The formation of the Russian centralized state took place in several stages:

• The rise of Moscow - the end of the 13th - beginning of the 11th centuries;
• Moscow is the center of the fight against the Mongol-Tatars (second half of the 11th - first half of the 15th centuries);
• Completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow under Ivan III and Vasily III - the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.

Stage 1. Rise of Moscow. By the end of the 13th century, the old cities of Rostov, Suzdal, and Vladimir were losing importance. The new cities of Moscow and Tver are rising. The rise of Tver began after the death of Alexander Nevsky (1263), when his brother, the Tver prince Yaroslav, received from the Tatars a label for the Great Reign of Vladimir.

The beginning of the rise of Moscow is associated with the name of the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil (1276-1303). Alexander Nevsky distributed honorary inheritances to his eldest sons, and Daniil, as the youngest, inherited the small village of Moscow and its surrounding area on the far border of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Daniil rebuilt Moscow, developed agriculture and started crafts. The territory grew three times and Moscow became a principality, and Daniil was the most authoritative prince in the entire North-East.

Stage 2. Moscow is the center of the fight against the Mongol-Tatars. The strengthening of Moscow continued under the children of Ivan Kalita - Simeon Gordom (1340-1353) and Ivan 2 the Red (1353-1359). This would inevitably lead to a clash with the Tatars. The clash occurred under the grandson of Ivan Kalita, Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389). Dmitry Donskoy received the throne at the age of 9 after the death of his father Ivan 2 the Red. Under the young prince, the position of Moscow was shaken, but he was supported by the powerful Moscow boyars and the head of the Russian church, Metropolitan Alexei. The Metropolitan was able to obtain from the khans that the great reign would henceforth be transferred only to the princes of the Moscow princely house.

This increased the authority of Moscow, and after Dmitry Donskoy built the Kremlin of white stone in Moscow at the age of 17, the authority of the Moscow Principality became even higher. The Moscow Kremlin became the only stone fortress in the entire Russian Northeast. He became unapproachable.

In the mid-14th century, the Horde entered a period of feudal fragmentation. Independent hordes began to emerge from its composition, which waged a fierce struggle for power among themselves. All khans demanded tribute and obedience from Rus'. Tensions arose in relations between Russia and the Horde.

Stage 3. Completion of the formation of the Russian centralized state. The unification of Russian lands was completed under the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan 3 (1462-1505) and Vasily 3 (1505-1533).

Under Ivan 3:

1) Annexation of the entire North-East of Rus'

2) In 1463 - Yaroslavl Principality

3) In 1474 - Rostov Principality

4) After several campaigns in 1478 - the final liquidation of the independence of Novgorod

5) The Mongol - Tatar yoke has been thrown off. In 1476, Rus' refused to pay tribute. Then Khan Akhmat decided to punish Rus' and entered into an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir and set out on a campaign against Moscow with a large army. In 1480, the troops of Ivan 3 and Khan Akhmat met along the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). Akhmat did not dare to cross to the other side. Ivan 3 took a wait-and-see attitude. Help for the Tatars did not come from Casimir, and both sides understood that the battle was pointless. The power of the Tatars dried up, and Rus' was already different. And Khan Akhmat led his troops back to the steppe. This was the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

6) After the overthrow of the yoke, the unification of Russian lands continued at an accelerated pace. In 1485, the independence of the Tver Principality was liquidated.

Under Vasily 3, Pskov (1510) and the Ryazan Principality (1521) were annexed.

The Russian centralized state developed in XIV–XVI centuries

Groups of prerequisites for the formation of a Russian centralized state.

1. Economic background: by the beginning of the 14th century. In Rus', after the Tatar-Mongol invasion, economic life was gradually revived and developed, which became the economic basis for the struggle for unification and independence. Cities were also restored, residents returned to their homes, cultivated the land, engaged in crafts, and established trade relations. Novgorod contributed a lot to this.

2. Social prerequisites: by the end of the 14th century. The economic situation in Rus' has already completely stabilized. Against this background, late feudal characteristics develop, and the dependence of peasants on large landowners increases. At the same time, peasant resistance also increases, which reveals the need for a strong centralized government.

3. Political background, which in turn are divided into internal and foreign policy:

1) internal: in the XIV–XVI centuries. The power of the Moscow Principality increases and expands significantly. Its princes build a state apparatus to strengthen their power;

2) foreign policy: the main foreign policy task of Rus' was the need to overthrow the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which hindered the development of the Russian state. The restoration of the independence of Rus' required universal unification against a single enemy: the Mongols from the south, Lithuania and the Swedes from the west.

One of the political prerequisites for the formation of a unified Russian state was union of the Orthodox Church and the Catholic Western Church, signed by the Byzantine-Constantinople patriarch. Russia became the only Orthodox state that simultaneously united all the principalities of Rus'.

The unification of Rus' took place around Moscow.

The reasons for the rise of Moscow are:

1) favorable geographical and economic position;

2) Moscow was independent in foreign policy, it did not gravitate towards either Lithuania or the Horde, therefore it became the center of the national liberation struggle;

3) support for Moscow from the largest Russian cities (Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, etc.);

4) Moscow is the center of Orthodoxy in Rus';

5) the absence of internal hostility among the princes of the Moscow house.

Features of the association:

1) the unification of Russian lands did not take place under the conditions of late feudalism, as in Europe, but under the conditions of its heyday;

2) the basis for unification in Rus' was the union of Moscow princes, and in Europe - the urban bourgeoisie;

3) Rus' united initially for political reasons, and then for economic ones, while European states united primarily for economic reasons.

The unification of Russian lands took place under the leadership of the Prince of Moscow. He was the first to become Tsar of All Rus'. IN 1478 After the unification of Novgorod and Moscow, Rus' was finally freed from the yoke. In 1485, Tver, Ryazan, etc. joined the Moscow state.

Now the appanage princes were controlled by proteges from Moscow. The Moscow prince becomes the highest judge, he considers especially important cases.

The Principality of Moscow creates a new class for the first time nobles(service people), they were soldiers of the Grand Duke who were awarded land on the terms of service.

21. Formation and strengthening of a centralized service state in the 14th-16th centuries

Unification of Russian lands around Moscow

The formation of a centralized state is an important stage in the development of Russian statehood. The process of centralization took place over two centuries. A state can be considered centralized if there are laws recognized in all its parts, and a management apparatus that ensures the implementation of the laws. The justification for centralization is the idea of ​​national community.

The formation of a centralized state chronologically coincides with the formation of monarchies in a number of Western European countries. In Rus', a special type of feudal society was formed, different from the general European one, with an autocracy at its head and a high degree of exploitation of the peasantry.

The birth of the state took place in civil strife, the struggle with the Golden Horde, the Kazan, Crimean (from the beginning of the 16th), Lithuanian principalities, the Livonian Order, and the Kingdom of Sweden.

The uniqueness of statehood was determined by:

1. The length and openness of easily accessible borders.

2. Confessional isolation of Russian Orthodoxy.

3. The Russian state could become centralized only by throwing off the economic and political dependence of the Horde

The reasons for the formation of a centralized state are not only the need to gain independence of the country, but also:

1. The interest of feudal lords in a centralized apparatus for enslavement.

2. The development of cities dictated an interest in eliminating feudal fragmentation

3. The interest of the peasantry in stabilizing power.

Prerequisites for the formation of a Russian centralized state.

Economic background 1) Emerging local land ownership 2) The need to eliminate customs borders between principalities in order to create favorable conditions for the development of trade 3) Gradual disruption of the naturalness of agricultural production 4) The need to introduce a unified monetary system, common measures of weight, volume and length in order to ensure favorable conditions for development trade 5) Growth and strengthening of cities as trade and craft centers

Political background 1) Preservation by North-Eastern Russia, under the Mongol-Tatar yoke, of its Orthodoxy and statehood 2) The Golden Horde experienced feudal fragmentation from the end of the 14th century.

