In my opinion, on the one hand, climatic conditions can be pleasant for a person (temperate, subtropical climate), and on the other hand, quite the opposite (harsh winters, frequent rains, drought). The distribution of the population in different parts of the globe is also associated with these factors. But I want to figure out exactly which phenomena are unfavorable and in which areas they are observed.
Features of climatic conditions
The climate is the weather regime formed over many years. The formation of climatic conditions directly depends on such geophysical processes as:
- moisture circulation;
- heat transfer;
- atmospheric air circulation.
The general concept of climate is divided into subspecies: macroclimate (that is, climate over vast territories) and mesoclimate (the so-called climate in a certain area). The main feature is that this concept can be attributed not only to the Earth, but also to all bodies that have an atmosphere (satellites, planets, asteroids).
Climate related adverse events
To single out adverse climate factors, a whole classification into separate types of phenomena is used. I'll start with the space one, which implies the high activity of the Sun, the threat of a meteorite fall or magnetic storms. There are also geological phenomena: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and so on. Various forest fires are also adverse events associated with climate. You can also note the geomorphological phenomena (avalanches, mudflows, avalanches, landslides).
Areas of distribution of adverse events
The causes of such phenomena are pressure drops, a large amount of precipitation or their absence at all. Sudden changes in temperature can also be affected. For example, droughts occur in areas of the steppe and forest-steppe zones. There are dust storms that often occur on the plowed steppes. In the North Caucasus and in the Caspian region, dry winds are often observed. Avalanches are inherent in mountainous areas with a lot of snow. Each unfavorable phenomenon is observed in the territory corresponding to it.
At MICEX, for 2000
Price dynamics of the most liquid shares of Russian companies traded
Average yield of government bonds of the Russian Federation for 2000
Interest rates on annual bank deposits of individuals
Deposit rate - the weighted average rate on deposits of individuals in credit institutions
(including Sberbank of Russia) for up to 1 year. Real yield is calculated using the Fisher formula:
R r \u003d (R n - i) / (1 + i), where R r – real rate of return R n – nominal rate of returniis the inflation index.
Appendix 1.3
Return on savings of the population of Russia in cash foreign currency (USD)
According to the Central Bank of Russia.
The growth of the dollar is calculated at the official exchange rate set by the Central Bank.
Appendix 1.4
Yield is calculated based on Skate indexes, taking into account changes in the ruble/dollar exchange rate.
Appendix 1.5
| Price change from 12/30/99 to 12/28/00, % | Nominal annual yield, % | Real yield, % | |
| NK Yukos, ordinary shares (JSC) | +438,2 | 439,4 | 348,8 |
| Elektrosvyaz of the Irkutsk Region, JSC | +166,7 | 167,1 | 122,2 |
| Rosneft-Sakhalinmorneftegaz, JSC | +140,0 | 140,4 | 100,0 |
| NK Lukoil, preferred shares (ap) | +88,8 | 89,0 | 57,2 |
| Rosneft-Purneftegaz, JSC | +63,0 | 63,2 | 35,8 |
| Tatneft, ap | +49,3 | 49,4 | 24,3 |
| RAO Norilsk Nickel | +43,2 | 43,3 | 19,2 |
| Rosneft-Sakhalinmorneftegaz, an | +42,9 | 42,9 | 18,9 |
| RAO Norilsk Nickel, JSC | +38,1 | 38,2 | 15,0 |
| Aeroflot, JSC | +14,0 | 14,0 | -5,2 |
| Surgutneftegaz, an | +8,7 | 8,7 | -9,6 |
| Tatneft, JSC | +7,9 | 8,0 | -10,1 |
| Irkutskenergo, JSC | -2,3 | -2,3 | -18,7 |
| RAO UES, JSC | -8,8 | -8,9 | -24,2 |
| NK Lukoil, JSC | -12,0 | -11,9 | -26,7 |
| RAO UES, an | -13,4 | -13,4 | -28,0 |
| Sberbank of Russia, an | -14,4 | -15,3 | -29,5 |
| Surgutneftegaz, JSC | -23,4 | -23,5 | -36,4 |
| Sberbank of Russia, JSC | -30,5 | -30,5 | -42,2 |
| Mosenergo, JSC | -30,3 | -30,3 | -42,0 |
| Uralsvyazinform, JSC | -32,3 | -32,3 | -43,7 |
| Dalenergo, JSC | -36,0 | -36,1 | -46,8 |
| Rostelecom, an | -39,0 | -39,0 | -49,3 |
| Rostelecom, JSC | -53,1 | -52,7 | -60,6 |
| SFI MICEX (Consolidated Stock Index MICEX) | -4,9 |
Appendix 1.6
Indicators of domestic investment in developing countries (in % of GDP)
Lake - a natural land reservoir with a slow water exchange, in which the water mass stays in the basin for a long time and changes its properties as a result of ongoing physicochemical, dynamic and biological processes.
