of linguistic and extralinguistic reality is a complex phenomenon that performs a wide variety of functions: it is a means of communication, a way of storing and transmitting information, a reflection of the mental life of an individual, a product of a certain historical era, a form of existence of culture, a reflection of certain socio-cultural traditions, etc.

When creating any text, of course, the practical activity of people is fundamental (extralinguistic factors that determine the set of linguistic means that are adequate to a certain area of ​​communication). The text, demonstrating the use of various morphological-syntactic and lexical-grammatical structures in their natural environment, acts as a sample of speech (monologic and dialogic), thereby serving as the basis for constructing an independent statement.

The linguistic theory of the text has its roots in rhetoric and philology. The text is the subject of study of text linguistics. Text linguistics is a science that studies language in action, looking for general patterns of use. The task of text linguistics is to find and build a system of grammatical categories of text with meaningful and formal units of this particular sphere. It differs from the structural analysis of the text, which builds a list of patterns based on a given material (corpus of texts), and text linguist tries to find text-forming patterns inherent in all texts.

In linguistics, the text is usually understood as "a coherent sequence, complete and well-formed". This highlights several aspects of the study of the text. Structural analysis of the text deals with the problem of the structural organization of the text, the problem of highlighting text units and their features. The functional or pragmatic aspect considers text units in their functioning in speech. The grammar of the text focuses on the construction of grammatically correct units and the study of the conditions for compliance with code norms. The stylistic aspect takes into account the dependence of text units on style, revealing its characteristic features. There are other, less developed, aspects of text research, borrowed from logic, semiotics, philosophy, psychology, psycholinguistics, and other sciences.

Consider a number of the most common definitions and understandings of the text today:

1. The text is:

• a sequence of sentences, words (in semiotics - signs), built according to the rules of a given language, a given sign system and forming a message.
• verbal work; in fiction - a finished work or a fragment of it, composed of natural language signs (words) and complex aesthetic signs (components of poetic language, plot, composition, etc.).

2. Text is:

3. Text is:

4. Text is:

10. Text is:

The linguistic expression of complex spiritual activity or complex thinking;

What is created for the purpose of further transmission to others (communications) or to oneself after a certain period of time;

• what is created on the basis of knowledge that is acquired in the process of learning, social and professional communication in a certain historical period;
• something that is built with the help of certain linguistic means in oral or written form as a result of mental and linguistic activity in the presence of a certain need, motivation, intention, taking into account possible conditions of perception.

Summarizing most of the definitions of the concept of "text", it is necessary to emphasize the dependence of the content of the concept on the aspect of the study:

• semiotically as a verbal sign system (R. Yakobson, Yu. M. Lotman, B. Ya. Uspensky, etc.);
• discursively in the characteristics of interdisciplinary areas of knowledge (E. Benveniste, T. van Dijk, early R. Barth, etc.);
• linguistically in the system of functional significances of language units (V. V. Vinogradov, G. O. Vinokur, V. P. Grigoriev, G. Ya. Solganik, L. A. Novikov, N. A. Kozhevnikov, etc.);

Speech-effective within the framework of a pragmatic situation (J. Austin, J. Searle, M. M. Bakhtin, N. D. Arutyunova, etc.);

• post-structuralist in the unity of the spheres of philosophical, literary criticism, sociolinguistic, historical knowledge (J. Derrida and others);
• deconstructivist as an analysis of the text in terms of "cultural intertext" of a literary, linguistic, philosophical and anthropological nature (J. Deleuze, Yu. Kristeva, R. Bart, etc.);
• narratologically within the framework of the theory of narration as an active dialogic interaction between the writer and the reader (V. Propp, V. Shklovsky, B. Eichenbaum, M. M. Bakhtin, P. Lubbock, N. Friedman, E. Laibfried, V. Fueger, etc.) ;
• psycholinguistically as a dynamic system of speech formation and its perception (L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, N. I. Zhinkin, T. M. Dridze, A. A. Leontiev, etc.);

Psychophysiologically, as a multidimensional phenomenon that implements the psychology of the author in a certain literary form by linguistic means (E. I. Dibrova, N. A. Semenova, S. I. Filippova, etc.), etc.

In addition, there is a classification of the interpretation of the concept of "text" according to the concepts, according to which they distinguish:

1. Concepts of the static aspect, reflecting the resultant-static view. The text is understood as information alienated from the sender, as the only form in which the language is given to us in direct observation.
2. Concepts of the aspect of the processuality of the text, taking into account the ability of the language to live functioning in speech.

3) Communicative concepts that focus on the act of communication, which implies the presence of a sender and a recipient.

4) Stratification concepts that consider the text as a level of the language system.

Thus, the text can be considered as a certain model of a complex complete whole and as a specific implementation of this model, depending on the task of the study.

T. M. Nikolaeva notes: “In the modern interpretation of the text, the main tasks are communication, which provides an unambiguous interpretation of the units of the created text.” In this case, the text is interpreted as a set of statements in their function and, accordingly, as a socio-communicative unit.

Consequently, the basic unit of speech, expressing a complete statement, is the text. Specific texts are based on the general principles of their construction, related to the system of language and to the linguistic competence of the author. The text is not only a unit of speech, but also a unit of language. The main linguistic sign is the text, which consists of a finite ordered set of partial signs. The text is by its nature finite, therefore, it is visible and systematic.

