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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"CHELYABINSK STATE UNIVERSITY"

FACULTY OF CORRESPONDENCE AND DISTANCE LEARNING

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

TEST

in the discipline "Pedagogical psychology"

Topic: Psychological patterns of knowledge acquisition

I've done the work

student gr.15PZ-401

Prosekova E.A.

Checked the work

Trushina I.A.

cand. ped. Sciences, Associate Professor

Chelyabinsk 2015

1. Essence of knowledge

Knowledge is the core of the content of education. On their basis, students develop skills, mental and practical actions. Knowledge is the basis of moral beliefs, aesthetic views and worldview.

The concept of "knowledge" is ambiguous and has several definitions. In the new "Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia" knowledge is the result of the process of cognition of reality, verified by socio-historical practice and certified by logic; its adequate reflection in the human mind in the form of ideas, concepts, judgments, theories. Knowledge is fixed in the form of signs of natural and artificial languages. (7)

Knowledge and the correctly chosen path of their assimilation is a prerequisite for the mental development of students. By itself, knowledge does not yet ensure the completeness of mental development, but without them the latter is impossible. Being an integral part of a person’s worldview, knowledge to a large extent determines his attitude to reality, moral views and beliefs, volitional personality traits and serves as one of the sources of a person’s inclinations and interests, a necessary condition for the development of his abilities. (6)

The learning process consists of several stages. The first of these is the perception of an object, which is associated with the selection of this object from the background and the determination of its essential properties. The stage of perception replaces the stage of comprehension, at which the most significant extra- and intra-subject connections and relations are perceived. The next stage of knowledge formation involves the process of capturing and remembering the selected properties and relationships as a result of their repeated perception and fixation. Then the process moves to the stage of active reproduction by the subject of perceived and understood essential properties and relationships. The process of assimilation of knowledge completes the stage of their transformation, which is associated either with the inclusion of newly acquired knowledge in the structure of past experience, or with its use as a means of constructing or highlighting another new knowledge.

2. The process of assimilation of knowledge and its psychological components

Knowing the patterns of the assimilation process allows you to answer questions that arise in the organization of any learning process. Disclosure of learning objectives allows you to answer the question of what training is organized for. Knowledge of the content of training answers the question of what needs to be taught in order to achieve the goals. Awareness of the patterns of assimilation makes it possible to answer the question of how to teach: what methods to choose, in what sequence to use them, etc.

The process of mastering knowledge is always the performance by students of certain cognitive actions. That is why, when planning the assimilation of any knowledge, it is necessary to determine in what activity they should be used by students, for what purpose they are assimilated. In addition, the teacher must be sure that students have all the necessary in this case, the system of actions that make up the ability to learn.

Action is a unit of analysis of students' activities. The teacher must be able not only to single out the actions included in various types of cognitive activity of students, but also to know their structure, functional parts, basic properties, stages and patterns of their formation.

In order to perform any action, a preliminary consideration of many conditions is necessary. For example, the properties of the material and tool, the sequence of operations, etc. Preliminary orientation is required. The action itself, its executive part, can be very simple. Its tentative basis is complex and extensive. In the formation of skills and habits, what type of orienting basis of action was used by the teacher is of great importance. The baseline can be:

1) degree of completeness: incomplete, complete, redundant;

2) method of obtaining: to be given ready-made or allocated independently by children;

3) degree of generalization: specific or generalized.

In this regard, several types of indicative bases are distinguished, each of which creates certain conditions for the formation of skills and abilities.

The first type of indicative framework is characterized by the fact that its composition is incomplete, the guidelines are presented in a specific form, the student is shown the final result (what to do?) And a sample (how to do it?). Landmarks are allocated to students through blind trials, the process of forming his skills and abilities with such an indicative basis is slow and with a large number of errors - “the path of trial and error”.

The second type of indicative basis is characterized by the presence of all the conditions necessary for the performance of actions. Students are given a complete program for the sequence of all operations - an algorithm. But this program is offered ready-made and in a concrete form, which is suitable for orientation only in this case. With such an orienting basis, the formation of the student's action proceeds quickly and without error. The formed action is more stable than in the first type. However, the transfer of actions beyond the boundaries of similar specific conditions is not carried out, which indicates the absence of a qualitative shift in the intellectual development of the student.

The third type of orientation base contributes to the formation of full-fledged skills and leads to a significant shift in the mental development of the child. The third type of indicative basis is characterized by the fact that it has a complete composition. Landmarks are presented in a generalized form, characteristic of a whole class of phenomena. In each particular case, the student makes up an indicative framework on his own with the help of the general method that is given to him. The action is developed quickly and accurately, very stable and has a breadth of transference. Such a transfer becomes possible thanks to the ability to outline a complete orienting basis for any new task, the ability to analyze the internal structure of a new object, and not through trials and empirical selection. The wider and more accurate the transfer of mastered actions in a person, the more he has learned, the more fruitful the results of the skill and the more effective his activity. In addition to the type of orientation base, the nature of the exercises in the development of skills and abilities is of great importance.

To assimilate knowledge on any subject means to assimilate a system of scientific concepts: mathematical, historical, biological, etc.

At primary school age, learning activity becomes the leading one, in the course of which the child is introduced to the achievements of human culture, the assimilation of knowledge and skills accumulated by previous generations.

The educational activity of younger schoolchildren is regulated and supported by a complex multi-level system of motives.

Research carried out in the laboratory of N.A. Menchinskaya, showed that children experience great difficulties in mastering concepts and may misinterpret them. In the opinion, for example, of a junior schoolchild, a mouse is a pet (because it lives at home), predatory animals are harmful, scary. The guys do not classify the cat as predators (she is good). In all such cases, past life experience interferes with the child in the process of mastering knowledge. However, it is not only past worldly experience that interferes. There may be other reasons for errors in the assimilation of concepts. For example, in the initial stages of learning, students do not differentiate concepts. If, when explaining, the teacher uses a small number of objects and they are monotonous, of the same type, then the children create one-sided, limited experience, which inhibits the isolation and generalization of essential features, which leads to errors. For example, in all sentences the subject was in the first place, then the child may incorrectly decide that the subject is what comes first in the sentence or the outer corner is always obtuse, the whale is a fish, and the potato is a fruit. Visual material should be diversified as much as possible, varying between insignificant and essential features.

Attitudes towards learning activities and learning motivation in grades 6-7 have a dual character. On the one hand, this is a period characterized by a decrease in the motivation for learning, which is explained by an increase in interest in the world outside the school, as well as a passion for communicating with peers. On the other hand, it is this period that is sensitive for the formation of new, mature forms of learning motivation.

The transition from primary school age to adolescence is at the same time a transition to a higher form of learning activity and a new attitude towards learning, which acquires personal meaning precisely during this period.

In classes of "advanced level", gymnasium, specialized, etc., focused on continuing learning, a drop in learning motivation, including direct interest in learning, can be observed only in individual students who, for one reason or another, cannot open for himself personal meaning in teaching.