The total volume of lake waters on the globe, according to tentative data, reaches 176 thousand km 3, 52% of which are fresh water and 48% are mineralized. The volume of lakes is almost 90 times greater than the total volume of water in river beds and 5 times the average annual flow of all rivers in the world.
Lakes are ubiquitous throughout the world. The largest lake in terms of area on earth is the brackish Caspian Sea. This is where the largest volume of water is concentrated. Of the fresh lakes, the largest in area is the Upper Lake (USA - Canada). The largest volume is concentrated in Baikal, which is also the deepest in the world. In Russia, there are more than 2 million fresh and salt lakes with a total water surface area of over 3.5 thousand km2. More than 90% of lakes are shallow water bodies with an area of 0.01 to 1 km2.
Lakes are subdivided according to various characteristics: by size, by the degree of constancy, by the origin of the basin, the nature of water exchange, thermal regime, etc. The main classification is the classification of lakes according to the origin of the basins, i.e. genetic classification.
By origin of lake basins There are the following types of lakes:
1) Tectonic. They are located in troughs of the earth's crust (Ladoga, Onega), in places of large tectonic cracks (Baikal), in large foothill and rift depressions (Balkhash). These lakes are large and deep. Most of the world's major lakes have basins of tectonic origin.
2) Volcanic. They are located in the craters of extinct volcanoes or among lava fields. Distributed in areas of ancient and modern volcanic activity - Iceland, Italy, Japan, Kamchatka.
3) Glacial. The origin is associated with the activity of modern and ancient glaciers. Glacial lake basins are subdivided into erosional and accumulative. Erosion - a product of the erosion activity of glaciers - is represented by lakes in Karelia, the Kola Peninsula. Accumulative lakes are located among the moraine deposits of the areas of ancient glaciation.
4) Karst. They are formed in the areas of occurrence of limestones, dolomites and gypsum as a result of the chemical dissolution of these rocks by surface and especially groundwater. There are many such lakes in the Urals, the Caucasus and the Crimea.
5) Thermokarst. They are formed in areas of permafrost distribution as a result of its local thawing and subsidence of the soil. These are small lakes of the tundra and taiga.
6) Suffusion. They arise as a result of washing out of the soil by groundwater of small particles and cementing substances. These are small lakes of the steppe and forest-steppe regions.
7) Organogenic or marsh. Formed in swamps.
8) Eolian. Formed in depressions between sand dunes when they are filled with sea or river waters. Very rare.
9) Lakes of river origin. Associated with erosive and accumulative activity of rivers. These are oxbow lakes, gullies, etc.
10) Remaining lakes. Their hollow is inherited from the ancient sea.
By position lakes are divided into (in relation to planet Earth):
1. Ground, whose waters take an active part in the water cycle in nature and
2. Underground, the waters of which, if they take part in it, then only indirectly. Sometimes these lakes are filled with juvenile, that is, native water. The subglacial lake in Antarctica can also be attributed to the number of underground lakes.
lake regions. Lakes in the CIS are distributed unevenly. While in some areas they are relatively rare or completely absent, in others, on the contrary, the number of lakes is very large, and they occupy a significant part of the surface, in some places up to 10-50%! the total area of the region.