In the modern interpretation of the text, issues of a communicative nature are brought to the fore, i.e. tasks of analyzing the conditions of rational (justified) communication, which provides an unambiguous interpretation of the units of the created text.

All the currently existing linguistic diversity is only a reflection of the images and figurative systems stored in the memory and reflected in the consciousness of the individual. The image, additionally endowed with moral, ethical or aesthetic content, acquires a symbolic meaning in the minds of native speakers.

The text is interpreted as a set of statements in their function and, accordingly, as a socio-communicative unit. Being the most important element of the culture of any society, the language functioning in it directly affects the social processes taking place in its “context”.

There are a number of similar attempts to classify texts in order to highlight categories that characterize the essence of the text and allow us to reduce the entire variety of texts to a finite, observable set of basic types.

The most significant classifications include:

1. By the nature of the construction (from the 1st, 2nd or 3rd person).
2. By the nature of the transmission of someone else's speech (direct, indirect, improperly direct).
3. By participation in the speech of one, two or more participants (monologue, dialogue, polylogue).
4. According to the functional and semantic purpose (functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning, etc.).
5. By the type of connection between sentences (texts with chain connections, with parallel, with adjuncts).
6. According to the functions of the language and on an extralinguistic basis, functional styles are distinguished - a functional-stylistic typology of texts.

E. Werlich proposed a typology of texts depending on the structural foundations of the text, that is, the initial structures that can be deployed through successive "chains" (language means, sentences) into the text.

text

text type

text form

text form option

specific text

Equally important is taking into account the provisions of the theory of autopoiesis or autopoiesis (this theory was proposed by two Chilean neurobiologists Umberto R. Maturana and Francisco Varela; the term "autopoiesis" itself was introduced by U.-R. Maturana): the definition of life and at the same time death, in the sense of completing the process production and reproduction characteristic of the autopoietic system. Social systems are autopoietic systems, that is, systems constructed in such a way that they are capable, with the help of the components of which they are composed, to produce and reproduce everything contained in them - processes, structures, elements. Then death, or the disappearance of the system, is precisely the completion of the process of production and reproduction. When communication does not entail another communication, when a question is not followed by an answer, when a certain text becomes the last one, and so on, then a certain system of communication has reached its final point.

Nevertheless, in the linguistic tradition there are two stable text interpretation trends as a linear sequence of sentences and as a hierarchical formation with deep or global connectivity.

An attempt to combine these trends and describe text units as consisting of surface and deep structures is the concept of N. Chomsky. Such a representation is based on fixing a formal, grammatical plan behind the surface structure of the sentence, and a meaningful, semantic one behind the deep structure: “the sentence is realized as a physical signal, in thinking a system of judgments is formed that expresses the meaning of the sentence; this physical signal and the system of judgments are connected by formal operations, which N. Chomsky calls transformations.

As part of first trend, considering the text as a linear sequence of sentences, the main characteristic of the text is its coherence, or coherence, which is understood as the semantic connection of sentences. This is primarily the grammatical coherence of sentences. Semantic, logical, etc. connectivity is carried out at the cognitive level and, therefore, represents the deep structures of the text, which correlates with such a characteristic as integrity.

Second trend represented by research within the framework of text linguistics. Its representatives R. Harweg, T. van Dijk, V. Kinch and others, speaking about the integrity of the text, about the global coherence of discourse (“a coherent text in combination with extralinguistic - pragmatic, socio-cultural, psychological and other factors”), note, that it is provided by its macrostructure, which is understood as the conceptual global meaning attributed to discourse. T. van Dijk gives the following example of the global connectivity of the discourse of the news genre: “If we say that the text of the news is about the US attack on Libya, we correlate this message ... with the entire text as a whole ... Scenarios allow us to reduce sequences of propositions, like U.S. planes flew to Libya. They bombed the harbor of BenghasL/US planes raided Libya. They bombed the port of Benghazi... to such a macro proposition or topic as: The U.S. attacked Libya - The US attacked Libya because we know that an attack can be made by planes, that normally planes can fly and drop bombs, that dropping bombs is one way to attack. Given the same scenario, an air attack, we are able to understand a newspaper report about such an attack and attribute to them a global connection or a global topic or topic. Unlike local "connectivity, which is "defined in terms of relations between propositions expressed by neighboring sentences", global connectivity (global coherence, integrity) "is of a more general nature and characterizes the discourse as a whole."

There is an opinion that the text has one more property - integrativity. This point of view is based on the system-structural consideration of the text. Ilya Romanovich Galperin(1905-1984) indicates that integration provides "comprehension of content-factual information, leading the reader to the disclosure of content-conceptual information." It is this content-conceptual information, “partially contained in separate segments of the text” that is the main condition for the integration process. Integration is recognized as both a process and a result. “By linking separate superphrasal units (paragraphs, chapters, chapters, etc.) into a single whole, it neutralizes the relative auto-semantics of these parts and subordinates them to the general content of the work. Integration is an integral category of the text and is given by its very system.