In ordinary classes, oriented at best to receive secondary education (short-term educational perspective), there is a sharp decrease in learning motivation precisely because schoolchildren do not see the point in obtaining knowledge, and the value of school knowledge is not included in their idea of ​​adulthood.

Galperin P.Ya. and his collaborators in their experiments used the following technique: the signs of the concept were written out on a card, which the student used at the first stage of using the new concept. At the same time, only the signs that were necessary and sufficient for such an application of the concept, which is required at a given level of education, were included in the card. For example, for the concept of the subject in work with third-graders, the following features were identified as such features: the subject is a word that answers the questions who?, what?, standing in the nominative case.

The task of the student was to, based on these features of the concept, decide the question to which words in the sentence they are applicable. The student was given a variety of sentences, where the subject was expressed by different parts of speech. Initially, he used a card, then he performed the task without a card, naming the signs out loud, then silently, mentally. Such formation of concepts is called by Galperin stage-by-stage. (3)

These stages are not pure, each includes elements of other stages. Nevertheless, all these stages, as the researchers point out, are necessary in the general process of assimilation of the concept. It is especially important for successful assimilation that the stage of external (materialized) action is not missed. In my example, this is working with cards. The significance of the first stage can be judged not only on the basis of the results of assimilation, but also on the behavior of students: the opportunity to use the card at the initial stage of assimilation significantly increases their activity. This is due to the fact, notes P.Ya. Galperin, that by taking a card, the student receives a tool in his own hands and becomes the master of the situation, while in its absence he is a passive executor of other people's instructions. This, of course, affects the assimilation of the concept. It also means a lot that with this method of teaching the concept could not be learned formally, since from the very beginning learning took place on the basis of its application: the separation of assimilation from the practice of use turned out to be impossible. At the same time, assimilation was not limited to practical skills, since the student could always justify why he believes that this concept is applicable (or inapplicable) in this case. Therefore, assimilation was conscious.

3. Psychological patterns of the formation of skills and abilities

The result of learning, first of all, is the formation of various types of cognitive activity or its individual elements: concepts, ideas, various mental actions.

In teaching, the presence or absence of attention plays a big role. “Attention is the only door of our soul through which everything that is in consciousness passes; therefore, not a single word of the teacher can pass through this door, otherwise it will not enter the soul of the child. To teach him to keep these doors open is a matter of first importance, on the success of which the success of all learning is based, ”wrote the great Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky. (9) A student can only learn successfully if he has attention. Listening attentively to the teacher's explanations in the lesson, he better perceives, understands and remembers its content; Accuracy, accuracy, error-free performance of written work are possible only with focused attention. Assimilation by students of the current programs is possible only with a high level of development of their attention.

The main task is to constantly maintain the mental activity of children, which requires attention. In the assimilation of educational material, the role of sensual, visual reflection is great. It is important to develop purposeful perception, to turn perception into a process of observation. The success of perception depends on the active work of several analyzers: auditory, visual, motor, etc. And this, in turn, is achieved, especially in the lower grades, by observing the didactic principle of visibility. Psychologically, it is very important to correctly organize the process of perception of visibility: subject, pictorial, verbal and sign-symbolic.

The correct organization of the perception of the material largely ensures its understanding, comprehension, and prevents possible subsequent memorization. It is necessary to teach schoolchildren the ability to single out the main, essential provisions of the educational material. The teacher himself needs to think about how to ensure the process of understanding the material. Understanding in many cases is facilitated by the creation of correct vivid images. It is no coincidence that in order to better understand, we mentally create an image, and sometimes express it in a diagram, drawing or drawing. The lack of images or the wrong image can interfere with understanding. For example, it is difficult for a student to understand the historical situation, the era, if he does not have imaginary images or they are incorrect.

Memorization depends on the nature of the activity. Experiments P.I. Zinchenko, A.A. Smirnov show that the greatest efficiency of memorization will be in the case when it occurs in vigorous activity. If the student himself comes up with tasks, works with the text, then memorization will be more effective. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the students themselves find it difficult to discover these techniques on their own. The task of the teacher is to equip them with rational memorization techniques.

Skills are a combination of knowledge and skills that ensure the successful performance of an activity. The range of skills that the student must master is very large. One of the most important tasks of school education is to teach students the methods of mental activity and independently perform mental operations, such as: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, classification and systematization. With their help, to obtain products of mental activity - concepts, judgments, conclusions. Mastering the techniques of mental activity provides partial automatism for the implementation of specific actions in educational activities.

Conclusion

Assimilation, representing a complex heterogeneous process, includes interdependent stages and is characterized by a number of features that are most clearly manifested in the formation and development of skills.

The learning activity of a student is a complex dynamic heterogeneous control object. It is a personally conditioned active, purposeful interaction of a student (student) with other students (students), with a teacher (teacher) - an interaction that should be controlled by the latter in all its links with a different degree of flexibility.

student skill psychological knowledge

List of used literature

1. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.

2. Galperin P.Ya. Teaching methods and mental development of the child. M., 1985.

3. Menchinskaya N.A. Problems of training, education and mental development of the child. M.: MPSI, Voronezh: Modek, 2004.

4. Nurminsky I.I., Gladysheva N.K. Statistical patterns of formation of knowledge and skills of students. M., 1991.

5. Polyakova A.V. Assimilation of knowledge and development of younger schoolchildren / Ed. L.V. Zankov. M., 1978.

6. Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia: In 2 vols. / Ch. ed. V.V. Davydov. - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1998, ill. T. 2 - M - I - 1999.

7. Talyzina N. F. Pedagogical psychology: Proc. allowance for students. avg. ped. textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 1998.

8. Ushinsky K.D. Collected works, v.10M. - L., 1952.

9. Fridman L.M. Psychopedagogy of General Education: A Handbook for Students and Teachers. M., 1997.

10. Elkonin D.B. Selected psychological works. M., 1989.

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LECTURE No. 5. The content of education

1. The concept of the content of education

The concept of the content of education means a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes and creative activity that a student masters during the learning process.

The core social function of education is the development of a personality that meets the needs of society. Education is built on the basis of relationships developed by mankind in the course of historical development. Each of the school subjects has an educational setting. Moreover, each subject is important for raising the overall level of development of the student. In the modern educational system, every student has the right to choose subjects for education. Such courses are called elective, i.e. elective courses. The system is designed to ensure that the student can engage in core subjects for himself and not waste time studying "unnecessary" subjects.

The needs of society are the determining factor in characterizing the content of education. Knowledge, skills and abilities (KAS) is a system of practical, moral and ideological ideas accumulated by generations and specially selected in accordance with the goals of the development of society.

1. Knowledge is understanding, the ability to analyze, reproduce and put into practice certain elements of social experience, expressed in concepts, categories, laws, facts, theories.

2. Skill - the ability to put into practice the knowledge gained in the learning process.

3. Skill - an integral component of skill, brought to perfection.

4. Attitude - the ability to evaluate and emotionally perceive the experience of generations.

5. Creative activity is the highest form of human activity and self-expression.

It is possible to identify several laws in accordance with which the content of education should be built.