At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, the Golden Horde broke up into separate khanates: Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian, Crimean and Nogai Horde. 3) The need to fight for national independence 4) The far-sighted policy of the Moscow princes 5) The transformation of Moscow into the religious center of Russian lands as a result of the transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow 6) The transformation of the Moscow principality into a national center that raised the banner of the liberation struggle Social prerequisites 1) The need of the feudal lords for a strong princely power, with an effective administrative apparatus and army to suppress popular uprisings 2) The need of the boyars and free servants for a powerful and rich prince, distributing estates for service 3) The need of the feudal lords to secure workers 4) The need of the townspeople for a strong princely power, capable of overcoming the disunity of Russian lands, providing conditions for the exchange of goods, as well as the independence of the country.

Factors that influenced the process of formation of the centralized Russian state. a) Natural, climatic and economic factors.

Marginal soils

Swidden farming system -> fallow three-field (reduced yield) -> need for communal labor

Consequences:

1) Commodity production developed slowly. The volume of total surplus product was extremely low. And this was of enormous importance for the formation of a certain type of statehood on the territory of the historical core of Russia, forcing the ruling class to create rigid levers of the state mechanism, allowing them to withdraw that share of the surplus product that went to the needs of the development of the state itself, society and the ruling class. This is where the origins of the strict regime of serfdom and the colonization of new territories come from, since it was possible to increase the surplus product only through an increase in the agricultural population and the development of new spaces while maintaining the extensive nature of agriculture.

2)The development of the Russian economy as a predominantly agricultural one led to a slowdown in the process of separation of industry from agriculture, which led to a slowdown in the process of city formation. The economic development of Russian lands was negatively affected by the Tatar-Mongol conquest. The Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the economic life of Rus', to a sharp decline in population, and to the outflow of a significant share of the surplus product to the Horde in the form of tribute, although the Mongols refused to directly include Russian lands in the Golden Horde and did not encroach on the Orthodox faith.

The peculiarities of natural and climatic conditions largely predetermined the peculiarities of the formation of the Russian centralized state.

Unlike the countries of Western Europe, the growth of cities, the development of trade, the formation of a single national market and the formation of economic unity on this basis were not the main reasons for the formation of a centralized state in Rus'.

b) Socio-political factors Centralization is not a spontaneous process carried out by historical subjects.

Land ownership on patrimonial and conditional islands was interspersed in the sea of ​​peasant communities until the end of the 15th century. Black lands predominated in North-Eastern Rus'. Black lands: communal land tenure of peasants with individual ownership of a personal plot and arable land. Relations in the community were regulated through elected peasant volost self-government under the control of representatives of the princely administration - governors and volostels.

In the 14th century the term "peasants" appeared.

Black peasants who lived in communities in villages that did not belong to individual feudal lords paid a tax;

Landowner peasants who lived on allotment lands in the system of feudal estates were dependent on the feudal lord

During the formation of a centralized state, the main form of dependence was field corvée.

The end of the XIII-XIV centuries - the emergence of the need for labor to cultivate appanage lands in the field corvee, the peasants were still free and did not want to work for the landowner. Motivation requires coercive power, namely state power.

Landowners were interested in attracting the agricultural and craft population to their territories, as well as in the development of new lands and colonization. In this sense, the colonization of the population in the North-Eastern lands found support from those who sought to unify the lands and create a unified state power.

Stages of unification (briefly (1) + additions (1.1))

1) (late XIII-80 XIV) economic rise, the struggle between the strongest Russian principalities for the throne (Moscow, Tverskoye, Ryazansk), 1301 - the rise of Moscow, the beginning of unification around it.

Reasons for the rise of Moscow: Vladimir-Suzdal Principality - the center of arable farming and crafts, trade; Favorable geographical location: security, control over river and trade routes, developed economic ties with other principalities; Constant influx of population, growth of villages, settlements, estates; Metropolitan's residence; Active policy of Moscow princes; Patronage of the Horde. Moscow is becoming an economic, political, spiritual, cultural center.

Ivan Kalita(1325-1340). He maintained contacts with the Golden Horde, paid tribute, enlisted its support, and received a label to reign.

Dmitry Ivanovich (1359-1389). Rallying the principalities around Moscow to fight the Golden Horde. The victory of 1380 (Battle of Kulikovo) became possible because the army was all-Russian in territory. and nationwide in composition, the motive of defending the united Russian land determined the victory. Victory value: revival of the national consciousness of Rus', a new ethnic community - Moscow Rus'.

1.1Initial stage of unification(end of the 13th - first half of the 14th centuries)

In North-Eastern Rus', the unification of large feudal centers and the selection of the strongest among them

The main rivals in the struggle for the role of the center: Moscow and Tver

Increase in population due to the influx of peasants and artisans (economic and political rise)

N.B.! The important role of the Horde. To keep Rus' in obedience and draw income from it, centralized power was needed. But a strong prince would be dangerous, and the unity of Rus' under his rule would be a direct threat to the rule of the Horde. The Horde could not allow the strengthening of one prince and constantly interfered in the rivalry between the Moscow and Tver princes. After the reign and struggle of Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky and Mikhail Yaroslavovich Tverskoy, the time has come for Ivan Kalita.

Ivan I Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340) (brother of Yuri, (1328-1340), grandson of Nevsky, laid the foundation of a centralized state and the foundations of the future power of the Moscow state, had an ally in the form of the Orthodox Church).

Main activities - Implementation of two principles: Peace - and - Order.

Expansion of the borders of the Moscow Principality

Purchase of large territories - Galich, Uglich, Beloozero (1328). Annexation of part of the Rostov Principality (1331)

Maintaining good relations with the Horde

Fight with Tver for the label

Participation together with the Horde army in a punitive campaign against Tver (1327)

Obtaining the right to collect tribute from Russian lands and deliver it to the Horde

Close cooperation with the Orthodox Church

Transfer of the center of Russian Orthodoxy from Vladimir to Moscow (from 1328)

Construction of five white stone churches in Moscow (from 1326 to 1333)

Achieved an alliance with Novgorod in 1335. Due to maintaining contact with the Horde, the positions of the Moscow Principality were strengthened.

Semyon Proudy(1340-1353, son of Kalita)

Continuation of the policy of Ivan Kalita

Good relations with the Horde  Possession of a label for a great reign

Carrying out a balanced foreign policy  Absence of military clashes with neighboring principalities

Subordination of Novgorod through the appointment of Moscow governors

Result: Raised the importance of Moscow to the level of an all-Russian capital

IvanIIRed(1353-1359, son of Kalita)

Continuation of the policy of Kalita and Proudy

Possession of a label for a great reign

Beginning of hostilities with Lithuania

Carrying out a peaceful policy towards neighboring principalities

Second half of the 14th century. The North-Eastern lands with the center in Moscow received the name "Great Rus'".

Basis: Moscow’s defeat of its political rivals, the transition from Moscow’s assertion of its political supremacy in Rus' to the state unification of Russian lands around it and the organization of a nationwide struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke.

The reign of Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389). Support of Metropolitan Alexei.

Main policy directions

Unification of the Moscow and Vladimir principalities

The struggle for leadership in Rus'  Confrontation:

With the Horde - the desire to weaken the dependence of the Russian principalities on the Horde

Fight with Mamai

• With Tver - for the label for the great reign, victory

  With Ryazan - regarding disputed territories, victory

The collapse of the Horde-Lithuanian plans to weaken Rus'

Impetus for the further unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow

Creating prerequisites for the liberation of Rus' from the Horde

The Horde recognized the supremacy of Moscow in Rus'.

2) (80 XIV-mid XV). further unification, struggle with the Moscow appanage princes.