I. R. Galperin shares cohesion and integration, since they are different in terms of form and means of expression. "Cohesion is a form of communication - grammatical, semantic, lexical - between separate parts of the text, which determine the transition from one concrete-variative articulation of the text to another." Integration is "the unification of all parts of the text in order to achieve its integrity." Summing up, the researcher notes that cohesion is a category of a logical plan, realized in a syntagmatic context, and integration is a psychological one, reflecting paradigmatic connections.

I. R. Galperin gives an example that characterizes, in his opinion, the essence of integration, using the enumeration of all the turns with which the paragraphs of one of the scientific articles begin: “The first position ..., from the observance of the principle ... the need arose ..., It is true that ..., This means that ..., the connection with this follows ..., It follows from this ..., It also seems to us ... ". This example shows that, first of all, the formal connection of parts of the text, namely paragraphs, is emphasized, which is not related to the global coherence or integrity of the text.

I. R. Galperin also considers the problem of the relationship between integration and completeness of the text. Rejecting the idea that the text cannot be complete, the researcher argues that the picture of the world, having the property of dynamism, can be perceived discretely, which requires abstracting from the process and focusing on the consideration of the segment "movement in all its characteristic features, its forms , its connections, the orientation of its components.

Considering the linguistic aspect of studying the text, it is necessary to present the trends in highlighting the essential characteristics of the text and pose the problem of the structural organization of the text, i.e. the problem of identifying its units.

Each text is built on the principle of introducing semantically and syntactically complete lower-level structures into higher-level structures. The question of the structural units of the text has not yet been resolved. They can be complex syntactic whole, superphrasal unity, stanza, paragraph and etc.

Supra-phrasal unity (complex syntactic whole, microtext, period) is defined as follows: “a segment of speech in the form of a sequence of two or more independent sentences united by a common topic into semantic blocks” . Supra-phrasal unity consists of a question and an answer, a premise and a conclusion, a description of an object, a brief announcement, a newspaper article, a telegram, a quote, etc. According to researchers who single out superphrasal unity, this allows the transition from the syntax of a sentence to the syntax of the whole text.

An example is the portrait description of a character in a literary text: “The sisters looked alike, but Vanya’s frank bulldog heaviness of the elder’s face was only slightly outlined, and was different, and, as it were, gave significance and originality to the overall beauty of her face. The sisters also had similar eyes, black-brown, slightly asymmetrical, slightly slanted, with funny folds on the dark eyelids. Vanya's eyes were even more velvety and, unlike her sister's, somewhat short-sighted, as if their beauty made them not quite suitable for consumption. Both were dark-haired and wore the same hairstyles, a parting in the middle and a large, tight knot low at the back of their heads. But the eldest's hair did not lie with such heavenly smoothness, they were deprived of a precious ebb ... ”(V. Nabokov). The portrait description is characterized by a concentration of attributive and adverbial constructions (bulldog heaviness of the face, black-brown, slightly asymmetrical, slightly slanting eyes); characteristic is the predominance of the same type of communicative sentence structure: given - new; a single temporal plan of description: imperfect: the use of static and state verbs as predicates (to be, to resemble, to lie, to give); the predominance of nouns of concrete-subject semantics and their use in direct nominative meaning (sister, face, eyes, hairstyle, hair); the predominant use of a parallel connection between sentences, etc.

Some researchers consider superphrasal unity as a speech unit that combines several sentences, others - as a fragment of a text that combines units of a different level than a sentence. In singling out the super-phrasal unity as a structural unit of the text, a contradiction is revealed, because in the approval of such features as the commonality of the topic and the unity in semantic blocks, a semantic, logical approach to this formation is seen. The linking of the superphrasal unity with the pragmatic setting of the text allows us to speak of a functional approach. In view of this, it is not productive to limit the study of superphrasal unity to a system-structural aspect.

Paragraph is also recognized as a unit of text. In the history of linguistics, a paragraph was considered either a syntactic, or a stylistic, or a logical category, not associated with a linguistic form.

So, based on the fact that the main function of the paragraph is determined by "the need for emphasis, semantic underlining". L. M. Loseva considers this category not syntactic, but semantic-stylistic. In addition, the paragraph's lack of its grammatical form is emphasized; various syntactic units of speech can act in this function.

Despite the discrepancies in the allocation of a unit of text, all linguists traditionally recognize the minimum independent unit offer , which in a broad sense is) “any - from a detailed syntactic construction (in a written text from point to point) to a single word or word form - a statement (phrase) that is a message about something and is designed for auditory (in pronunciation) or visual (in writing) perception".

One can speak about the proper linguistic analysis of the text only in relation to the sentence. Possessing specific categories of predicativity and modality, it differs from all other linguistic units of the language, but does not go beyond the consideration of the text from a system-structural position.

However, the system-structural consideration of the whole text and its parts does not exhaust the essential features of the text as a whole, since the text is not characterized solely by the grammatical structure: the ways of representing the coherence, integrity, unity of the text can be different in nature, not only grammatical, but also semantic, logical, psychological.

Considering the text as an activity category, i.e. as a process and result of an individual's activity, the irrelevance of highlighting the numerous aspects of studying a text becomes obvious. A text as a representation of a conceptual system by means of a linguistic conventional sign system inevitably captures connections and relationships of various nature: semantic, semantic, logical, mental, associative, emotional, etc. Actualization in the individual's conceptual system of any kind of relationship with the help of text leads to the actualization of all other types of relationships. Therefore, the essence of the text is to fix the semantic, conceptual integrity of the information presented.