1. At any stage of education, it should follow one goal - the formation of a comprehensively, harmoniously developed, competitive personality. To achieve this task, it is important to ensure mental development, aesthetic, moral, physical education, and labor training.

2. The most important criterion for constructing the content of education is the scientific basis of education. Teaching must include rigorously scientific statements that are consistent with the current state of science.

4. Theoretical knowledge should not be obtained in isolation from practical training. The connection between theory and practice is a necessary condition for normal learning.

2. Culture as the basis for building and determining the content of education

One of the sources of formation of the content of education is culture. Culture (along with social experience) determines the factors for selecting material, the principles for constructing and building it into an appropriate structure. Culture determines the presence of such elements in the content of education as the experience of social relations, spiritual values, forms of social consciousness, etc.

There are a number of principles for the formation of the content of education from the field of culture (art):

1) the principle of unity of ideological content and artistic form;

2) the principle of harmonious cultural development of the individual;

3) the principle of ideological community and the relationship of art;

4) the principle of taking into account age characteristics.

The implementation of the above principles is aimed at raising the general cultural level of students and teachers as well.

Subjects based on these principles represent a culturological cycle consisting of disciplines in accordance with the defining role of personal culture. Such subjects are aimed at overcoming the neglect of the personal culture of the teacher and the student in the traditional school.

The purpose of the culturological cycle is the formation of personal culture as a way of self-realization of the individual in professional and non-professional creativity. Cultural education is provided by training courses that present:

1) fundamental knowledge about culture as a way of human life, expressing its generic specificity;

2) knowledge about specific forms of cultural activity, the theoretical and practical development of which provides the necessary level of a person's personal culture;

3) the basic concepts of the theory of culture (the idea of ​​its structure, the patterns of its development, the understanding of man as the creator of culture, helping the student to understand the personal meaning of culture).

Artistic education and emotional culture is the area of ​​human activity that develops universal creative abilities, productive thinking, enriches intuition, the sphere of feelings. Mastering the values ​​of world artistic culture, a person acquires the experience of co-creation, the ability for a dialogue of cultures.

It is necessary to make the elements of the culturological cycle of disciplines an obligatory component of each lesson. For this purpose, there are special forms of extracurricular activities: a lesson-excursion, a lesson-discussion, etc.

Excursion is one of the types of extracurricular educational work. These can be excursions of this kind, such as going to a museum, to some enterprise, to a theater, etc. An effective way is to hold debates, evenings of questions and answers on certain topics, more often on cultural or moral topics. People working in the field of culture can be invited to such evenings. Their direct communication with children most often gives a more positive result than dry theory, stories and lectures.

Aesthetic education in education is carried out both in the process of teaching a number of general educational disciplines (literature, geography, history), and with the help of aesthetic disciplines (music, fine arts).

1. Stages of education

Each student has individual personal and activity characteristics. At the same time, all students at a certain educational level are characterized by initial common and typical features for them.

1. The elementary school stage is the beginning of the social existence of a person as a subject of educational activity. Readiness for schooling means the formation of attitudes towards school, learning, and knowledge. Expectation of the new, interest in it underlie the educational motivation of the younger student.

In primary school, the primary schoolchildren form the main elements of the leading activity during this period, the necessary learning skills and abilities. During this period, forms of thinking develop that ensure the further assimilation of the system of scientific knowledge, the development of scientific, theoretical thinking. There are preconditions for self-orientation in learning and everyday life. Educational activities, including the acquisition of new knowledge, the ability to solve various problems, educational cooperation, the acceptance of the teacher's authority, are leading in this period of development of a person who is in the educational system.

2. In middle school (adolescent) age (from 10–11 to 14–15 years old), communication with peers in the context of one's own learning activities plays a leading role. The activities inherent in children of this age include such types as educational, social-organizational, sports, artistic, labor. When performing these types of useful activities, adolescents develop a conscious desire to participate in socially necessary work, to become socially significant.

As a subject of educational activity, a teenager is characterized by a tendency to assert his position of subjective exclusivity, a desire to stand out in some way.

3. A senior student (the period of early youth from 14-15 to 17 years old) enters a new social situation of development immediately upon transition from secondary school to senior classes or to new educational institutions - gymnasiums, colleges, schools. This situation is characterized by a focus on the future: the choice of lifestyle, profession. The need for choice is dictated by the life situation, initiated by parents and directed by the educational institution. During this period, value-oriented activity acquires the main significance.

A high school student as a subject of educational activity is characterized by a qualitatively new content of this activity. Along with internal cognitive motives for mastering knowledge in subjects that have a personal semantic value, broad social and narrowly personal external motives appear, among which achievement motives occupy a large place. Educational motivation changes qualitatively in structure, since for a high school student, learning activity itself is a means of realizing the life plans of the future.

The main subject of a high school student's learning activity, i.e., what it is aimed at, is the structural organization, the systematization of individual experience by expanding, supplementing, introducing new information.

2. Individual and typical characteristics of students in the learning process

The effect of training depends not only on its content and methods, but also on the individual characteristics of the personality of schoolchildren. Features that are important in the learning process.

1. The level of mental development of the child, which is often identified with the ability to learn. The criteria on the basis of which a student falls into a group of highly developed or underdeveloped ones are academic success, the speed and ease of mastering knowledge, the ability to quickly and adequately respond to lessons, etc. The teacher can divide the class into groups, guided by the mental development of children, and give each group of tasks of the corresponding difficulty.

2. Features associated with individual manifestations of the basic properties of the nervous system. Combinations of the basic properties of the nervous system form the types of the nervous system; therefore, such properties are often called individual-typological.

Taking into account both the psychophysiological and psychological traits of schoolchildren is important to achieve two main goals - to increase the effectiveness of education and facilitate the work of the teacher. Firstly, if the teacher has an idea about the individual characteristics of a student, he will know how they affect his learning activity: how he manages his attention, whether he quickly and firmly remembers, how long he thinks about the question, whether he quickly perceives educational material , confident in himself, how he experiences censure and failure.

Knowing these qualities of a student means taking the first step in organizing his productive work. Secondly, using these data and implementing an individual approach to teaching, the teacher will work more effectively himself, which will free him from additional classes with underachievers, from repeating unlearned sections of the program, etc.

At school, the principle of an individual approach can be implemented in the form of individualization and differentiation. There are two criteria that underlie individualization:

1) orientation to the level of achievements of the student;

2) orientation to the procedural features of his activities.

Determining the level of achievement, i.e., the success of a student in different school subjects, is not difficult. Taking into account the developmental levels of students and adapting teaching to them is the most common type of individual approach. It can be carried out in different ways, but most often the teacher chooses the individualization of tasks.

The second form of an individual approach, which takes into account the procedural parameters of the educational activity of schoolchildren, is much less common. The most important way to individualize this form is to help the student in the formation of an individual style of learning activity.