The victory of the Moscow Principality under Vasily II was conditioned by an alliance with the Horde and the support of the church. Polit. unification ended under Ivan III(1462-1505) and his son Vasily III (1505-1533). Ivan III managed to unite almost all of Rus'

2.2 Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred to his eldest son Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) in his will the Grand Duchy of Vladimir as the “fatherland” of the Moscow princes, thereby not recognizing the khan’s right to issue a label. The process of merging the Vladimir principality and the Moscow principality was completed. From that moment on, Moscow asserted its role and significance as the territorial and national center of the emerging Russian state. Even under Dmitry Donskoy, Dmitrov, Starodub, Ulich and Kostroma, and vast territories in the Volga region were annexed. At the end of the 14th century. The Nizhny Novgorod principality lost its independence. The attempt of the appanage princes, led by the Galician princes, to stop the liquidation of the orders of feudal fragmentation did not yield results. The defeat of the appanage princes created the conditions for the transition to the final stage of unification.

The main activities of Vasily I

Horde - reconciliation and receiving a label for the great reign

Further growth of the Moscow Principality

3) (2nd half of the 15th - early 16th centuries) formation of a single state. Associated with the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III.

Overthrow of the yoke (from 1476 Ivan III stopped paying tribute), annexation by force of the Novgorod land (1478), the Tver principality (1485), the Pskov Republic. (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan Principality (1521).

The single territory was divided into counties, camps and volosts. In 1497, a legislative collection was put into effect - the Code of Laws, which established the rule for the transfer of peasants from one feudal lord to another, and was the beginning of the legal enslavement of peasants. The Boyar Duma is a council under the Grand Duke. Orders are central government bodies. The Moscow army is a single military body made up of noble landowners. In the process of creating the state, there was a redistribution of land ownership and a change in the structure of the ruling class of feudal lords. The service nobility appeared.

The isolation of Rus' from Western Europe was overcome. Development of culture, use of European experience.

The establishment of sole power, the liquidation of independent principalities, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, the transition from a defensive foreign policy to an offensive one are necessary conditions. The need for unity for survival contributed to the consolidation of the nation and the increase in the prestige of the state. Monarchical power stood above the interests of various classes, therefore it was the most effective state. form for unifying the country.

Ivan III (1462-1505) made a significant contribution to the strengthening of the Russian centralized state. He concentrated power in his hands and was supported by all classes.

With the support of the church, nobility, townspeople, and peasants, Ivan III laid the foundation of the empire and completed the fight against the yoke. Moscow governors in the former princely capitals - Nizhny Novgorod, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Starodub, Beloozero.

In 1478, Ivan III conquered the Novgorod feudal republic. Then Moscow troops conquered the Grand Duchy of Tver. In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown. The ruler of the Golden Horde, Ahmed Khan, entered into an alliance with the Polish king Casimir IV and invaded Russian soil in order to again force the Moscow Grand Duke to pay tribute. The situation was complicated by the outbreak of a rebellion among the appanage princes - the brothers of Ivan III.

"Standing on the Ugra River" - the liberation of the Russian land from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates that grew out of the Golden Horde remained.

Ivan III was helped with advice by Metropolitan Jonah, who took care of him. He opposed the separatist policy of the appanage princes, for the creation of a strong centralized state, for its liberation from the Horde yoke, and against any claims of Lithuania and Poland. Ivan III united almost all of Rus' and became the first actual sovereign of All Rus' since 1485.

Under Ivan III:

Major changes in the structure of land ownership and ruling classes;

The service nobility and local (conditional) land ownership grew significantly;

Army: instead of feudal squads supplied by boyars, the army was staffed by noble militias, noble cavalry, and foot regiments with firearms (arquebuses).

A centralized administration apparatus was formed with the participation of the nobility - the Boyar Duma, the Grand Palace and the Treasury.

The need for labor is growing. A new legislative order is needed.

Judicial reform of Ivan III in 1497 in the form of a special collection of laws "Code Code". Unified all-Russian legislation was introduced. Prohibition of bribes for legal proceedings, establishment of uniform court fees for all types of judicial activities.

According to the Code of Laws, the following were in effect throughout the state:

the court of the Grand Duke and his children, the court of the boyars and okolnichi, the court of governors and volostels (the territory of the country was divided into counties, counties into volosts and camps.

Power in the districts belonged to the princely governors, and in the volosts and camps - to the volostels). The Code of Law established the mandatory presence of a deacon at the boyar court, kissers (court servants, elders) and the best people at the local court.

Some norms of the old law have also been preserved. Thus, complainants could resolve the dispute “in the field,” that is, in a judicial duel with clubs. The judges had to watch so that one did not kill the other.

According to the Code of Laws, the long-standing rule of the transfer of peasants from one owner to another within two weeks of the year has become a nationwide norm. During the single transition period - a week before November 26 and after - the peasant could leave only by paying all debts and “elderly”. The Code of Law prohibited the enslavement of free people into slaves.

Ivan III carried out a calendar reform. Since 1472 (since 7000 from the creation of the world), the New Year began to be celebrated not on March 1, but on September 1.

During the reign of Ivan III, four aspects of Russian foreign policy emerged clearly:

northwestern (Baltic problem)

Western (Lithuanian question)

southern (Crimean)

eastern (Kazan and Nogai).

In accordance with the new political position as sovereign over the united Russian land, Ivan III in official relations called himself “sovereign of all Rus'”, and sometimes “tsar”. The title “sovereign” was associated with the idea of ​​unlimited power; the term “tsar” was previously used in Rus' in relation to the Byzantine emperor and Tatar khan and corresponded to the title “emperor”. Under Ivan, a new coat of arms was adopted in the form of a double-headed eagle. The external expression of continuity with the Byzantine Empire was the “barma” (mantle) and Monomakh’s cap.

The last years of the final stage of the unification of Russian lands occurred at the beginning of the reign of Vasily III (1505-1533). Vasily III was nicknamed "the last gatherer of the Russian land."

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

Vasily III bequeathed the grand-ducal throne to his eldest son Ivan IV (1533-1584)

Grand Duke Vasily III died when his son was three years old. After the death of his mother, Grand Duchess Elena, the country was ruled by the Boyar Duma. Power passed from one boyar group to another. As a result of many years of bloody strife, the relatives of the Grand Duchess, the Glinskys, gained the upper hand.

The uncle of the young Grand Duke Mikhail Glinsky and his grandmother Anna, on the advice and with the help of Metropolitan Macarius, managed to prepare an act of great national importance - the crowning of Ivan. The king received the crown from the hands of the head of the church. This emphasized that the church fully supports and blesses the autocracy, as well as the special place of the church in the state. The Church became the mother of royal power and its guarantor. The coronation took place on January 16, 1547, when young Ivan was 16 years old.

The act of crowning the kingdom did not, however, put an end to boyar rule. It was ended by the popular uprising of 1547, which became a spontaneous explosion of indignation at the boyars' civil strife and exorbitant need.

The result of the uprising was:

the liberation of the tsar from the heavy tutelage of the boyars and the promotion of new people into his circle who expressed the interests of the serving nobility and the top of the city settlement.

A government was formed based on a compromise of the interests of various classes.

Metropolitan Macarius played a key role in the formation of the new ruling group. With his participation, the tsar’s entourage included those persons who symbolized the new government - the “Chosen Rada”. We are talking, first of all, about Alexei Fedorovich Adashev (an unborn nobleman) and the priest Sylvester, as well as about princes Andrei Kurbsky, Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Serebryan, the boyars Sheremetyev, Viskovat and others. This was the de facto government, which carried out a number of important things under the leadership of the tsar reforms.

The main goals of the reforms were:

1) create a state on a unified legal basis, put an end to the appanage-feudal order;

2) create a system of supreme government in which royal power would be limited by “wise advice”;

3) create a powerful army under central command;

4) an active foreign policy aimed at expanding the lands, primarily the conquest of the Volga region.

What has been done to achieve these goals?

1) Exemption of nobles from the jurisdiction of boyar-governors

2) Abolition of localism and establishment of appointment to service as a state duty

3) Adoption of the new Code of Law of 1550.