The degree of lake content in a particular area depends on a complex of natural factors, among which the most important place belongs to the ratio of the elements of the water balance - precipitation, runoff, evaporation and terrain. The main accumulations of lakes are confined to the zone of excessive moisture, where in relief depressions often all depressions are occupied by water (this is especially characteristic of the tundra zone) and, oddly enough at first glance, to the zone of insufficient moisture (steppe and semi-desert regions of Western Siberia and Kazakhstan) . The reasons for this seeming contradiction (excess and lack of moisture equally favor the formation of lakes) will be discussed below when considering the zonality of the hydrological regime.
The following areas can be distinguished, which are characterized by a large accumulation of lakes: Northwestern, Azov-Black Sea, Caspian, Transcaucasian, West Siberian, Central Asian, Altai, Transbaikal, Lower Amur, Yakut, Subpolar and Kamchatka.
Northwest Lake District (European part of the CIS) - in the literature it is known as the Lake District. This vast region covers the territory of the Karelian region, the Kola Peninsula, the Leningrad, Pskov, Novgorod regions, as well as the territory of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and the northern part of Belarus.
Within the North-Western region, along with a large number of small and medium-sized lakes, there are such large lakes as Ladoga, Onega, Beloe, Ilmen, Chudsko-Pskovskoye, Vygozero, Segozero, Kovdozero, Pyaozero, Imandra and many others. others
The abundance of lakes in this area is closely related to the Quaternary glaciation, and the origin of the basins is closely related to the accumulative and erosive activity of the glacier. The boundary of the region therefore coincides rather closely with the boundary of the last glaciation. Along with lakes of glacial origin, tectonic lakes are also common. This type includes many lakes of Karelia and the Kola Peninsula, developed in cracks and faults of crystalline rocks. Among swamps and marsh massifs, there are often numerous lakes of secondary origin, formed during the development of swamps. In places of shallow occurrence of easily soluble rocks (limestones) there are karst lakes. These include many lakes of Obonezhye (between lakes Onega and Bely). Some of them disappear from time to time.
Azovo-Chernomorsky Lake District includes a large number of peculiar lakes located along the coast of the Black and Azov Seas. The origin of these lakes is connected with the activity of the sea, and most of them are estuaries. The most famous estuaries are Khadzhibeysky, Kuyalnitsky, Tiligulsky, Molochny, Yeysky and others.
The origin of the estuaries here is due to the advance of the sea on land and the flooding of the mouth sections of the rivers. Their characteristic feature is that they are usually elongated in the direction of flooded river valleys, and are separated from the sea by spit-beams.
In addition to estuaries, a significant number of lakes on the Azov-Black Sea coast belong to the lagoon type. Lagoons are formed as a result of the separation of shallow bays from the sea by spits. A typical lagoonal body of water is Sivash, separated from the Sea of Azov by a long Arabat arrow. Other examples of lagoons are some lakes of the Crimea, for example, the famous Evpatoria lakes (Sasyk-Sivash, Saki).
Among the lakes of this region there is a significant number of temporary shallow saucer-shaped lakes, called "pody" (in the lower part of the Dnieper basin) and "koli" - on the Kerch Peninsula.
Caspian Lake District covers a large group of lakes in the Caspian lowland. Most of the lakes in this region are fed by the overflow of steppe rivers during spring floods. Typical for the region are the shallow Kamysh-Samarsky lakes, which are the overflows of the Bolshoi and Maly Uzen rivers, and lakes at the mouths of the Uila, Sagiz and other watercourses.
Temporary reservoirs are also widespread here, called estuaries, which usually form in lower depressions and represent temporary accumulations of melt water.
Among the lakes of the region there are also large lakes, for example, Elton, Baskunchak, Chelkar, Inderskoe, a group of Sarpinsky lakes, stretching in a chain along the foot of the Ergeni to the south of Volgograd.
The Volga-Akhtuba floodplain and especially the Volga delta abound in lakes. Ilmeni and the hollow Volga delta are filled mainly during periods of flooding of the river.
Transcaucasian Lake District covers a significant number of water bodies located in a variety of natural conditions. Here is the largest mountain lake in our country - Sevan. A significant number of lakes - Taparovani, Tuman-Gel, Khozashshi, etc. - are located within the Akhalkalaki highlands, many reservoirs are scattered along the Kura-Araks lowland (Akh-Chala lake, etc.). In areas where irrigation systems are developed, there are lakes that are locally called Ahmazy.