Three indicators are distinguished, on the basis of which individual differences in the behavior of students and the characteristics of their personality are considered:

1) attitude to learning (conscious and responsible, accompanied by a pronounced interest in learning; conscientious, but without a pronounced interest; positive, but unstable; careless; negative);

2) organization of educational work (organization, systematic, independence, rationality);

3) mastering knowledge and skills.

3. Psychological patterns of the formation of skills and abilities

At primary school age, learning activity becomes the leading one, in the course of which the child is introduced to the achievements of human culture, the assimilation of knowledge and skills accumulated by previous generations.

The educational activity of younger schoolchildren is regulated and supported by a complex multi-level system of motives.

As they enter school life and master educational activities, younger students develop a complex system of motivation for learning, which includes the following groups of motives:

1) the motives inherent in the educational activity itself, associated with its direct product; motives related to the content of the doctrine (learning is motivated by the desire to learn new facts, to acquire knowledge, methods of action, to penetrate the essence of phenomena); motives associated with the learning process (learning is encouraged by the desire to display intellectual activity, the need to think, reason in the classroom, overcome obstacles in the process of solving difficult problems);

2) motives associated with the indirect product of learning and with what lies outside the educational activity itself:

a) broad social motives:

- motives of duty and responsibility to society, class, teacher, etc.;

– motives of self-determination and self-improvement;

b) narrow-minded motives:

- motives for well-being (the desire to get approval from teachers, parents, classmates, the desire to get good grades);

- prestigious motives (the desire to be among the first students, to be the best, to take a worthy place among comrades);

c) negative motives (avoidance of troubles that may arise from teachers, parents, classmates if the student does not study well).

Attitudes towards learning activities and learning motivation in grades 6–7 have a dual character. On the one hand, this is a period characterized by a decrease in the motivation for learning, which is explained by an increase in interest in the world outside the school, as well as a passion for communicating with peers. On the other hand, it is this period that is sensitive for the formation of new, mature forms of learning motivation.

The transition from primary school age to adolescence is at the same time a transition to a different, higher form of learning activity and a new attitude towards learning, which acquires personal meaning precisely during this period.

In classes of "advanced level", gymnasium, specialized, etc., focused on continuing learning, a drop in learning motivation, including direct interest in learning, can be observed only in individual students who, for one reason or another, cannot open for himself personal meaning in teaching.

In ordinary classes, oriented at best to receive secondary education (short-term educational perspective), there is a sharp decrease in learning motivation precisely because schoolchildren do not see the point in obtaining knowledge, and the value of school knowledge is not included in their idea of ​​adulthood.

Assimilation is the basic concept of all theories of learning (learning, learning activity), regardless of whether it is singled out as an independent process or identified with learning. Assimilation, being a complex, multi-valued concept, can be interpreted from different positions, from the point of view of different approaches.

Firstly, assimilation is a mechanism, a way for a person to form individual experience through acquisition, “assignment”, in terms of A.N. Leontiev, socio-cultural socio-historical experience as a set of knowledge, meanings, generalized methods of action (respectively skills and abilities), moral norms, ethical rules of behavior. Such assimilation is carried out throughout a person's life as a result of observation, generalization, decision-making and one's own actions, regardless of how it proceeds - spontaneously or in special conditions of educational systems.

Secondly, assimilation is a complex intellectual activity of a person, including all cognitive processes (sensory-perceptual, mnemonic) that provide reception, semantic processing, preservation and reproduction of the received material.

Thirdly, assimilation is the result of learning, learning activities. Speaking about the strength, consistency, quality of mastering the educational material, researchers most often have in mind the productive side. In relation to educational activity, assimilation acts as its content, “the central part of the learning process”, according to S.L. Rubinstein. Moreover, according to V.V. Davydov, the assimilation of scientific knowledge and the corresponding skills acts as the main goal and the main result of the activity.

Disclosure of learning objectives allows you to answer the question of what training is organized for. Knowledge of the content of training answers the question of what needs to be taught in order to achieve the goals. Awareness of the patterns of assimilation makes it possible to answer the question of how to teach: what methods to choose, in what sequence to use them, etc.

In its most general form, assimilation is defined as the process of receiving, semantic processing, saving the acquired knowledge and applying it in new situations of solving practical and theoretical problems, i.e. using this knowledge in the form of the ability to solve new problems based on this knowledge. By definition, S.L. Rubinshtein, “the process of solid assimilation of knowledge is the central part of the learning process. This is a psychologically very complex process. It is in no way reducible to memory or to the strength of memorization. It includes the perception of the material, its comprehension, its memorization and that mastery of it, which makes it possible to freely use it in various situations, operating on it in different ways, etc.”

All researchers of assimilation (learning) note that this is a heterogeneous process that includes several components, steps or phases. So, to the concept of “psychological components of assimilation” N.D. Levitov attributed 4 main components, later didactically interpreted by V.A. Krutetsky:

1) the positive attitude of students is expressed in their attention, interest in the content of the lesson	didactically associated with the optimal pace of learning for students of each specific age for assimilation of educational material;
2) the process of direct sensory familiarization with the material,	two essential moments of its organization in the process of assimilation: the visibility of the material itself and the education of observation among the trainees.
3) thinking as a process of active processing of the received material	is considered in terms of comprehension and understanding of all connections and relationships, the inclusion of new material in the system already existing in the experience of the student.
4) the process of storing and storing the received and processed information.	The greatest efficiency of these processes is determined by: a) the specificity of the setting for the conditions of memorization (time, purpose, nature of use in practice, etc.) and b) the student's involvement in his own active activity.

The component nature of assimilation is noted by all researchers of this process, although the components themselves are called differently.

At the same time, an in-depth analysis of the assimilation process, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, involves not so much the name of its components and their quantity, but the understanding that all the processes included in the condition - perception, memorization, thinking "are formed in the very course of learning." They are in a two-way learning process, where the teacher-student and the educational material are interconnected and interdependent. This, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, the first and basic principle of the correct interpretation of these processes themselves in educational activity and assimilation in general.

The main characteristics of assimilation. mastering is primarily characterized by strength, which is determined by the independence of the use of acquired knowledge and developed skills from time to time, differences in situations and conditions for their application. In general, the strength of assimilation significantly depends on the consistency, semantic organization of the perceived educational material, its personal significance and the emotional attitude that this material evokes in the student. If the educational material itself, its perception, memorization causes a feeling of joy, satisfaction, then this creates the psychological prerequisites for the effectiveness of assimilation. It is better to assimilate what is included in the activity and aimed at use in future practice.

An important characteristic of assimilation is its manageability. Management of assimilation can be carried out along the path of the gradual formation of mental actions; it can be implemented in a “classical” (traditional) way, through programmed or problem-based learning, etc. It is only important that assimilation be the object of control, and that it itself be specific to each academic subject.

The authors emphasize the personal conditionality of assimilation (and at the same time the influence of assimilation, educational activity on the formation of the student's personality). S.L. Rubinstein believed that the assimilation and, in general, the entire course of learning is essentially conditioned by those specific relationships that develop in the student in the process of learning to the educational material, to the teacher, to the learning itself, and the learning itself at the same time forms not only certain abilities, but and personality as a whole, its character and outlook.