By which:

jurors appeared at every trial

feudal immunities abolished

Tarkhan certificates (tax exemption) were introduced

a unified legislation was created that confirmed St. George's Day

4) Zemstvo reform, which introduced local elected self-government instead of the power of governors. The tax population (posad and chernososhnoye) elected “favorite heads” or elders from among the boyars’ children to collect taxes in favor of the state and judicial functions. In this way, direct ties were established between the state and its population, residents of former estates turned into subjects of one state

5) All lands have been rewritten and a unified tax system was established. New taxes were established - “pishchalnye money” for the maintenance of the Streltsy army and “polonyanichnye money” for the ransom of prisoners

6) Reform of central government bodies, which included the formation of a system of new orders: Local, Kazan, Ambassador

7) Military reform, which provided for the formation of an officer corps - 1070 nobles - the support of the tsar and autocratic power and established two types of service - by device (by choice) and by fatherland (by origin).

According to the device, the Streltsy army was formed. Every free person could become a Sagittarius; the service was not hereditary. Rus' did not have a navy at that time. During the Livonian War, Ivan IV launched a privateer fleet in the Baltic Sea in order to prevent trade between Poland, Lithuania and Sweden. In October 1570, the mercenary flotilla of Grozny was arrested by the Danish king, the ships were confiscated

8) Church reform. In 1551, on the initiative of Grozny, a Church Council was convened. His decisions are summarized in One Hundred Chapters (Stoglavyy). The Tsar gave a speech, called on the church to approve the reforms and the Law Code, and proposed to correct the church structure in a non-covetous spirit. The council, led by Macarius, did not approve of this proposal. Church-monastic land ownership was declared unshakable, and those who encroached on it were called predators and robbers. A compromise was reached: the Council allowed monasteries to buy and sell land only with royal permission and prohibited clergy from engaging in usury. The cathedral unified all rituals and worship

9) In 1552 and 1556, the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were annexed. The Volga route became Russian.

The reforms of the government of Ivan IV tended not only to strengthen the centralized state, but also to turn it into an estate-representative monarchy. Events in later years destroyed many of the results of these reforms. Ivan the Terrible himself was the first to have a hand in this. The path along which the members of the “Chosen Rada” led the state could lead to partial power of the monarch, such as, for example, in Poland, where the gentry actually ruled the country. Such an example frightened Ivan the Terrible. He took decisive action and, in order to strengthen the autocracy, created the oprichnina.

Oprichnina.

Oprichnina is a tool of coercion with which the tsar strengthened his power:

The main idea is the division of the sovereign's servants into those who “serve closely,” that is, faithful, and those who are not so reliable.

The corps of loyal servants, with the help of which one can protect oneself and one’s power from the attacks of those around him and the unreliable “siglikts”, should be replenished from the noble ranks.

The rise of a service man - from rags to riches - should forever chain him to the king. It does not follow from this that Ivan the Terrible created his apparatus of power from only noble people.

Well-born people also served in the highest positions, but they were “layered” with noble people.

In 1564, the Tsar left Moscow for the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda and announced that he was leaving his kingdom because “the boyars and all the commanding people” were causing all sorts of losses to both the population of the country and the state. The goal is to enlist the support of the townspeople and put forward their conditions for return. In order to “hit the sovereign with his forehead and cry,” a representative delegation from the clergy, boyars, nobles, clerks, merchants and townspeople went to Alexandrov Sloboda. After listening to the envoys, Ivan the Terrible agreed to return to Moscow, but on the condition that from now on the tsar, at his own discretion, would execute those whom he deemed necessary without the consent of the church.

On February 2, 1565, Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich solemnly entered the capital, and the next day announced to the clergy, boyars and noble officials about the establishment of the oprichnina.

The main activities were:

1) the allocation of oprichnina territories is the sovereign's inheritance;

2) formation of the oprichnina corps;

3) the formation of the oprichnina court - the supreme leadership of the main services and institutions of the state. The law enforcement departments (Discharge, Yamskoy, Palace, State orders) came under his subordination. In the oprichnina, the Boyar Duma was established (along with the Zemsky Boyar Duma).

All forces opposing the autocracy were persecuted. The victims of oprichnina terror were not only representatives of the opposition boyars and aristocracy, but also independent-minded nobles and boyar children. Landowners of all categories became victims of land terror, that is, land confiscations - everyone who was not close to the king did not prove their loyalty. In an effort to create the impression of popular support for his policies, Grozny continued to convene Zemsky Sobors from representatives of all strata of landowners, as well as the townspeople.

The decree on the introduction of the oprichnina was submitted for approval by the Zemsky Sobor in February 1565. A cruel reprisal befell the zemstvo people who turned to the tsar with a request to abolish the oprichnina. Most of the members of the Boyar Duma (Zemstvo) were destroyed during the oprichnina years, the Duma turned into a submissive authority.

The final collapse of Rus' in 1132 was inevitable. The development of feudal society always leads to this. This phenomenon in itself is not negative for the society of the corresponding era. Of course, history lessons at school, as well as the study of ancient literature, instill in our descendants a negative connotation of fragmentation. Suffice it to recall some authors who “reconciled” the princes and warned them about the danger of fragmenting the state. However, this process, on the contrary, leads to the development of the periphery, the flourishing of culture and productive forces in each land. Fragmentation “squeezes out” the maximum from the appanage principalities before uniting into a stronger state with a single market.

Fragmentation coincides with invasion

The formation of a centralized system was not quick, despite all the prerequisites. It's all to blame for the invasion of hordes of Mongol-Tatars in the 30s of the 13th century. Their expansion delayed the formation of a centralized Russian state by several centuries, and the specific centers of Rus' turned from powerful rich cities into seedy villages. During the period of the Mongol occupation, the princely administration ceased to care about the territories entrusted to them. Her main task is to collect tribute to the conquerors on time, without forgetting about herself. The stronger the principality became, the more dangerous it was considered in the eyes of the Mongols.

Forgotten "exploits" of Alexander Nevsky

The history of this time includes several cases of total destruction of entire cities that dared to rebel against the power of the khans. The most remarkable thing is that such conspiracies were “drowned in blood” by Russian princes. One of the main accomplices of the Mongols is our “defender” of the faith, Alexander Nevsky. Several times, on the orders of the khans, he personally led punitive expeditions against the rebels. However, it was Alexander Nevsky who started a new dynasty, with which the unification of Russian lands around Moscow is associated.

Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state

Former Rus' could not help but unite into a single state. This was facilitated by:

• Single language.
• Common faith.
• Shared traditions, laws.
• Unified measures of account.
• Family connections, etc.

Agricultural development

Until the development of productive forces reaches its peak in the regions, it is too early to talk about unification. But from the beginning, active economic cooperation between the once united lands begins. The reason for this is the intensive development of agriculture.

The lands have already learned to live under oppression. However, we should not forget that the “Mongolian cap” reliably protected against large-scale wars and invasions. Peaceful development has led to the fact that once empty territories began to develop again. In addition, the invaders showed new industries that the Russians had not previously mastered - livestock and horse breeding. Economic zoning took place, without which active economic interaction would simply be useless. Therefore, the formation of a centralized Russian state was influenced by the need to create a single market. But most of all it was needed by the large feudal lords. The largest of them was the church. It will be discussed further below.

Role of the Church

The church plays a huge role in the formation of the Russian centralized state. This is due to the fact that during the Mongol-Tatar invasion the invaders did not touch it. On the contrary, they gave her complete freedom and independence. The wisdom of the Mongols has no analogues in history - they never changed the conquered peoples. Being, as a rule, lower in cultural and technical development than the conquered peoples, the Mongol-Tatars tried to adopt all the significant results of their development. However, even what they did not need was preserved: religion, literature, art. Only political liberties were limited. As for economic and cultural development, complete freedom of choice was given here, as long as the “exit” was paid on time.