Literature

1. Van Dijk T. A. Language, knowledge, communication. - M., 1989.
2. Galperin I.R. Integration and completeness of the text // Izv. Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Ser. lit. and yaz. - 1980. - No. 6. - S. 512-520.
3. Galperin I. R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M., 1981.
4. Domashnev A. I. and others. Interpretation of a literary text. - M., 1989.
5. Kozhina MN Stylistics of the text in the aspect of the communicative theory of language // Stylistics of the text in the communicative aspect. - Perm, 1987. - S. 4-23.
6. Kolshansky GV From the sentence to the text // The essence, development and functions of the language. - M., 1987. - S. 6-18.
7. Levkovskaya N.A. What is the difference between superphrasal unity and a paragraph // Philological Sciences. - 1980. - No. 1.
8. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1990.
9. Loseva L.M. To the study of interphrase communication // Russian language at school. - 1967. - No. 1. - S. 89-94.
10. Lukin V. A. Artistic text: Fundamentals of linguistic theory and elements of analysis. - M., 1999.
11. Maslov P. A. Problems of linguistic analysis of a connected text. - Tallinn, 1975.
12. Moskalskaya O. I. Grammar of the text. - M., 1981.
13. New in foreign linguistics. Issue. VIII. Linguistics of the text. - M., 1978.
14. Odintsov VV Stylistics of the text. - M., 1980.
15. Potapova R. K. Speech: communication, information, cybernetics. - M., 2010.
16. Solganik G. Ya. Stylistics of the text. - M., 1997.
17. Turaeva 3. Ya. Linguistics of the text (Text: structure and semantics). - M., 2009.
18. Fridman L.G. Grammatical problems of text linguistics. - L., 1979.
19. Chomsky N. Language and thinking. - M., 1972.

Tasks for independent work

Exercise 1. Analyze the definitions of the text and identify the approach to studying the text and the essential characteristics of the text.

So, N. S. Valgina considers the text as a dynamic unit of a higher order, as a speech work with signs of coherence and integrity - in informational, structural and communicative terms.

According to the definition of I. R. Galperin, “a text is a work of a speech-creative process that has completeness, objectified in the form of a written document, literary processed in accordance with the type of this document, a work consisting of a name (title) and a number of special units (superphrasal units) united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connection, having a certain focus and pragmatic setting.

I. R. Galperin defines the text as follows: “this is a written message, objectified in the form of a written document, consisting of a number of statements united by different types of lexical, grammatical and logical connections, having a certain moral character, a pragmatic attitude and, accordingly, literary processed.”

According to L.P. Vodyasova, the text is a rather complex, diverse and at the same time very interesting phenomenon, which is “a unity united by communicative integrity, semantic completeness, logical, semantic and grammatical connections”.

Text - usually a more significant unit and is described from several points of view: 1. Macro- and micro-themes, macro- and micro-remes are distinguished in the text. 2. Content, linguistic and non-linguistic connectors associated with five global categories are traced. 3. For the correct structuring of the text, aimed at the desire to facilitate the perception of its explicit and implicit meanings by the interlocutor, it is important to distinguish three parts of its model. 4. Several types of information are presented in the text, expressed both by means of grammar, vocabulary, semantics, pragmatics of the message, and in implicit ways: pre-text information (presupposition), supra-linear, near-text, sub-text. Watching them allows you to see the “language in action”.

From the point of view of volume, the text is usually equated to an integral work, which, in turn, can be divided into smaller structural and semantic parts: complex syntactic wholes (CTS) - the term of N. S. Pospelov. They are also called super-phrasal unities (SFU) - the term of L. A. Bulakhovsky. The structural and semantic parts of the text include the Beginning, Development, Ending, as well as blocks of various types, dialogic units, statements.

The text also contains structural and pragmatic parts that are important for a more convenient design of the message by the author: chapters, paragraphs, paragraphs. Note that an FCS can have one or more paragraphs. Works of small volume: poems, short stories (for example, the short story by I. A. Bunin, which occupies half a page - “Night”), being a text, can be equal to one STS and be divided into its parts and statements.

So, text, like a statement, is realized in the process of communication, but by the term "text" we mean both a separate statement, and a complex syntactic whole (STS), and a complete work. The statement is more like a sentence.

Units of text and units of text analysis are different concepts. Under the units of the text we will agree to understand its constituent elements in the dialectical unity of their form and content, corresponding to certain levels of its organization, connected by hierarchical relations; units of text analysis - conditionally distinguished parts of the text of any length, determined by the aspect of the study, its goals and objectives.

The coincidence of text units and text analysis units is not ruled out. So, line and stanza one researcher referred to "speech text units" (Chernukhina), others - to units of analysis (Kupina); paragraph considered by I. R. Galperin as a unit of text, and N. A. Kupina - as a unit of text analysis.

The theory of text division is under development.<…>

Due to the wide distribution of a narrow interpretation of the text, more often as its units are considered statement(A. A. Shakhmatov, G. V. Kolshansky and others) or offer(G. Ya. Solganik). Along with this, among the text units are called superphrasal unity(I. R. Galperin, T. M. Nikolaeva, O. I. Moskalskaya, etc.), paragraph(S. G. Ilyenko), complex syntactic integer(I. R. Galperin, N. D. Zarubina, G. A. Zolotova, L. M. Loseva, S. G. Ilyenko, O. I. Moskalskaya, etc.).