All researchers (P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev, V.V. Davydov and others) note the psychological features of the nature of assimilation for different age periods of schoolchildren as in the use of means (mediation), and the ratio of reproductive and productive actions. At primary school age, there is usually a greater dependence of the student on the educational material. When reproducing it, he tends to always preserve the structure of the original; it is very difficult for him to reconstruct, recombine it. The senior student already has all the possibilities for this. The mechanism of assimilation is transfer, the internal mechanism of which is generalization. In the learning process, there is a generalization along three lines: a generalization of the principle, program and method of action. At the same time, if the generalization of the principle of action is the student's understanding of the basic rule, regularity, the main strategy of action, then the generalization of the method is the understanding of the way of its implementation. The program is a sequence of actions. In educational activity, therefore, all three components of generalization should be worked out.

Assimilation is also characterized by the readiness (ease) of updating knowledge and their completeness and consistency. An important characteristic of assimilation is the fact that its indicator is an action, the nature of which testifies to assimilation. In other words, the nature of actions indicates all the characteristics of assimilation.

The ambiguity in the definition of the concept of "knowledge" is due to the set of functions that is realized by knowledge. So, for example, in Didactics (from the Greek didaktikos - teaching, relating to learning) - the theory of education and training, a branch of pedagogy. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">didactics knowledge can also act as something that must be assimilated, i.e. as the goals of teaching, and as a result of the implementation of the didactic plan, and as the content, and as a means of pedagogical influence. Knowledge acts as a means of pedagogical influence because, entering the structure of the student's past individual experience, it changes and transforms this structure and thereby raises the student to a new level of mental development. Knowledge not only forms a new view of the world, but also changes the attitude towards it. From this follows the educational value of any knowledge.
Knowledge is a reflection in the child's head of the properties of objects, phenomena of the surrounding world (knowledge of facts, concepts, terms, definitions, laws, theories) and methods of acting with them (rules, techniques, methods, methods, prescriptions).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">Knowledge and the right way to learn it is a prerequisite for the mental development of students. By itself, knowledge does not yet ensure the completeness of mental development, but without them the latter is impossible. Being an integral part of a person’s worldview, knowledge to a large extent determines his attitude to reality, moral views and beliefs, volitional personality traits and serves as one of the sources of a person’s inclinations and interests, a necessary condition for his development. Abilities are individual personality traits that are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">ability(Polyakova A.V., 1978; abstract).

• Taking into account the didactic functions of knowledge listed above, the teacher faces several tasks:
  • a) transfer knowledge from its frozen fixed forms into the process of cognitive activity of students;
  • b) transform knowledge from the plan of its expression into the content of students' mental activity;
  • c) to make knowledge a means of forming a person as a person and a subject of activity.

7.1.3. Types of knowledge

• 3 knowledge can be:
  • pre-scientific;
  • worldly;
  • artistic (as a specific way of aesthetic assimilation of reality);
  • scientific (empirical and theoretical).

Worldly knowledge, based on common sense and everyday consciousness, are an important indicative basis for everyday human behavior. Ordinary knowledge is formed in everyday experience, on the basis of which external aspects and connections with the surrounding reality are reflected mainly. This form of knowledge develops and enriches itself as scientific knowledge progresses. At the same time, scientific knowledge itself absorbs the experience of everyday knowledge.
scientific knowledge is a systematized generalized categories of knowledge, the formation of which is based not only on experimental, empirical, but also on theoretical forms of reflection of the world and the laws of its development. Abstraction (from Latin abstractio - distraction) is one of the main operations of thinking, consisting in the fact that the subject, isolating any features of the object under study, is distracted from the rest. The result of this process is the construction of a mental product (concepts, models, theories, classifications, etc.), which is also denoted by the term "onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">in abstract forms, scientific knowledge and is not always available to everyone, therefore, it involves such changes in the form of its presentation that ensure the adequacy of its perception, understanding and assimilation, i.e. educational knowledge.Thus, educational knowledge is derived from scientific and, unlike the latter, there is knowledge of the already known or known (see Cross. 7.1).
Scientific knowledge can be transferred through organized, purposeful learning. They are characterized by comprehension of facts in the system of concepts of this science.
The scientific knowledge acquired by a student at school often diverges and even contradicts the worldly ideas and concepts of the child due to the limited or one-sided experience on which the latter relies. By assimilating scientific concepts that have a strictly defined meaning in a given scientific field (for example, the concept body in the course of physics), students understand them in accordance with a narrower (or broader) worldly meaning.
Intentional change, reorganization of scientific knowledge, simplification or reduction of subject diversity, which is reflected in scientific knowledge, taking into account the psychological capabilities of students, generates educational knowledge. Knowledge is a reflection in the child's head of the properties of objects, phenomena of the surrounding world (knowledge of facts, concepts, terms, definitions, laws, theories) and methods of acting with them (rules, techniques, methods, methods, prescriptions).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">3knowledge acquired in the learning process should be systematized, interconnected, cover everything basic in the area being studied, have a certain logical structure and be acquired in a certain sequence. Along with intra-subject connections, which usually relate to the same academic subject, inter-subject connections should also be created.

• According to V.I. Ginetsinsky, educational knowledge exists in three forms:
  • in the form of an academic discipline;
  • in the form of an educational text;
  • in the form of a learning task.

The adapted form of scientific knowledge forms an academic discipline, which includes, on the one hand, the subject area of ​​knowledge, and, on the other hand, knowledge of the patterns of cognitive activity. The language form of the expression of educational knowledge forms the educational text.
Any knowledge, including educational, is subjective in the form of its existence, and therefore it cannot be mechanically transferred "from head to head", like a baton passed from hand to hand. Knowledge can be assimilated only in the process of cognitive activity of the subject himself. It is by its subjectivity that scientific or educational knowledge differs from scientific or educational information, which is an objectified form of knowledge recorded in various texts.

7.1.4. Knowledge properties

• Knowledge can have different qualities. According to I.Ya. Lerner, V.M. Polonsky and others, such, for example, are:
  • A system is a set of interrelated elements that form a stable unity and integrity, which has integral properties and patterns.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">systematic ,
  • Generalization - the degree of selection of the properties of the object that are essential for the performance of the action from others that are not essential. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">generic ,
  • awareness,
  • flexibility,
  • efficiency,
  • completeness,
  • strength (Fig. 2) .
• The knowledge acquired in the learning process is characterized by a different depth of penetration of students into their essence, which, in turn, is due to:
  • the achieved level of knowledge of this field of phenomena;
  • learning objectives;
  • individual characteristics of students;
  • the stock of knowledge they already have;
  • their level of mental development;
  • the adequacy of the acquired knowledge to the age of the students.