On the coast of the Caspian Sea, in the region of the Lankaran lowland, there are lakes of the lagoon type, called locally "mortso".
West Siberian Lake District includes numerous lakes of the steppe and forest-steppe zones of the West Siberian lowland and partly of Northern Kazakhstan. There are several tens of thousands of lakes here; in most cases they are small and are flat, saucer-shaped depressions.
There is no established opinion on the question of the origin of such a large number of lakes in the conditions of arid steppe and forest-steppe zones. Some scientists consider them to be residual, others attribute their origin to suffusion and thermokarst processes. When they talk about the phenomenon of thermokarst, in this case they mean the ancient thermokarst, since at present there is no permafrost in the steppe and forest-steppe zones of the West Siberian Lowland.
Central Asian Lake District , which includes a significant part of Kazakhstan. In the central part of this region there is a large brackish lake - the Aral Sea, fed by the largest rivers of Central Asia - the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya. In the eastern part of the region there is a kind of semi-fresh, semi-salty lake. Balkhash, which is a relic of a larger reservoir that once occupied the entire Balkhash-Ala-Kul depression.
Numerous lakes in the steppe and semi-desert regions of Kazakhstan are in most cases flat, saucer-shaped reservoirs formed at the mouths of steppe rivers. Typical are, for example, such large reservoirs as the non-datchey filling up lake. Chelkar-Tengiz, which is a shallow spill of the Turgay and Irgiz rivers, and Lake. Tengiz, in which one of the large steppe rivers, the Nura, ends its course.
A significant number of lakes are located in the mountainous region of Central Asia. Within the Tien Shan there is a high-mountain tectonic lake. Issyk-Kul, which is one of the deepest lakes in the USSR. The already mentioned lakes Sonkel, Chatyrkel and Karakul are located in the highland region of the Tien Shan and Pamir.
In the Pamirs, there are lakes of the dam type, the occurrence of which is associated with the blockages of river valleys.
Altai Lake District It is characterized by the presence of a large number of lakes, developed mainly in cirque basins, characterized by rounded outlines and small sizes.
The largest lakes in the region are one of the most beautiful mountain lakes - Teletskoye and Lake. Mark-Kul.
Zabaikalsky lake district . The lakes here are mostly remnants of disappeared larger reservoirs. Among them are the vast, now almost dried-up hollows of Zun-Torey and Barun-Torey.
Of the other lakes, the group of Eravninsky and Arakhleysky lakes in the Chita region, as well as Borzinsky self-sustaining lakes, can be noted.
Nizhne-Amur lake district . Within the lowland that accompanies the lower reaches of the Amur, there is a significant number of large, but shallow water bodies. Such, for example, are the lakes: Petropavlovskoye, Bolen, Zvvo, Kizi, Orel, Chlya, Chukchagirskoye, etc.
Yakutsk Lake District covers the territory of the Leno-Vilyui lowland and the Leno-Amga watershed. There are several tens of thousands of small lakes here.
The origin of such a large number of lakes is associated with thermokarst phenomena.
Subpolar Sea Lake District includes the tundra zone of the coast of the Arctic Ocean abounding in lakes. Especially many lakes are located within the Kolyma and Indigirka lowlands. Numerous lakes of the Subpolar Lowland are predominantly small in size: their origin, as well as the small lakes of the Vilyui Lowland, is associated with thermokarst phenomena.
Kamchatka Lake District. The lakes of Kamchatka are not numerous, but very peculiar. These are the so-called volcanic lakes, developed in the craters and calderas of extinct volcanoes. Their dimensions are small, but the depths are sometimes very significant.
By size:
1) Small - lake area less than 10 km 2
2) Medium - lake area within 10 ¸100 km 2
3) Large - area 100 ¸1000 km 2
4) Very big - area over 1000 km2
Despite the variety of forms of lake basins (natural depressions of the earth's surface), in most lakes, with the exception of small ones, they are quite clearly distinguished in terms of depth and bottom structure. 2 parts:
1) Coastal shallow part - littoral, exposed to the action of unrest and containing higher aquatic vegetation - macrophytes;
There are few questions that have so many answers. The name Rus was erected to dew, the river Ros, blond hair, the Greek word "red", the Scythian word "white", the tribes of Rug and Rosomon, the island of Rügen and even mermaids. Many similar words, roots, names exist in the space from the Baltic to the Black Sea steppes. Which version should you follow? Whose arguments to listen to?