Having adopted Islam, the Horde never raised the issue of infringement of Orthodoxy in Rus' and the imposition of another religion. They understood that for a common person, tribute is considered a common thing. It doesn’t matter where she goes - to Kyiv or to Sarai. However, an attack on faith, on the soul - a person could not put up with this. Life was perceived as a temporary refuge before eternal bliss. Try to change this - and the Russian people will die in the fight against the invaders.

Occupation of Rus' leads to the rise of the church

For this reason, the church in Rus' not only did not fade away, but, on the contrary, became rich. She was given empty lands that were devastated by war and devastation. In addition, the church was a powerful feudal lord. Offended and oppressed people came running to her. Here they received shelter, shelter, but were obliged to work for its benefit. The conditions, of course, are much softer than those of ordinary feudal lords. The church was exempt from paying the obligatory Mongolian “exit”, and the holy fathers were more modest than secular aristocrats.

The growing power of the feudal lords demanded a unified state

The power of monasteries and large feudal lords required a unified state in order to legally consolidate its privileged position not in each individual principality, but in a single vast territory with a powerful administrative apparatus. Therefore, the church was the first of the feudal lords to support the unification of Russian lands around Moscow. It was the move here from Vladimir of the single metropolitan for all Russian lands long before her rise that allows us to draw such conclusions.

Creation of a unified state: stage one (end of the 13th century - 1462)

The creation of a centralized Russian state took place in several stages. First, the issue of the future capital was decided. Today it’s hard to believe, but the formation of a centralized Russian state could have happened under the flag of Tver, and not Moscow, since it had a much better chance for this:

• favorable geographical location;
• large center;
• initial support of the khans;
• economic and military power.

Weakness is the main advantage

However, the peculiarity of the formation of the Russian centralized state is that the above-mentioned advantages in the struggle for leadership often developed into disadvantages. The khans were distrustful of such centers. First, they disarmed the city of Vladimir, making it only a nominal center. Let us recall that the main title in Rus' was called “Grand Duke of Vladimir”. With him, the Russian princes received a label for administrative leadership in all cities. However, the city of Vladimir itself turned into a village, as the Mongols watched over the impossibility of its rise. They feared that he could become the banner of the liberation struggle against the khans.

Winners are not judged

Under the first Daniil Alexandrovich (1282-1303), only surrounding villages within a radius of 40 km went to Moscow. However, the descendants of the winner of the Germans and Swedes for 80 years have done, perhaps, everything that is possible: they became related to the khan, accumulated funds, bought up all the free boyar estates in other principalities, moved the residence of the metropolitan to themselves, and also brutally suppressed the uprising in Tver against Khan, razing this city to the ground.

First resistance

By 1380, having believed in his own strength, Prince Dmitry decided to resist the Horde. Of course, no matter what the chronicles and ancient Russian authors say, she was not against the khan, but against one of the Horde Murzas - Mamai. In modern language, an “upstart” who did not have any legitimate power in the entire Horde. But the very fact of disobedience gave rise to the fact that the official, 2 years later, in 1382, personally took part in the campaign against Moscow and burned it to the ground. History textbooks talk a lot about the Battle of Kulikovo, its significance, and victory. However, only two lines in them mention punitive reprisals against Russians after this event.

The unification cannot be stopped

In addition to the battle with the Golden Horde, Dmitry Donskoy continued the formation of a centralized Russian state. Dmitrov, Uglich, Starodub, Kostroma, and the territories of Beloozero were annexed to Moscow.

By the end of the 14th century, the first steps towards annexation were taken. However, it was not even possible to secure the right to the Dvina land. Novgorod is a serious, richest shopping center not only in Rus', but also in the world. Huge finances allowed her to repel the invaders in any way. Only later, after annexing all the lands that supplied bread for the freedom-loving republic, Moscow, with the help of blackmail and an economic blockade, made a hole in the defense of Novgorod. Novgorod's dependence on grain played a cruel joke on the republic.

Final stage

The final stage of unification dates back to 1462-1533 - from the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) until the end of the reign of his son Vasily III (1505-1533). After them, a single state will exist peacefully only under Ivan the Terrible. If, of course, this time can be called peaceful. After which there will come a long period of Time of Troubles and interventions.

The formation of the Russian centralized state (14-15 centuries) is associated with the following major events:

• Annexation of Tver.
• Annexation of Novgorod.

After the overthrow of the Horde in 1480, there was no longer a force capable of preventing such a process as the formation of a centralized Russian state.

Chronology of accession

• 1478 - Ivan III annexes Novgorod by force. Moscow is doubling in size geographically.
• 1485 - Moscow's main political enemy, Tver, finally joins.
• 1489 - Vyatka land with a large non-Russian population.
• 1510 - Pskov, which at one time was disconnected from Novgorod. After this, the latter's accession was only a matter of time.
• 1514 - Moscow, during the war with Lithuania, recaptures the ancient Russian city of Smolensk. This city in the future will become a stumbling block in the foreign policy of the Russian state and will lead to constant wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
• 1521 - Ryazan formally joins, although in fact the Moscow princes had long ago won all the Ryazan boyars over to their side.

I would like to say that Muscovy, as our country was called then, was the largest in Europe. But the formation and development of the Russian centralized state was not peaceful. The processes were accompanied by constant wars, bribery, executions, and betrayal.

Formation of a centralized Russian state. Politics of Ivan III and Vasily III

After the unification process was completed, a policy of enslaving the peasants began. Actually, this is what the feudal lords, including the church, sought. It was in the law book of Ivan III of 1497 that the restriction of the right of peasants to leave the landowners was first recorded. Of course, the screws were not tightened completely, but such restrictions were already a serious shock. So far, peasants were allowed to cross one week before St. George's Day, at the end of November, and one week later, at the beginning of December. However, the Code of Law of 1550 of Ivan the Terrible will also abolish this rule. This is where the saying comes from: “Here’s St. George’s Day for you, grandma,” which rightly reflects the initial mistrust when it was introduced.

Rules for the transition of peasants

As for the timing of the transition, everything is logical. The cycle of agricultural work was limited. If workers leave the landowner in the middle of the cycle, it will result in ruin for him. There were two innovations during the transition:

• A short period of time, equal to two weeks in autumn.
• The need to pay "elderly".

The last point means that the peasant did not have the right to simply leave the feudal lord. It was also necessary to pay for labor plus for lodging, that is, for living in the house. If a worker occupied the yard for more than four years, he was obliged to pay the full cost of the new building.

Thus, the formation of a unified state led to the beginning of the enslavement of peasants on the land, as it became administratively possible to control their movements.

Specifics of the formation of the Russian centralized state

In the middle of the 13th century. In 1263, a new state arose in the north-west of Russian lands - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1243, another great state arose in the east of the Russian lands - the Golden Horde.

And Rus' at that time was experiencing the apogee of feudal fragmentation. And Lithuania began to actively annex Russian lands. At the end of the 14th century. Lithuania included the territories of Belarus, Bryansk, Kiev, Chernigov, Seversk, Podolsk lands. Lithuania began to consist of 3/4 Russian lands. Seeing Lithuania’s attack on Rus', which was more actively pursuing a policy towards Russian lands, the Golden Horde began to carry out the same actions.

The disintegrated Russian land found itself between two strong states - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Golden Horde. Two great states began to compete to establish control over Russian lands. And the moment came that both Lithuania and the Golden Horde could unite the Russian lands. Then the Russians, both in the Golden Horde and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, would become a secondary, insignificant people.

But there were two forces in Rus' that were able to resist the aspirations of both Lithuania and the Golden Horde.

The first is the Russian Orthodox Church. During the conquest of Rus', the Russian Church also suffered a terrible defeat. But, being religiously tolerant, and knowing what power the Church possessed, the Mongol khans began to support it. The Church was exempt from taxes; according to Mongolian law, insulting the Church was punishable by death. For the first 100 years after the Mongol invasion, Rus' lay in ruins, but the Russian Church flourished. Monastic life became widespread. Only in the second half of the 13th century. 200 monasteries arose in the northern forests. The Russian Church became the vessel where the spirit of the Russian people was preserved, nurtured, strengthened, and spread.