Distinguish between the depth and breadth of knowledge, the degree of completeness of their coverage of objects and phenomena of a given area of ​​reality, their features, patterns, as well as the degree of detail of knowledge. Organized school education - in a broad sense - the joint activity of the teacher and students, aimed at the assimilation by the child of the meanings of objects of material and spiritual culture, ways of working with them; in a narrow sense, - the joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">learning requires a clear definition of the depth and breadth of knowledge, the establishment of their scope and specific content.
Awareness, meaningfulness of knowledge, saturation of their specific content, the ability of students not only to name and describe, but also to explain the studied facts, indicate their interrelations and relationships, substantiate the assimilated provisions, draw conclusions from them - all this distinguishes meaningful knowledge from formalized ones.
At school, it is mainly the completeness and strength of knowledge that is diagnosed; other parameters of knowledge in their influence on mental development often remain outside the attention of the teacher. Learning is the result of past experience and, on the other hand, the goal of future learning.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">Learning the student also includes the presence of separate disparate skills and abilities - both general educational (among them methods of searching for educational information, separate methods of memorizing, storing information, working with a book, etc.), and private (counting skills, writing, etc.). Their diagnostics reveals gaps in past learning outcomes. Learning is revealed by achievement tests, ordinary school tests
(; see the work of Avanesov V.S. "Theory and methods of pedagogical measurements").

7.1.5. Assimilation of knowledge

• Other signs of understanding can be cited, which are referred to when defining this concept:
  • the ability to recognize the common in different formulations;
  • independent reformulation of knowledge in the system of different concepts;
  • the ability to systematize, classify, group, qualify objects;
  • proof of theorems and justification of theories, the ability to give examples;
  • solving non-standard problems and solving problems in non-standard ways and other signs
    (; see the article by Chistyakova G.D. "The connection of language development with the process of mastering knowledge"),
    (; see the article by Alekseeva L. "Test control of the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities"),
    (; see the article by Dormidonova T.I. "Diagnostics of learning").

7.2. The essence of skills and abilities

7.2.1. Definition of the concepts "skill" and "skill"

The immediate goals of any educational subject are the assimilation by students of the Knowledge system - a reflection in the child's head of the properties of objects, phenomena of the world (knowledge of facts, concepts, terms, definitions, laws, theories) and ways of acting with them (rules, techniques, methods, methods, instructions).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">knowledge and mastery of certain skills and abilities. At the same time, mastering Skill is the ability to consciously perform a certain action. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">skills and A skill is a way of performing actions that has become automated as a result of exercises.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">skills takes place on the basis of the assimilation of effective knowledge, which determines the relevant skills and abilities, i.e. indicate how one or another skill or skill should be performed (see animation) .
In order to understand the question of the ways and mechanisms of the formation of skills and abilities in students, one must first understand what skills and skills provide (see Cross. 7.3).
The relationship between the concepts of "skills" and "skills" has not yet been clarified. Most psychologists and educators believe that skill is a higher psychological category than skills. Practitioners adhere to the opposite point of view: skills represent a higher stage of mastering physical exercises and labor actions than skills.
Some authors understand skills as the ability to carry out any activity at a professional level, while skills are formed on the basis of several skills that characterize the degree of mastery. Action is a relatively completed element of activity aimed at achieving a certain intermediate conscious goal. An action can be both external, performed in an expanded form with the participation of the motor apparatus and sensory organs, and internal, performed in the mind. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">actions . Therefore, skill precedes skill.
Other authors understand skills as the ability to carry out any action, operation. According to their concept, skill precedes skill, which is considered as a more perfect stage of mastering actions.
Skill and skill is the ability to perform one or another action. They differ in the degree (level) of mastery of this action.
Skill- this is the ability to act, which has not reached the highest level of formation, performed completely consciously.
Skill- this is the ability to act, which has reached the highest level of formation, performed automatically, without awareness of intermediate steps.
When a person reads a book, controlling its semantic and stylistic content, the reading of letters and words occurs automatically. When he reads the manuscript to identify typographical errors in it, then the control is already aimed at the perception of letters and words, and the semantic side of what is written goes by the wayside. But in both cases, a person knows how to read, and this ability has been brought to the level of a skill ().
Skill is an intermediate stage in mastering a new way of acting, based on some rule (knowledge) and corresponding to the correct use of knowledge in the process of solving a certain class of problems, but not yet at the level of skill. Skill is usually correlated with the level expressed at the initial stage in the form of acquired knowledge (rules, theorems, definitions, etc.), which is understood by students and can be arbitrarily reproduced. In the subsequent process of practical use of this knowledge, it acquires some operational characteristics, acting in the form of a correctly performed action, regulated by this rule. In case of any difficulties that arise, the student turns to the rule in order to control the action being performed or to work on the mistakes made.
Skills are automated components of a person's conscious action, which are developed in the process of its implementation. A skill emerges as a consciously automated action and then functions as an automated way of doing it. The fact that this action has become a habit means that the individual, as a result of the exercise, has acquired the ability to carry out this operation without making its implementation his conscious goal ().
This means that when we form in the process of learning - in a broad sense - the joint activity of the teacher and students, aimed at assimilation by the child of the meanings of objects of material and spiritual culture, ways of acting with them; in a narrow sense, - the joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">learning the ability of a student to perform some action, then at first he performs this action deployed, fixing in his mind every step of the action being performed. That is, the ability to perform an action is first formed as a skill. As this action is trained and performed, the skill improves, the process of performing the action is curtailed, the intermediate steps of this process are no longer realized, the action is performed fully automated - the student develops a skill in performing this action, i.e. skill goes into skill (see animation).
But in a number of cases, when the action is complex, and its implementation consists of many steps, with any improvement of the action, it remains a skill, without turning into a skill. Therefore, skills and abilities also differ depending on the nature of the corresponding actions.
If the action is elementary, simple, widely used when performing more complex actions, then its performance is usually formed as a skill, for example, the skill of writing, reading, oral arithmetic operations on small numbers, etc. If the action is complex, then the performance of this action, as a rule, is formed as a skill, which includes one or more skills.
Thus, the term "skill" has two meanings:
1) As the initial level of mastering some simple action. In this case, the skill is considered as the highest level of mastery of this action, its automated execution: the skill turns into a skill.
2) As the ability to consciously perform a complex action using a series of skills. In this case, a skill is an automated performance of elementary actions that make up a complex action performed with the help of a skill.

7.2.2. Levels of mastery of skills and abilities

The process of formation of educational Skill is the ability to consciously perform a certain action. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">skills and A skill is a way of performing actions that has become automated as a result of exercises.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">skills(general and narrow) is long and, as a rule, takes more than one year, and many of these skills (especially general ones) are formed and improved throughout a person’s life.

• You can set the following levels of student mastery of actions that correspond to both learning skills and skills
  • 0 level- students do not own this action at all (there is no skill).
  • 1 level- students are familiar with the nature of this action, they are able to perform it only with sufficient help from the teacher (adult);
  • 2 level- students are able to perform this action on their own, but only according to the model, imitating the actions of a teacher or peers;
  • 3 level- students are able to perform actions quite freely, realizing each step;
  • 4th level- students automatically, minimized and accurately perform actions (skill).