As "intermediate links of units" G. Ya. Solganik singles out prose stanza, fragment(it is interpreted as "a large semantic-syntactic, speech unit"), chapter, part. G. A. Zolotova considers speech blocks pictorial and informative registers as constitutive units of the text.<…>

All considered points of view are united by the desire to give a unit of text greater communicative certainty, and some express the desire of researchers to name as a unit of text the one that reflects in miniature its main properties. In this regard, the widespread recognition complex syntactic whole as the main unit of the text, since it has integrity, coherence, relative semantic completeness.

Task 2. Which of the following groups of sentences can be converted to text and why? Compose the text by choosing the desired sequence of sentences.

1. And only one visit to one tribe per year - so that the authentic culture of the savages does not fall under the pressure of the benefits of civilization.
2. No costumed shows - only real pygmy tribute tribes, Kombai, Korowai, Yali, Asmaty, Eipomek, painted with natural colors, dressed in leaf skirts.
3. The Indonesian government very rarely issues permits to visit the wild tribes of New Guinea.
4. To make your dream come true, you need to join a whole team of daredevils.
5. It is impossible to explore these areas on your own, but Christian missions helping the tribes take on board several expeditions a year.

1. One of the cars, driven by race debutant Kyle Larson, was in the air and crashed into a fence that was blocking the track from spectators.
2. The front of the car was destroyed and its wreckage fell on spectators.
3. The car racer crashed into a truck parked at the airport.
4. Several cars collided on the finish lap after Reagan Smith, who was in first, attempted to block defending Sprint Cup Series champion Brad Keselowski.

This issue is usually considered in the linguistic literature in a broad sense. The relationship of logical and grammatical categories and the relationship<355>judgments and propositions are most often studied as a single problem 5 9 . It seems more appropriate, however, to consider them separately, since there is a certain difference between them. It suffices to point out the fact that in the problem of relations between judgment and sentence, in contrast to the problem of the relationship between logical and grammatical categories, we are dealing with complex, complex formations, which naturally bring to the forefront of scientific research the question of the laws of their construction and the correlation of these laws. .

In the general complex of questions connected with the almost limitless problem of language and thinking, it would be more consistent to first deal with the elucidation of the relationship between logical and grammatical categories. Here, however, some clarifications are needed first.

Perhaps it would be more correct to formulate this question in a slightly different way and talk about the relationship between logical concepts and grammatical meanings. In any case, it is the concept and meaning that should be the starting points of the study. Just like concepts, grammatical meanings can be very diverse, and it would be wrong to say, as is often done, that they express only relations. M. I. Steblin-Kamensky rightly notes that grammatical meanings are diverse “primarily in their content. The meaning of a case, for example, - one of the most common grammatical meanings - has as its content one or another relationship between words, or, more precisely, between what the word in this case means and what another word means. Other grammatical meanings have completely different relations for their content. The voice, for example, expresses certain relations of the action to its subject or object, while the mood expresses certain relations of the action to reality. The grammatical meaning, which is called the "definiteness" and "indefiniteness" of a noun, has as its content a certain relation between the meaning of the word and the action.<356>consistency. An even more complex relation, very conventionally defined as "objectivity in the grammatical sense of the word," etc., is the content of the meaning of a noun as a part of speech. It is doubtful, however, whether in the latter case one can speak of a relation in the proper sense, i.e., a connection between two quantities. Apparently, grammatical meaning does not necessarily have this or that relation in the proper sense as its content. Thus, the verb aspect expresses, obviously, not a relationship or connection between two quantities, but some sign inherent in the action (instantaneity, completeness, etc.). In the same way, the number of a noun expresses, in essence, not a relation, but a certain sign (plurality) inherent in objects” 6 0 . An interesting work by IP Ivanova 6 1 is devoted specifically to various types of grammatical meanings, in which this issue is comprehensively considered.

But for all their possible differences, grammatical meanings have a common quality that separates them from lexical meanings. On a purely linguistic plane, this difference lies in their functions and in the ways of expressing by means of the grammatical structure of the language. The expression of grammatical meanings by certain indicators, which have a systematic character in the language, turns them into grammatical categories. The academic "Grammar of the Russian language" defines the grammatical category as follows: "The general concepts of grammar that determine the nature or type of the structure of the language and find their expression in the change of words and in the combination of words in sentences are usually called grammatical categories" 6 2. Undoubtedly, a more successful and more accurate definition of the grammatical category is given in the mentioned work by I.P. Ivanova: “The concept of grammatical form includes two mandatory elements: grammatical meaning and grammatical indicator. Grammati<357>The logical meaning, expressed by a constant formal indicator assigned to it, is a necessary element of the grammatical form. The totality of forms that convey a homogeneous grammatical meaning constitutes a grammatical category” 6 3 .