The Church initially maintained peaceful relations with the khans of the Golden Horde. But in 1312 the Horde converted to Islam. After this, the khans of the Horde began to pursue a policy of intolerance towards Orthodoxy. In particular, 70 Chingizid princes were executed in the Horde for professing Orthodoxy. After the adoption of Catholicism in 1387, Lithuania also began to pursue a policy of intolerance towards Orthodoxy. And then the Russian Orthodox Church began to support the Russian princes in their quest for independence.

The second force is the will of the Russian princes. In the XIII century. The Horde had seen better times. The forces were unequal, and the Russian princes were forced to servile. But the desire of the Russian princes for independence was never broken. They always remembered that they were Rurikovichs, that their mighty ancestors created the great Kievan Rus. The image of great Rus' cried out for resurrection.

Stages of formation of the Russian centralized state

Back in the 12th century. In the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, a tendency towards unification of lands under the rule of one prince appeared. Over time, the population of Rus' began to look at the Vladimir princes as the defenders of the entire Russian land.

At the end of the 13th century. The Horde entered a protracted crisis. Then the activity of the Russian princes intensified. It manifested itself in the collection of Russian lands. The gathering of Russian lands ended with the creation of a new state. It was called “Muscovy”, “Russian state”, the scientific name is “Russian centralized state”.

The formation of the Russian centralized state took place in several stages:

The rise of Moscow - the end of the 13th - beginning of the 11th centuries; Moscow is the center of the fight against the Mongol-Tatars (second half of the 11th - first half of the 15th centuries);

Completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow under Ivan III and Vasily III - the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.

Stage 1. The rise of Moscow (late XIII - early XIV centuries). By the end of the 13th century. the old cities of Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir are losing their former significance. The new cities of Moscow and Tver are rising.

The rise of Tver began after the death of Alexander Nevsky (1263), when his brother, Prince Yaroslav of Tver, received from the Tatars a label for the Great Reign of Vladimir. During the last decades of the 13th century. Tver acts as a political center and organizer of the fight against Lithuania and the Tatars. In 1304, Mikhail Yaroslavovich became the Grand Duke of Vladimir, who was the first to accept the title of Grand Duke of “All Rus'” and tried to subjugate the most important political centers: Novgorod, Kostroma, Pereyaslavl, Nizhny Novgorod. But this desire encountered strong resistance from other principalities, and above all from Moscow.

The beginning of the rise of Moscow is associated with the name of the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniil (1276 - 1303). Alexander Nevsky distributed honorary inheritances to his eldest sons, and Daniil, as the youngest, inherited the small village of Moscow and its surrounding area on the far border of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Daniel had no prospects of taking the grand-ducal throne, so he took up farming - he rebuilt Moscow, started crafts, and developed agriculture. It so happened that in three years the territory of Daniel’s possession increased three times: in 1300 he took Kolomna from the Ryazan prince, in 1302 the childless Pereyaslavl prince bequeathed his inheritance to him. Moscow became a principality. During the reign of Daniel, the Moscow principality became the strongest, and Daniel, thanks to his creative policy, the most authoritative prince in the entire Northeast. Daniil of Moscow also became the founder of the Moscow princely dynasty. In Moscow, Daniil built a monastery and named it Danilovsky in honor of his heavenly patron. According to the tradition that has developed in Rus', sensing the approach of the end, Daniel took monasticism and was laid to rest in the Danilovsky Monastery. Currently, the St. Daniel Monastery plays a significant role in the life of the Orthodox and is the residence of the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy II.

After Daniel, his son Yuri (1303 - 1325) began to rule in Moscow. The Grand Duke of Vladimir at this time was Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy. He owned the Vladimir throne “in truth” - the ancient right of inheritance established by Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century. Mikhail Tverskoy was like an epic hero: strong, brave, true to his word, noble. He enjoyed the full favor of the khan. Real power in Rus' left the hands of the descendants of A. Nevsky.

Yuri Danilovich - the grandson of Alexander Nevsky - did not have any rights to the first throne in Rus'. But he had one of the most powerful principalities in Rus' - Moscow. And Yuri Danilovich entered into the struggle for the Vladimir throne with the Tver prince.

A long and stubborn struggle began for the title of Grand Duke in Rus' between the descendants of Alexander Nevsky - the Danilovichs - and the descendants of Nevsky's younger brother Yaroslav - the Yaroslavichs, between the Moscow princes and the Tver princes. Ultimately, the Moscow princes became the winners in this struggle. Why was this possible?

By this time, the Moscow princes had already been vassals of the Mongol khans for half a century. The khans strictly controlled the activities of the Russian princes, using cunning, bribery, and betrayal. Over time, the Russian princes began to adopt behavioral stereotypes from the Mongol khans. And the Moscow princes turned out to be the more “capable” students of the Mongols.

Yuri Moskovsky married the khan's sister. Not wanting the strengthening of one prince, the khan also granted the label for the Great Reign to his relative Yuri. Not wanting clashes with Moscow, Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy renounced the great reign in favor of Yuri Danilovich. But the Moscow army constantly devastated the lands of the Tver principality. During one of these clashes, Yuri's wife, Princess Agafya (Konchaka), was captured by the Tverites. She died in captivity.

Yuri Danilovich and Mikhail Yaroslavich were summoned to the Horde. In the Horde of Tver, the prince was accused of non-payment of tribute, the death of the khan's sister, and was killed. The label for the Great Reign was transferred to the Moscow prince.

In 1325, at the khan's headquarters, Yuri Danilovich was killed by the eldest son of Mikhail Yaroslavich, Dmitry. Dmitry, by order of the khan, was executed, but the label for the Great Reign was transferred to the next son of Mikhail Yaroslavich, Alexander Mikhailovich. Together with Alexander Mikhailovich, the Tatar detachment of Cholkan was sent to Tver to collect tribute.

And in Moscow, after the death of Yuri, his brother Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita, Ivan I (1325 - 1340), began to rule. In 1327, an uprising took place in Tver against the Tatar detachment, during which Cholkan was killed. Ivan Kalita went against the people of Tver with an army and suppressed the uprising. In gratitude, in 1327 the Tatars gave him a label for the Great Reign.

The Moscow princes will no longer let go of the label for a great reign.

Kalita achieved the collection of tribute in Rus' instead of the Mongols. He had the opportunity to hide part of the tribute and use it to strengthen the Moscow principality. Collecting tribute, Kalita began to regularly travel around Russian lands and gradually form an alliance of Russian princes. Cunning, wise, cautious Kalita tried to maintain the closest ties with the Horde: he regularly paid tribute, regularly traveled to the Horde with generous gifts to the khans, their wives, and children. With generous gifts, Kalita endeared himself to everyone in the Horde. The Hanshi were looking forward to his arrival: Kalita always brought silver. In the Horde. Kalita constantly asked for something: labels for individual cities, entire reigns, the heads of his opponents. And Kalita invariably got what he wanted in the Horde.

Thanks to the prudent policy of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow principality constantly expanded, grew stronger and did not know Tatar raids for 40 years.

Ivan Kalita sought to ensure that Moscow, and not Vladimir, became a religious center. He built comfortable chambers for the head of the Russian Church - the Metropolitan. Metropolitan Peter loved to stay in Moscow for a long time: Kalita received him cordially and made generous gifts to the Church. Metropolitan Peter predicted that if Kalita builds a cathedral in Moscow in honor of the Mother of God, as in Vladimir, and rests him in it, then Moscow will become the true capital. Ivan Kalita built the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow (as in Vladimir) and laid to rest the head of the Russian Church in it. For the Russians, this was a sign from God, a sign of Moscow’s chosenness. The next metropolitan, Theognostus, finally moved from Vladimir to Moscow. This was a great achievement for Ivan Kalita.