We emphasize that not all learning skills should reach the level of automation and become skills. Some learning skills are usually formed at school up to the 3rd level, others, mainly general, up to the 4th level, after which they are improved in subsequent training.

7.2.3. Application of knowledge, skills and abilities

• Within the framework of this approach, conditions were created that ensured the formation of new knowledge and skills with specified indicators. Four groups of conditions were identified:
  • Formation of motivation for student actions.
  • Ensuring the correct execution of the new action.
  • Education ("working out") of its desired properties.
  • The transformation of an action into a mental one by its phased development.
• These conditions were specified by P.Ya. Galperin in six stages of the formation of mental actions and concepts:
  1. The stage of creating and maintaining the motivational basis for action.
  2. The stage of creating the OOD and understanding it by the subjects.
  3. The stage of formation of an action in a material or materialized form.
  4. The stage of action formation in loud socialized speech.
  5. The stage of action formation in "external speech to oneself".
  6. The stage of action formation in inner speech (Fig. 8).

7.3.2. Stages of formation of mental actions

Action, before becoming mental, generalized, reduced and mastered, passes through transitional states. The main ones make up the stages of assimilation of the action, each of which is characterized by a set of changes in the basic properties (parameters) of the action. Let's reveal them in more detail.
The stage of drawing up the scheme of the indicative basis of action. At this stage, students receive the necessary explanations about the purpose of the action, its object, and the system of reference points. Here, the content of the orienting basis of the action is revealed to the students. They are shown how and in what order all three types of operations included in the action are performed: indicative, executive and control. This is not an action yet, but only an acquaintance with it and the conditions for its successful implementation, providing an understanding of the logic of this action, the possibility of its implementation.
It should be emphasized the difference between Understanding is a mental process aimed at identifying the essential properties of objects and phenomena of reality, cognizable in the sensory and theoretical experience of a person.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">understanding how to do it, and the opportunity to do it, since in the practice of teaching it is often believed that if a student understands, then he has learned and the goal has been achieved.
In fact, assimilation is the child's mastery of socially developed experience (ie, the meanings of objects, ways of acting with them, norms of interpersonal relations). In assimilation, a person can move from the active processing of social experience to the improvement and transformation of social experience accumulated before him (creativity). Assimilation is carried out in learning, play, work, etc. Assimilation can take place spontaneously in broad social experience through trial and error and in the course of organized learning through the search for generalized guidelines, mastering rational methods of action. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> assimilation of action occurs only through the performance of this action by the student himself, and not by mere observation of the actions of other people. That is why in the theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions, after the first stage, four more are distinguished, where the learned action is performed by the student himself.
The stage of forming an action in a material (or materialized) form. Students perform an action in an external, material (or materialized) form with the deployment of all the operations included in it.
In this form, both the indicative, and the executive, and the control parts of the action are performed. For Generalization - a mental union of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential features. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> action generalizations the training program includes tasks that reflect all typical cases of applying this action. At the same time, at this stage there should not be a large number of tasks of the same type, since at this stage the action should neither be reduced nor automated. A materialized form of action is an action with specific objects or a material model of an object, a diagram, a drawing, etc.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> Material form of action from the very beginning it is combined with speech: students formulate in speech everything that they perform in practice.
The stage of formation of the action as an external speech. At this stage, where all the elements of the action are presented in the form of external speech, the action goes through further generalization, but still remains non-automated and unabbreviated.
The stage of action formation in external speech to oneself. This stage differs from the previous ones in that the action is performed silently and without prescribing - like speaking to oneself.
The stage of action formation in inner speech. At this stage, the action very quickly acquires an automatic flow, becomes inaccessible to introspection (Talyzina N.F., 1998, abstract).

7.3.3. Action characteristics

Among the independent characteristics (parameters) of the action are: form, generalization, deployment and mastery (automation, speed, etc.) (Fig. 9).
The action form characterizes the level of assignment of the action by the subject, the measure Internalization is the process of transforming external, objective actions into internal, mental ones.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">interiorizations actions. There are four main forms of action: material (materialized), perceptual, external speech and mental. The action in the process of its formation undergoes several different forms (Fig. 10).
A material action is a real transformation of an object in order to establish its properties. A materialized action is carried out with the help of sign-symbolic means: schemes, diagrams, drawings, etc. The materialized form of action is an independent object of assimilation.
Perceptual action is an ideal transformation of real or sign-symbolic objects in terms of perception.
Speech action can be carried out as loud speech or external speech to oneself, which differ in their function: the message of something to another or to oneself.
Mental action is action on the inner plane, which is carried out without reliance on any external means.
The criterion for attributing an action to one form or another is both the executive and the indicative parts of the action. So, for example, in children, the action of tracking the line when reading, perceptual in its executive part, at the beginning of its formation is material in nature (a ruler is used for tracking). As you assimilate, the external supports are removed and the action becomes ideal (mental) ().
The generalization of the action characterizes the degree of selection of the properties of the object that are essential for the performance of the action from others that are not essential. Studies have shown that generalization is not simply based on the selection of common things in subjects - this is a necessary, but still insufficient condition. Generalization always goes only on those properties of objects that are part of the indicative basis of actions aimed at analyzing these objects. This means that the management of the generalization of cognitive actions and the knowledge included in them should go through the construction of the students' activities by controlling the content of the orienting basis of the corresponding actions, and not only by ensuring the generality of properties in the presented objects. The cases when the generalization proceeds according to general but insignificant features are explained as follows.
In school teaching, at best, a student is given a set of features to be guided by (through a definition), but orientation to them in the process of activity is not always ensured. Therefore, these signs are not always included in the indicative basis. Students construct their own orienting basis, including in it, first of all, those characteristics of the object that lie on the surface. As a result of this, generalization proceeds not according to the signs of the definition, but according to random, inessential ones. On the contrary, as soon as the system of necessary and sufficient signs is introduced into the composition of the orienting basis of the action and a systematic orientation is provided to them and only to them when performing all the proposed tasks, the generalization proceeds according to this system of properties (Talyzina N.F. 1975. P. 77-78 ).
The expansion of an action shows whether all the operations that were originally part of the action are performed by a person. As the action is formed, the composition of the operations performed decreases, the action becomes reduced, abbreviated. clotting occurs Mental actions are various actions of a person performed in the inner plane of consciousness.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> mental actions. At a certain stage in the development of mental activity, part of knowledge and mental operations acquire a special form of existence: they are "meaning", taken into account in the process of thinking, but are not updated, do not become the subject of awareness.
The mastery of an action includes such characteristics as ease of execution, degree of automation and speed of execution. At the beginning of the execution, the action goes with the awareness of each operation, slowly, but gradually, the action is automated and the pace of its implementation increases.
The peculiarity of the process of reducing the operational composition of the formed actions means that the training program must ensure the assimilation of the action in an expanded form. Reduction of an action is its genetically later state, and, most importantly, in an abbreviated form, an action fully functions only when a person has the opportunity to restore it in an expanded form (Ibid., pp. 80-83).
In addition to these main characteristics, an action has a number of secondary properties: reasonableness, consciousness, abstractness, strength (Ibid., pp. 57-61).
Preservation in the mind of the student of the objective logic of the shortened action, the possibility of reproducing the missing elements is the consciousness of the action. Understanding curtailment not as a process of irretrievable loss of elements of mental activity, but as a process of their transition to a special form of existence, makes it possible to explain the inefficiency of forming actions immediately in a collapsed form. In this case, the logic of the action turns out to be undiscovered, not realized by the subject and does not exist for him either in terms of the actually conscious, or in terms of the actually unconscious (Ilyasov I.I., 1986; abstract).