On the question of the relationship between grammatical categories (grammatical meanings) and logical concepts, one can find sharply opposite opinions. One point of view, perhaps with the greatest accuracy, was expressed by the English philosopher, historian and economist Stuart Mill. “Let us think for a moment about what grammar is,” he writes. - This is the most elementary part of logic. This is the beginning of the analysis of the thought process. The principles and rules of grammar are the means by which forms of language are adapted to universal forms of thought. Differences between different parts of speech, between cases of names, inclinations and tenses of verbs, functions of particles are differences of thought, not just words... The structure of any sentence is a lesson in logic” 6 4 . One should not think that logicism in grammar died together with K. Becker or F. I. Buslaev. It has always manifested itself in one form or another and quite actively makes itself felt today. An example is the attempt to organize grammar on a logical basis, made by the Danish linguist Viggo Brøndal. He proceeds from the four parts of speech distinguished by Aristotle, rejecting subsequent classifications and, in particular, even those made by the Alexandrians and Roman grammarians. He calls these four parts of speech by new names: relatum (R), descriptum (D), descriptor (d) and relator (r). When a relationship is established between any correlated element and when each element being defined is defined, i.e. when there is a complete set of the indicated parts of speech -RDrd, then the sentence<358>the journey can be considered complete. Between the four parts of speech and logical categories, Bröndal has a strict correspondence: linguistic relatum corresponds to the logical category of substance and finds its most complete expression in proper names; descriptum corresponds to quantity and receives its pure expression in numerals; descriptor is identified with quality and is presented in its pure form in adverbs; finally, relator is equivalent to relation and finds its pure expression in prepositions. Thus, proper names, numerals, adverbs and prepositions are the primary parts of speech of all languages ​​of the world 6 5 . The logical principle gets a different embodiment in the works of A. Sachet, who connects parts of speech with real categories of the external world through representations 6 6 . In his major work, F. Bruno strives, as he himself says, to "a methodological definition of the facts of thinking, considered and classified from the point of view of their relationship to language, as well as the establishment of means of expression corresponding to these facts of thinking" 6 7 . These names, of course, far from exhaust the list of linguists who, in one form or another, rely on the logical principle of interpreting grammatical categories.

Other linguists take a diametrically opposed position on this issue. “Linguistic and logical categories,” writes, for example, G. Steinthal, “are incompatible concepts, they correlate with each other in the same way as the concepts of a circle and red” 6 8 . In another work, he says: “A universal (logical) grammar is no more comprehensible than a universal form of a political constitution or religion, a universal plant or a universal animal form; the only thing that should concern us is to determine what categories actually exist in the language, without starting from ready-made systems.<359>system of categories” 6 9 . And Madwig stressed in every possible way that "grammatical categories have nothing to do with the real relations of things as such" 7 0 . This point of view also has its representatives in modern linguistics, and even to a greater extent than the logistical direction. In fact, all representatives of linguistic behaviorism and American descriptive linguistics adjoin it, striving to do without the semantic side of language (subject to metalinguistics) and concentrating their efforts on describing the external formal structure of language. Modern linguists, who adhere to more or less traditional and by no means extreme views, also oppose any relationship between grammatical categories and logical ones. So, W. Graff writes about this: “The classifications found in the linguistic structure are unconscious and practical, but not logical. They are created and used instinctively, contributing to the organization of linguistic material and creating a convenient system of signs for individual expression and social communication. Grammarians should not seek to postulate any categories and then look for their equivalents in the respective languages... Grammatical and logical classifications usually diverge” 7 1 .

Between these two extreme positions one can find a large number of intermediate positions, even an approximate description of which would take up too much space. Without going into a list of them, let us turn to the evidence of linguistic material in order to find out to what extent it justifies the conclusions of the two points of view described.

Linguists dealing with the question of the relationship between grammatical and logical (based on the generalization of the objects of reality) categories usually point to their divergence. So if you take an offer<360> The sun rises and sets then grammatically it is expressed in the forms of the present tense, but its action can be equally legitimately attributed to the present, and to the past, and to the future tense. We often use the present tense to describe events that happened in the past: I was walking down the street yesterday and I met my friend. The verb forms of the present tense can also be used to describe future actions: Tomorrow I'm going to Leningrad. The difference between grammatical and objective tense is also indicated by the unequal number of tense forms in different languages. In modern English, the verb has 12 tenses (and in Old English there were only 2), in German 6, in Russian 3 (with aspectual modifications), in Arabic 2, and in some languages ​​the verb has no tenses at all (for example, in the language wai, found in Liberia, nta means both "I am going" and "I have been walking" and "I will be going"). In a number of languages, time differences are of a very complicated nature. So, the verb of the Nenets language has two tense forms - one specifically for the past tense and the other for denoting the present, past and future (for example, helmet -"I live", "I lived" and "I will live"). In some languages, tenses are not necessarily associated with the verb. In the Alaskan Eskimo language, ningia- "cold", "frost" has the past form ninglithluk and the future ninglikak: from puvok- "smoke" one can form the past form puyuthluk- "that which was smoke" and the future puyoqkak- "that which will be smoke" - a word used to denote gunpowder 7 2 . In the Hupa language (the language of the American Indians), the suffix neen denotes the past tense and is used both with verbs and with names: xontaneen- “house in ruins (former house)”, xoutneen- “his deceased wife (wife in the past)”, etc. .7 3 .