Moscow became the religious center of Russian lands.

But historians believe that the main merit of Ivan Kalita was the following. During the time of Ivan Kalita, crowds of refugees from the Horde and Lithuania poured into Moscow due to persecution for religious reasons. Kalita began to accept everyone into his service. The selection of service people was made solely on the basis of business qualities, subject to acceptance of the Orthodox faith. Everyone who converted to Orthodoxy became Russian. A definition began to emerge: “Orthodox means Russian.”

Under Ivan Kalita, the principle of ethnic tolerance was established, the foundations of which were laid by his grandfather, Alexander Nevsky. And this principle in the future became one of the most important on which the Russian Empire was built.

Stage 2. Moscow - the center of the fight against the Mongol-Tatars (second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th centuries). The strengthening of Moscow continued under the children of Ivan Kalita - Simeon Gordom (1340-1353) and Ivan II the Red (1353-1359). This would inevitably lead to a clash with the Tatars.

The clash occurred during the reign of Ivan Kalita’s grandson Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389). Dmitry Ivanovich received the throne at the age of 9 after the death of his father Ivan II the Red. Under the young prince, the position of Moscow, as the first principality in Rus', was shaken. But the young prince was supported by the powerful Moscow boyars and the head of the Russian Church, Metropolitan Alexei. The Metropolitan understood that if Moscow lost the label for the great reign, then its many years of efforts to collect Russian lands would be nullified.

The Metropolitan was able to obtain from the khans that the great reign would henceforth be transferred only to the princes of the Moscow princely house. This increased the authority of the Moscow principality among other Russian principalities. The authority of Moscow increased even more after 17-year-old Dmitry Ivanovich built the Kremlin in Moscow from white stone (stone was a rare building material in Moscow. The Kremlin wall made of stone so captured the imagination of contemporaries that from that time the expression “White stone Moscow” arose. ). The Moscow Kremlin became the only stone fortress in the entire Russian Northeast. He became unapproachable.

In the middle of the 14th century. The Horde entered a period of feudal fragmentation. Independent hordes began to emerge from the Golden Horde. They waged a fierce struggle for power among themselves. All khans demanded tribute and obedience from Rus'. Tensions arose in relations between Russia and the Horde.

In 1380, the Horde ruler Mamai with a huge army moved towards Moscow.

Moscow began to organize resistance to the Tatars. In a short time, regiments and squads from all Russian lands, except those hostile to Moscow, came under the banner of Dmitry Ivanovich.

And yet, it was not easy for Dmitry Ivanovich to decide on an open armed uprising against the Tatars.

Dmitry Ivanovich went for advice to the rector of the Trinity Monastery near Moscow, Father Sergius of Radonezh. Father Sergius was the most authoritative person both in the Church and in Rus'. During his lifetime, he was called a saint; it was believed that he had the gift of foresight. Sergius of Radonezh predicted victory for the Moscow prince. This instilled confidence in both Dmitry Ivanovich and the entire Russian army.

On September 8, 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place at the confluence of the Nepryadva River and the Don. Dmitry Ivanovich and the governors showed military talent, the Russian army - unbending courage. The Tatar army was defeated.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke was not thrown off, but the significance of the Battle of Kulikovo in Russian history is enormous:

on the Kulikovo field, the Horde suffered its first major defeat from the Russians;

after the Battle of Kulikovo, the size of the tribute was significantly reduced;

The Horde finally recognized the primacy of Moscow among all Russian cities;

the inhabitants of Russian lands began to feel a sense of common historical destiny; according to historian L.N. Gumilyov, “residents of different lands walked to the Kulikovo field - they returned from the battle as the Russian people.”

Contemporaries called the Battle of Kulikovo “Mamaev’s Massacre”, and Dmitry Ivanovich during the time of Ivan the Terrible received the honorary nickname “Donskoy”.

Stage 3. Completion of the formation of the Russian centralized state (end of the 10th - beginning of the 16th centuries). The unification of Russian lands was completed under the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533). Ivan III annexed the entire North-East of Rus' to Moscow: in 1463 - the Yaroslavl principality, in 1474 - the Rostov principality. After several campaigns in 1478, the independence of Novgorod was finally eliminated.

Under Ivan III, one of the most important events in Russian history took place - the Mongol-Tatar yoke was thrown off. In 1476, Rus' refused to pay tribute. Then Khan Akhmat decided to punish Rus'. He entered into an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir and set out on a campaign against Moscow with a large army.

In 1480, the troops of Ivan III and Khan Akhmat met along the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). Akhmat did not dare to cross to the other side. Ivan III took a wait-and-see attitude. Help for the Tatars did not come from Casimir. Both sides understood that the battle was pointless. The power of the Tatars dried up, and Rus' was already different. And Khan Akhmat led his troops back to the steppe.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke ended.

After the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the unification of Russian lands continued at an accelerated pace. In 1485, the independence of the Tver principality was eliminated. During the reign of Vasily III, Pskov (1510) and the Ryazan principality (1521) were annexed. The unification of Russian lands was basically completed.

Features of the formation of the Russian centralized state:

the state developed in the northeastern and northwestern lands of the former Kievan Rus; its southern and southwestern lands were part of Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary. Ivan III immediately put forward the task of returning all Russian lands that were previously part of Kievan Rus;

the formation of the state took place in a very short time, which was due to the presence of external danger in the form of the Golden Horde; the internal structure of the state was “raw”; the state could at any moment disintegrate into separate principalities;

the creation of the state took place on a feudal basis; a feudal society began to form in Russia: serfdom, estates, etc.; in Western Europe, the formation of states took place on a capitalist basis, and bourgeois society began to form there.

The victories of Ivan III strengthened the Russian state and contributed to the growth of its international authority. Western European countries and, first of all, the Roman Curia and the German Emperor are trying to conclude an alliance with the new state. The ties of the Russian state with Venice, Naples, Genoa are expanding, and relations with Denmark are intensifying. Rus''s ties with the countries of the East are also strengthening. All this indicates that the Russian state is becoming the strongest and playing a significant role in international affairs.

The specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state in the 15th - early years. XVI centuries The unification of Russian lands and the final liberation from the Tatar yoke and general socio-economic changes occurring in the country led to the establishment of autocracy and created the preconditions for the transformation of the great Moscow reign into an estate-representative monarchy.

The supreme ruler of the state was the Moscow prince. He was the supreme owner of the land and had full judicial and executive powers. Under the prince, there was a Boyar Duma, which included the most notable feudal lords and clergy. The Metropolitan and the Consecrated Cathedral, the meeting of the highest clergy, began to play a significant role in the state. National bodies appeared - the Palace and the Treasury. The butlers were in charge of the personal lands of the Grand Duke, sorted out land disputes, and judged the population. The treasury was in charge of state finances. The formation of central authorities - orders - began. The palace order was in charge of the Grand Duke's own possessions, the ambassadorial order was in charge of external relations, the discharge order was in charge of military affairs, etc. Clerks and clerks were engaged in office work.

Under Ivan III, local government remained conservative. As before, it was based on the feeding system - one of the sources of enrichment for the upper classes at the expense of the population. “Feeders”, i.e. governors and volostels (governors of volosts) were supported by the local population - literally fed. Their powers were varied: rulers, judges, collectors of princely taxes. Princes, boyars, and former “free servants” of the Grand Duke had the right to receive feedings.

The institution of localism was important, according to the system of which all boyar families were distributed along the steps of the hierarchical ladder, and all their appointments (military and civilian) had to correspond to their birth.

For the first time after Yaroslav the Wise, Ivan III began to streamline legislation. In 1497, a new collection of laws was published - the Code of Laws. The new collection of laws established a unified procedure for judicial and administrative activities. Laws on land use, especially the law on St. George's Day, occupied an important place in the Code of Laws. In Rus' there was an old custom: in the fall, after harvesting, peasants could move from one owner to another. By the beginning of the 16th century. this custom took on the character of a disaster: the peasants left their master even before the harvest, and often the fields remained unharvested. The Code of Law of Ivan III limited the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another to two weeks a year - before and after St. George's Day (November 26).