Most often, modern researchers build a chain of reasoning, starting from the oldest Russian historical monument - The Tale of Bygone Years. Scientists have noticed: the peoples placed by the chronicler in the expanses of Russian land, according to the form of names, fall into three categories. The first is made up of Slavic tribes, whose names end in -ane, -ene (glade, drevlyans, slovenes). The second category is formed by names in -ichi (Krivichi, Radimichi, Dregovichi). They also belong to the Slavic tribes. The third category is formed by monosyllabic names with a soft consonant at the end (vod, chud, sum). So in the annals are designated the peoples who lived in the north of the East European Plain and spoke the languages of the Finnish group. With what category does "Rus" resemble? Obviously with a third. So, you can try to find the origins of the name in the north, where the Finnish speech sounded.
And there is an analogy. Since the Middle Ages and to this day, the Swedes in Finland are called "ruotsi". Scientists suggest that this word comes from the Old Norse verb "ruo" - "sail, row." "Ruotsi" - "rowers, sailors." So the ancient inhabitants of the Finnish coast called the Vikings who sailed to them from neighboring Scandinavia. Other neighbors of the Finnish tribes were the Slavs. They adopted the word "ruotsi" and transformed it according to the laws of their language: "ruotsi" turned into "Rus", just as the self-name of the Western Finns "suomi" turned into "sum" in Russian chronicles.
At first, the Slavs called "Rus" the Vikings - Scandinavian sailors and warriors. Often, Scandinavian troops were hired to serve the Slavic leaders. There were professional princely squads. And the word "Rus" acquired a new meaning: that was the name of the prince's squad now. The squad consisted not only of the Scandinavians, it also included Slavic warriors. The concept of "Rus" referred to the squad as a whole and denoted the prince's close associates and soldiers. Over time, “Rus” began to be called the territory that the princely squad controlled or tried to control. The name of the ruling class became the name of the country.
So, according to many researchers, the origin of the name "Rus" is associated with the concept of "rowers". Therefore, the name of our country comes from an occupation that is fully consistent with its river expanses.
The name of the country according to the ancient occupations of its inhabitants is not uncommon. Our neighbors call their country Suomi. But for the rest of Europe, it is Finland, "the country of the Finns." How did this name come about? The word "Finn" came to European languages from the ancient German dialects. It translates as "seeker" or "hunter". The oldest inhabitants of the Finnish land were engaged in hunting, the skins they obtained reached the Roman Empire. The name "Finland" - "the land of hunters" was assigned to the country not by chance.
The name "England" also arose in a similar way. Have you ever thought that "England" and "needle" sound similar? If it seemed, you were absolutely right. Both words go back to an ancient Indo-European root meaning "sharp object". The name "England" was given to the country by the tribes of the Angles - immigrants from Scandinavia, from the territory of modern Denmark. The name of these tribes comes from the concept of "sharp object, fishhook". In their homeland, the Angles lived by fishing. In the IV-VI centuries, the Angles moved to the British Isles, leaving their former "England" - part of the Jutland Peninsula. It turns out that England is a "country of fishermen."
FINAL TEST ON THE TOPIC "WESTERN ASIA IN ANCIENT"
OPTION 1
1. Is the following statement true?
The mastery of iron contributed to the development of agriculture, which until then flourished only in river valleys with soft, fatty soils.
1) true 2) false
2. The first states in the Ancient Mesopotamia arose
1) 3 thousand years ago
2) 5 thousand years ago
3) 4 thousand years ago
3. Ancient states of Western Asia
1) Egypt
2) Babylon
3) Assyria
Find and indicate the number of the state that is superfluous in this list.
4. Establish a correspondence between countries and their capitals. Write in the table the selected numbers under the corresponding letters.