We find the same inconsistencies in numbers. Using in Russian expression we are with you, you are with your brother, we allow a logical absurdity, since,<361>for example, in the expression we are with you it's not about a lot (we), to which someone else is added (with you), but this we already includes this addition (with you). So-called polite forms of address you (you, your etc.) and archaic they, one also reveal contradictions between the grammatical form and the real content, which leads to violations of grammatical agreement: You are not the same today as yesterday(instead of not like that). Incorrect from a logical point of view and expressions like good wine is made in Georgia, we eat only pike and carp from fish(cf. the so-called "unchangeable" plural in English manyfish and Danish mangefisk "many fish"). Logical irregularities in the grammatical expression of a number manifest themselves in a variety of ways. Compare, for example, such discrepancies as in English the people, Russian. people and German.dieLeute. In the modern Icelandic language, beinirsokkar- “a pair of socks”, there is a peculiar plural of oeinn- “one”. The situation is difficult with the designation of paired objects, for example: glasses - German eineBrille, English apairofspectacles, French unepairedelunettes, Danish, etparbriller. In Hungarian, when Russian is spoken I have weak eyes(pl.), his hands are trembling(plural), nouns are used in the singular; and szemem(sing.)gyenge,reszketakeze(sing.). This use leads to the fact that in relation to one eye or leg, the designation fйl- “half” is introduced: fіlszemmel- “with one eye” (literally “half of the eye”), fіllbbarasbnta- “lame on one leg” (literally “half-leg lame” ).

If we turn to the category of gender, then in this case, direct inconsistencies are found, which can be demonstrated by the following comparisons of examples from Russian, German and French: soldier - derSoldat-lesoldat (natural genus - masculine, grammatical genus - masculine); daughter - dieTochter-lafille (natural gender - female, gram, gender - female), sparrow - derSperling-lecheval (natural gender - female and male, gram, gender - male), mouse - dieMaus-lasouris(natural gender - female and male, gram, gender - female), dasPferd(natural gender - male and female, gram, gender - middle) ;dasWeib(natural gender - female, grammatical gender -<362< средн.);room - dieFrucht-latable(natural gender - no, grammatical gender - feminine), etc. 7 4 .

In every language, a significant number of such logical fallacies and inconsistencies can be found. They give some linguists grounds for accusing the language of being illogical or even illogical. But do examples like the ones above really justify such a conclusion?

A direct comparison of logical and grammatical categories establishes a significant discrepancy between them. This circumstance gives grounds to assert only that grammatical meanings cannot in any way be identified with logical concepts. But does this mean that we must go to the other extreme and deny in general any connection between logical and grammatical categories? If we refuse a straightforward comparison of logical concepts and grammatical meanings (which is necessary only to prove the equivalence of grammatical and logical categories), then such a conclusion is by no means obligatory. Can it be argued that grammatical meanings are completely independent of logical concepts and do not reflect these latter to one degree or another? There are, of course, no grounds for such an assertion. If there is no direct parallelism between concepts and grammatical meanings, then there is no gap between them. Whenever we try to comprehend the essence of grammatical meaning, we inevitably end up with a concept. It is no coincidence that it is so difficult to draw a line of demarcation between grammatical and lexical meaning, and the connection of the latter with the concept is quite obvious.

The dependence of grammatical meanings on concepts was very subtly noticed by O. Jespersen. Having described a number of syntactic categories on the basis of purely grammatical features, he writes further: “We have established all these syntactic concepts and categories, not for a moment going beyond the scope of grammar, but as soon as we ask ourselves what is behind them, we immediately from the realm of language we enter the outside world (of course, in that<363>its form, in which it is reflected in human consciousness) or into the sphere of thought. Thus, many of the categories listed above show an obvious relation to the realm of things: the grammatical category of number corresponds quite clearly to the distinction existing in the external world between "one" and that which is "greater than one"; in order to comprehend various grammatical tenses - the present, the imperfect, etc. - it is necessary to correlate with the objective concept of "time"; the differences of the three grammatical persons correspond to the natural difference between the speaking person, the person to whom the speech is addressed, and the person who is outside the given speech communication. For a number of other categories, their coincidence with objects and phenomena that are outside the language is not so obvious. That is why those scientists who seek to establish such a correspondence so often get hopelessly confused and, for example, believe that the grammatical difference between a noun and an adjective coincides with the difference in the external world between substance and quality, or try to build a "logical" system of cases and moods. The external world reflected in human consciousness is extremely complex and therefore one should not expect that people always find the simplest and most accurate way of designating the myriad phenomena and the whole variety of relations that exist between them, about which they need to communicate to each other. For this reason, the correspondence between grammatical categories and categories of the external world is never complete, and everywhere we find the most unusual and curious interweaving and crossing.

O. Jespersen correctly noticed the dependence of grammatical categories on logical ones (reflecting, as he says, the categories of the external world, that is, the categories of objective reality). But his explanation of the discrepancies between them hardly holds water. According to O. Jespersen, it turns out that the language in the "rush" of communication grabs the first available and more or less suitable way of conveying new content, which may not always be the most successful and<364>relevant to the content being conveyed. Such an explanation leaves the language in the power of blind chance and deprives the processes of its development of any regularity. Language itself appears in this case as a more or less chaotic heap of sometimes successful and sometimes unsuccessful "reflections" of the external world.