The formation of serfdom began in Rus'. Serfdom is the dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord in personal, land, property, and legal relations, based on their attachment to the land.

This was still the period when they ruled in the old way, having all gathered together in harmony - conciliarly: all authoritative forces were involved in resolving the most important issues of the country - the Grand Duke himself, the Boyar Duma, the clergy. The Grand Duke was a strong and respected figure, but the attitude towards him was “simple”; in the eyes of the Russians he was only the eldest among equals.

Under Ivan III, important changes took place in the system of government: the process of establishing an unlimited monarchy began.

The reasons for the formation of an unlimited monarchy are Mongol and Byzantine influence.

Mongolian influence - by this time, the Mongol-Tatar yoke had lasted in Rus' for more than 200 years. Russian princes began to adopt the style of behavior of the Mongol khans, the model of the political structure of the Horde. In the Horde, the khan was an unlimited ruler.

Byzantine influence - the second marriage of Ivan III was married to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus. In 1453, the Byzantine Empire fell under the blows of the Ottoman Turks. The emperor died on the streets of Constantinople defending the city. His niece Sophia found refuge with the Pope, who later had the idea to marry her to the widowed Russian ruler. The Byzantine princess brought the idea of ​​absolute monarchy to distant Rus'.

Ivan III was the first of the Russian princes to pursue a policy of increasing the power of the Grand Duke. Before this, appanage princes and boyars were free servants. At their own request, they could serve the Moscow Grand Duke or go to serve in Lithuania and Poland. Now they began to swear allegiance to the Moscow prince and sign special oaths. From now on, the transfer of a boyar or prince to the service of another sovereign began to be considered as treason, a crime against the state. Ivan III was the first to take the title “Sovereign of All Rus'”. In 1497, Ivan III for the first time adopted the unofficial coat of arms of Byzantium as the coat of arms of the Moscow state - the double-headed eagle - a sacred religious symbol (By this time, the double-headed eagle in Byzantium symbolized the unity of spiritual and secular power). Under him, signs of grand-princely dignity were adopted: the “Monomakh cap”, which became a symbol of autocracy, precious mantles - barmas and a scepter. Under the influence of Sophia, a magnificent court ceremony according to the Byzantine model was introduced at the court of Ivan III.

Ideology of the times of Ivan III and Vasily III. At the end of the 15th century. A number of important events took place in Russian statehood:

the unification of Russian lands was basically completed;

in 1480, the Russian lands were freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke;

Ivan III, in the Byzantine manner, began to call himself the title “Tsar”.

The historical process in Rus' was led by the Moscow princes. The Moscow princes rose rapidly. According to the ancient right of inheritance, they did not have the right to the first throne in Rus'. “In truth” the Tver princes should have owned the first throne. The Moscow princes, using a whole range of political means, “wrested” the right to all-Russian primacy from the Tver princes.

And now the moment had come when the Moscow princes needed to prove to everyone by what right they owned the Russian land.

In addition, Ivan III needed to establish himself among Western European monarchs. The Russian state appeared at the beginning of the 16th century. suddenly for Western Europe. Large Western European states had already taken shape, the system of relationships between them had also already taken shape, the most important trade routes were already occupied.

To survive in these conditions, the huge Moscow state needed ideas, an ideology that would reflect the dominant position of the Moscow princes in Rus', the antiquity of the state, the truth of the Orthodox faith, the importance and necessity of the existence of Muscovy among other states. Such ideas appeared at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.

Three ideas became the most important.

1. The idea of ​​succession of power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Vladimir and Kyiv. Chronicles appeared in which it was stated that the Moscow princes received power over the Russian land from their ancestors - the Vladimir and Kyiv princes. After all, the head of the Russian Church - the Metropolitan - lived first in Kyiv, then in Vladimir (1299 - 1328) and Moscow (from 1328). Therefore, the Russian land was owned by the Kyiv, Vladimir, and then Moscow princes. This idea also emphasized the idea that the source of grand-ducal power is the will of the Lord himself. The Grand Duke is the deputy of the Lord - God on earth. The Lord God gave the Grand Duke the control of the Russian land. Therefore, the Russian sovereign bore personal responsibility before the Lord - God for the way he ruled the Russian land. Since it was handed over by the Lord himself - God, the Orthodox sovereign should not share his power (responsibility) with anyone. Any refusal of power is sacrilege.

2. The idea of ​​kinship between Russian princes and Roman emperors. At this time, “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” appears. The “Tale” is based on two legends. One contained a statement that the family of Russian princes was connected with the king of “the whole universe” Augustus. In Rome from 27 BC. e. Octavian ruled. He managed to unite under his rule all the territories of the inhabited world. After this, the Roman state began to be called an empire, and Octavian was given the title “Augusta”, i.e. "divine". The Tale said that Augustus had a younger brother named Prus. Augustus sent Prus as ruler to the banks of the Vistula and Neman (This is how Prussia arose). And Prus had a descendant, Rurik. It was this Rurik that the Novgorodians called to reign in Novgorod (It should be noted that almost all Western European monarchs tried to connect their ancestry with the Roman emperors). Another legend said that in the 12th century. The heir to the Roman emperors, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh, handed over to his grandson - the Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh - symbols of imperial power: a cross, a crown (in Rus' they began to call Monomakh's cap), the cup of Emperor Augustus and other objects. It followed that the Russian rulers (Monomashichi) had the legal right to the title “Caesar” (in Rus', tsar).

3. The idea of ​​Moscow as the custodian of the true Christian faith. This idea is better known as “Moscow - the third Rome”. This idea was formulated by the monk of the Pskov Eleazar Monastery Philotheus in his letters to Vasily III in 1510-1511. Monk Philotheus was sure that Moscow was called upon to play a special role in history. After all, it is the capital of the last state where the true Christian faith has been preserved in its original, unspoiled form. At first, Rome preserved the purity of the Christian faith. But the apostates muddied the pure source, and as punishment for this, in 476 Rome fell under the blows of the barbarians. Rome was replaced by Constantinople, but even there they abandoned the true faith, agreeing to a union with the Catholic Church. By the middle of the 15th century. The Byzantine Empire perished under the blows of the Ottoman Turks. Hoping for help from Western European powers, the Patriarch of Constantinople signed a union with the Pope in Florence in 1439. Under the terms of the union, the Orthodox recognized the supremacy of the Pope, and not the Orthodox Patriarch, and switched to Catholic dogmas during worship, but Orthodox rituals were preserved. Before this, the power of the Patriarch of Constantinople had universal significance. It extended to Byzantium, Rus', Serbia, Georgia, and Bulgaria. The conclusion of a union with the Pope meant that the Greeks abandoned the universal mission of guardians of the Orthodox tradition, which they had undertaken. The Russian Orthodox Church did not recognize the union and broke off relations with the Patriarch of Constantinople.

Philotheus wrote that for apostasy from Orthodoxy - the true Christian faith - ancient Constantinople was captured by the Turks. Since then, Moscow has become the center of world Orthodoxy, the “third Rome” - the capital of the largest Orthodox state. “Watch and listen, for two Romes have fallen, and the third (Moscow) stands, but the fourth will not exist,” wrote Philotheus. Therefore, the role of Rus' in world history is to be the patroness of all Orthodox peoples.

Bibliography

Borisov N.S. Ivan III. - M.: Mol. Guard, 2000.

Sinitsyna N.V. Third Rome. Origins and evolution of the Russian medieval concept. /XV - XVI centuries/- M.: Publishing House "Indrik", 1998.

Cherepnin L.V. Formation of the Russian centralized state in the XIV - XV centuries. essays on the socio-economic and political history of Rus'. - M., 1960.