CAPITAL COUNTRY
A) Nineveh 1) Phoenicia
B) Sardis 2) Lydian Kingdom
C) Tire 3) Assyria
| BUT | B | AT |
| 3 | 2 | 1 |
5. The traveler, exhausted by wandering through the lifeless desert, was looking forward to the moment when a wonderful flowering land resembling a garden appeared before his eyes. Archaeologists come here to find clay tablets with priceless inscriptions on ancient hills. Stepped clay towers are also hidden in the hills - temples, only priests were allowed to climb to the top. This is
1) Phenicia 2) Persia 3) Mesopotamia
6. The expression "Babylonian pandemonium" means
1) joyful event, celebration
2) confusion, confusion, terrible fuss
3) large construction
7. Arrange the following events in chronological order. Write the letters that denote the events in the correct sequence in the table.
A) the emergence of the Persian state, the "kingdom of countries"
B) laws of Hammurabi
C) the formation of the first Phoenician colonies
D) the foundation of the cities of Ur and Uruk in Mesopotamia
| G | B | AT | BUT |
8. The largest rulers of the ancient states of Western Asia
1) Solomon
2) Ashurbanipal
3) Shamash
5) Hammurabi
Find and indicate the number of the item that is superfluous in this list.
9. Persian and Assyrian military powers (check a few)
1) formed as a result of conquest and conquest of other states
2) subjugated vast territories to their power, differing in language, religion, level of economic development
3) conducted a cautious policy towards the conquered peoples, sought to live in peace with them
4) the conquered population was treated cruelly, essentially robbed of it
5) were very durable and resistant
10. Read the text and fill in the gaps with the correct words.
The ancient states of Western Asia made a significant contribution to the history of world civilization. In Mesopotamia, a written language as ancient as Egyptian hieroglyphs arose - cuneiform. In the Old Testament, the commandments that underlie modern moral standards are formulated: do not steal, do not kill, do not lie. The famous library was founded in the capital of Assyria at the behest of King Ashurbanipal.
marked with this color right answers
Rivers are permanent or temporary streams of water flowing in the deepening of the relief developed by them, fed by runoff from their catchment area. Every river has a source, that is, the place where it begins. The source of the river can be an outlet of groundwater (Volga), a spring, a swamp, a lake (Angara). In the high mountains, rivers usually start from glaciers (Amazon). The place where a river flows into another river, lake or sea is called a mouth. It is easy to see that the river flows in a depression in the relief, which is called the river valley. At the bottom of it there is a depression through which the river flows. This depression is called a channel. During the flood, the river overflows its banks and floods the lower part of the river valley, which is called the river floodplain. Every river has tributaries that are usually shorter than the main river. In places where there is a lot of precipitation, the river has many tributaries (Amazon), and in desert areas where precipitation is extremely rare, there are few tributaries, and sometimes none at all (Nile). The tributary that flows into the main river on the right, if you look downstream, is called right, and on the left - left. A river with all its tributaries forms a river system. The area from which a river system collects water is called a river basin. The boundary between basins is called a watershed. Most often they are mountains or hills. The direction and nature of the flow of rivers is influenced by the terrain. Rivers flow slowly over flat terrain. This is explained by the fact that the sources of lowland rivers are at a low altitude, and the terrain along which they flow has a small slope. The valleys of lowland rivers are wide, their slopes are sloping, and their relative height does not exceed several tens of meters. The lowland rivers include the Volga, Ob, Don, Amazon, Mississippi, Congo, Nile, Dnieper. The rivers flowing through the mountainous terrain rush at high speed, boil, foam. Their sources are located high in the mountains. The terrain over which they flow has a large slope. As a rule, mountain rivers flow in narrow rocky valleys with steep slopes. It takes tens and even hundreds of thousands of years for the river to cut its own valley in the mountains. Often the channels of mountain rivers, in contrast to the plains, occupy the entire bottom of the valley. Many rivers, starting in the mountains, change when they enter the plain. An example of such a river is the Terek. It originates in the Caucasus Mountains at an altitude of more than 5000 meters and flows into the Caspian Sea. The Terek passes the first stages of its journey like a mountain river. Here he races 600 km, descending from a height of 5000 meters along a rocky gorge. Having entered the plain, the river flows slowly and meanders along the bottom of a wide valley lined with sediments brought from above.