In the previous presentation, it has already been repeatedly noted that language represents a structure, the functioning and development of which are subject to strict laws. Therefore, the relations between grammatical and logical categories are not based on a chain of more or less successful or unsuccessful "meetings" of the phenomena of the external world with the language, but on a certain regularity, in a certain sense repeating the one that connects the concept and lexical meaning (see the previous section) .

The definitions of grammatical meaning and grammatical category have been given above. From these definitions it is clear that grammatical meaning does not exist independently, but only as part of a grammatical category, forming its "semantic" aspect. Despite the fact that the grammatical meaning concentrates proper logical elements, on the basis of which it is only possible to correlate it with the objective categories of the "outer world", it is precisely because it exists only as part of the grammatical category as its "inner" side, is a purely linguistic fact, and as such must inevitably differ from the logical.

After all, when, for example, we are dealing with grammatical tenses, we are not confronted with pure concepts of objective tense. The concept of time in this case is only a sub-base on which a proper linguistic phenomenon is developed, when it, as part of the language, acquires the “quality of structure” in the form that is characteristic of the grammatical side of the language. With the help of grammatical forms of time, a sequence of actions in time is transmitted - this is from the concept of objective time. But in the structure of the language, temporary forms perform, along with this, other proper linguistic functions, ordering the linguistic material and being included in the regular relationships that exist within the structure of the language. At the same time, very<365>often they are so closely intertwined with other grammatical categories that the use of one without fail requires agreement with the other. In German, for example, there are three forms of the past tense, which are usually referred to as imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect. Their use is strictly differentiated: the presentation can take place in the forms of the imperfect or the perfect, but this will be accompanied by additional semantic and stylistic distinctions. The area of ​​the imperfect is a consistent narrative that does not contain a statement; the perfect, on the contrary, emphasizes a certain statement, and the scope of its use is colloquial speech, more lively in its intonations, dialogue. The pluperfect is not an independent tense form: it is used to distinguish between a sequence of actions taking place in the past, and is strictly combined only with the imperfect: GeorgdachteanseineBrüder, besondersanseinenkleinsten, denerselbstaufgezogenhatte Georg thought(non-native view) o his brothers, especially the smallest one, whom he himself raised(owl view). In the Russian language, the tense forms of the verb are inseparable from the aspect forms, and when this circumstance is ignored, the laws of the functioning of the structure of the Russian language are violated.

An excellent example of the fact that in the Russian language it is impossible to focus only on one objective temporal reference of events, but it is necessary to take into account their position in the structure of the language, compatibility with other (species) grammatical categories and proper linguistic functions, can serve as the following excerpt from a publication published in Uzhgorod ( in 1931) of the book: “The old man, however, was a good lodger. He paid his wages accurately and behaved honestly in every respect. Once a week a maid came and cleaned up the apartment. The old man dined in the city, but in the evening he prepared breakfast for himself. Otherwise, he was neat and precise, got up in the morning at seven o'clock, and left the apartment at eight o'clock. He spent three hours in the city, but between eleven and one in the afternoon he was always at home, when he often received visitors, however very strange ones. Ladies and gentlemen came, some well dressed, some doubtful.<366>body-like appearance. Sometimes the carriage also stopped at the corner of the street, the gentleman stepped out of it, looked around carefully, then climbed into Barholm's apartment.

As mentioned above, the tense forms of the verb can be used even in the "timeless" (absolute) meaning: We live in Moscow; Light travels faster than sound; The sun rises and sets etc.

Thus, as in the lexical meaning, the concept in the grammatical meaning is processed into a linguistic phenomenon, and, as in the lexical meaning, the "primary" qualities of the concept are used in grammatical categories for proper linguistic purposes. Consequently, in this case, concepts are the initial ones, and grammatical categories are derived from them. “Under these conditions,” writes M. Cohen, “the following becomes quite obvious: concepts are reflected in grammatical systems and reproduced in them to a greater or lesser extent; it is not grammatical systems that determine the emergence of concepts” 7 7 . This statement by M. Cohen is also confirmed by observations on the formation of grammatical categories, some of which undoubtedly go back to lexical phenomena.

The similarities noted between grammatical and lexical meanings should not give rise to a conclusion about their complete equivalence. They cannot be equivalent because lexical and grammatical elements do not perform the same functions in the structure of the language. Even if they have common initial elements (a concept), then, having received “structural qualities” specific to different aspects of the language (lexicon and grammar) and turning into linguistic phenomena of a heterogeneous order, they cannot in any way be identical in their linguistic qualities.

But in lexical and grammatical meanings there are differences of an internal order. As already mentioned, three forces are involved in the birth of lexical meaning: the structure of the language, the concept, and subject correlation.<367>

The concept is in this case, as it were, in a position between the structure of the language and the subject, and, turning into a lexical meaning, is affected from both sides - from the side of the structure of the language and from the side of the subject. Another thing is grammatical meaning. In fact, only two forces are involved here: the structure of the language and the concept, which, although it arose in the world of objects, was then “thought out”, abstracted from them. This circumstance makes the grammatical meaning insensitive to the specific lexical meanings of words that fall under one or another grammatical category. In this case, it is usually said that grammar sets rules not for specific words, but for words in general.