Lake - this is the accumulation of water in a natural depression on land. It consists of a lake bowl or a bed filled with water to the brim. This body of water is not connected to the sea and ocean. Knowing what a lake is, it is easier to understand its origin. And it differs significantly. There is a lake: tectonic, glacial, river, seaside. There are also failure, mountain, crater and artificial.
What is a lake, what are its features? First, unlike rivers, lakes do not have currents and are not part of the oceans. Secondly, lakes have different mineralization of water. The deepest and freshest lake is Baikal. And the largest lake, and, in terms of salt composition, similar to ocean water, is the Caspian. Once it was the sea, as it was connected to the ocean.
There is also a division of lakes by position, by water balance, by the chemical composition of water and by the nutritional value of the substances contained in the lake.
Types of lake basins:
Tectonic- are formed in troughs of the earth's crust on the plains (Ladoga, Onega, Ilmen, Upper in North America), in troughs in the mountains (Markakol, Sonkel, Issyk-Kul, Alakol), in foothill depressions (Balkhash), in rift depressions (Baikal, Tanganyika). Most tectonic lakes are large in area and depth. Volcanic- arise in craters and calderas of extinct volcanoes (lakes on Java Island, lakes Bolsena, Albeno, Avernskoye in Italy, Kronotskoye in Kamchatka), in deepenings of lava covers (Lake Komarino in Iceland), in maars (Lacherskoe Lake in the Eifel massif , Germany). meteorite- are formed in depressions that arose during the fall of meteorites (Lake Kaali in Estonia). Glacial- their occurrence is associated with the exaration-accumulative activity of ancient and modern glaciers. Numerous lakes in Karelia and Finland owe their origin to the exaration activity of the glacier. They are often elongated in the direction of glacier movement. This group also includes cirque and trough lakes. Caravans arose in kars and cirques - niche-shaped depressions on the upper slopes of the trough mountains - in the trough valleys (Lake Geneva). Distributed in the Alps, the Caucasus, the Tien Shan and other mountainous countries. Failed- lakes, the basins of which arose as a result of leaching of soils and rocks by surface and mainly underground waters, as well as during the thawing of permafrost soil or the melting of ice in it. The failed lakes include: a) karst, b) suffusion and c) thermokarst lakes (in Yakut - alas). The latter are common in the tundra and taiga zones of the permafrost region. The basins of suffosion and thermokarst lakes often have an oval shape, poorly indented shores and shallow depths. eolian- lakes that have arisen in the hollows of blowing, as well as between dunes and dunes. With rare exceptions, they are small in size and shallow (Lake Selety, Teke in Kazakhstan).
Podprudnye- the emergence of these lakes is associated with mountain landslides, landslides blocking river valleys, damming of rivers by lava flows, moraines of glaciers. Thus, dammed lakes are formed under the action of several processes. So, as a result of landslides caused by an earthquake, Lake. Sarez in the valley of the river. Murgab in the Pamirs, lake. Gekgel - in the valley of the river. Aksu in Azerbaijan, lake. Sevan, which arose in a tectonic depression, dammed by a lava flow. Organogenic- intramarsh lakes and lagoon lakes among coral structures (atolls).
A swamp (also swamp, bog) is a piece of land (or landscape) characterized by excessive moisture, high acidity and low soil fertility, stagnant or flowing groundwater coming to the surface, but without a permanent layer of water on the surface. The swamp is characterized by the deposition of incompletely decomposed organic matter on the soil surface, which later turns into peat. The layer of peat in swamps is at least 30 cm, if less, then these are wetlands. Wetlands are an integral part of the hydrosphere. The first swamps on Earth formed at the junction of the Silurian and Devonian 350-400 million years ago.
More common in the Northern Hemisphere, in forests. In Russia, they are distributed in the north of the European part, in Western Siberia, in Kamchatka. In Belarus and Ukraine, swamps are concentrated in Polesie (the so-called Pinsk swamps). M. V. Lomonosov began research into the nature of swamps, and the Soviet botanist V. S. Dokturovsky, the creator of the manual on swamp science, made a great contribution.