7.3.4. Types of indicative action framework (OBA)

When performing the indicative part of the action, the subject relies on Approximate basis of action (OBA) - a system of human ideas about the goal, plan and means of carrying out the upcoming or ongoing action. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> indicative basis of action (OBA).
The orienting basis of action may contain guidelines in a specific or generalized form, in full or incomplete composition, it can be obtained in finished form from another person (teacher) or independently found by the actor. Independence in this case can also be different, the student can discover landmarks in the course of blind trial and error or on the basis of a certain method; the latter is also either independently opened by students or obtained in finished form from the teacher (Fig. 12).
The variation of OOD in these three characteristics determines its different types. Experimentally, three main types of OOD were discovered, which received conditional names - the first, second and third. Somewhat later, a fourth type of OOD was also described.
First type is characterized by an incomplete composition of guidelines in the OOD, they are of a specific nature, i.e. are suitable only for the analysis of situations of any one type and are independently discovered by the actor on the basis of trial and error.
Second type contains the entire set of guidelines necessary for the correct and reasonable performance of an action. In this case, the subject receives this set in finished form.
Third type OOD is also characterized by the completeness of the composition of landmarks, but these landmarks are not particular, but general, suitable for the analysis of a certain class of phenomena. A feature of this type is that the agent receives the generalized system of orientation ready-made, but in order to analyze a specific phenomenon of a given class, he independently composes a private OOD, using the generalized OOD and the method of deriving private landmarks from the general ones that were given to him.
Fourth type OOD assumes the presence of a complete system of general guidelines received by the actor in finished form.
The types of OOD described here were first identified through experiential learning. Later N.F. Talyzina theoretically obtained a complete system of OOD types based on a combination of the above three qualities, each of which has two states - presence or absence (2 3 = 8). OOD fifth type was characterized as generalized, incomplete, and obtained in finished form; OOD sixth type- as a generalized, incomplete, but compiled by the student himself; OOD seventh type- as specific, complete, compiled by the student himself; OOD eighth type- as a concrete, incomplete, finished product.
The last type of ODE is actually implemented in traditional teaching.
V.V. Davydov conducted a comparative analysis of the second and third types of OOD. He showed that the second type provides orientation at the level of the phenomenon, without penetrating into its essence. At the same time, empirical rather than theoretical thinking is formed. Theoretical thinking can only be formed by using the third type of OOD. In this case, knowledge of the essence of phenomena is provided, finding their universal basis, or the source from which the whole variety of phenomena arises, and understanding how this basis determines the emergence and interconnection of phenomena in this area (). True, in the third type of OOD, the student does not independently find this universal basis, but receives it ready-made from the teacher.
The problem of types Approximate basis of action (OBA) - a system of human ideas about the goal, plan and means of carrying out the upcoming or ongoing action. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">OOD, however, also cannot be considered completely solved. Further research can go in the direction of both a more detailed analysis of the types already described, and the identification of additional, new properties of the DTE, the consideration of which will lead to an increase in the number of its types: 2 4 = 16, 2 5 = 32, etc.

7.3.5. Types of teaching

• As a result, an original concept of teaching was formed. Based on the types of indicative foundations of actions, three types of teaching were distinguished (Fig. 13), each of which is characterized by:
  • their orientation in the subject;
  • the course of the learning process, the quality of its results;
  • the attitude of children to the process and subject of teaching;
  • developmental effect.

The first type of teaching- he received the name "by trial and error" - is characterized by the incompleteness of the orienting basis of the action. Assimilation Knowledge is a reflection in the child's head of the properties of objects, phenomena of the surrounding world (knowledge of facts, concepts, terms, definitions, laws, theories) and methods of acting with them (rules, techniques, methods, methods, prescriptions).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">knowledge and Skill is the ability to consciously perform a certain action. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">skills when using the first type of DTE, it is very slow, with a lot of errors. An action that is performed on the basis of a skill formed in this way turns out to be very sensitive to the most insignificant changes in the conditions for its performance. The expediency of such an action is relative, since it also contains useless operations. It is not reasonable, although within certain limits it can be performed correctly. The transfer to new assignments is negligible. In fact, this type of teaching is not typical for assimilation social experience, since it relies on the agent's own discovery of the necessary guidelines.
The student is given a model of action, which he focuses on as the final result. At the same time, all objectively necessary conditions for the action remain hidden and are clarified by the students themselves, which happens by chance and, as a rule, incompletely. The results show a wide range of performance. This type leads to the accumulation of knowledge and skills, but does not develop either thinking or abilities. Learning builds on what has already been achieved. The first type corresponds to the traditional learning process, the basis of which is "... a sensationalistic passive-associative understanding of the process of mastering school knowledge" (). It was later named V.V. Davydov "associative-reflex theory of knowledge acquisition". V.V. Repkin calls it an illustrative and explanatory method of teaching.

Second type is distinguished by the construction of the action on a complete indicative basis, offered in finished form and for individual objects. Training goes on without trial and error, systematic education of the desired properties allows you to achieve the intended results without a significant spread in academic performance.
With the second type Approximate basis of action (OBA) - a system of human ideas about the goal, plan and means of carrying out the upcoming or ongoing action. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">OOD assimilation is fast, more precisely, in the presence of a small number of random errors. The time it takes to digest is small. Since the student takes into account all objectively necessary conditions when performing an action, the action is not only expedient (correct), but also reasonable. At the same time, the desired result is stable: if the usual, but insignificant conditions are violated, then the action remains successful. The transfer to new tasks is carried out according to the principle of identical elements. Teaching with the use of OOD of the second type is a typical case of the assimilation of social experience - assimilation in specially organized conditions.
In comparison with the traditional, the second type of teaching is its cardinal improvement. However, it has significant limitations if one goes beyond its practical assessments. Aimed at Assimilation - the child's mastery of socially developed experience (i.e., the meanings of objects, ways of acting with them, norms of interpersonal relations). In assimilation, a person can move from the active processing of social experience to the improvement and transformation of social experience accumulated before him (creativity). Assimilation is carried out in learning, play, work, etc. Assimilation can take place spontaneously in broad social experience through trial and error and in the course of organized learning through the search for generalized guidelines, mastering rational methods of action. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">the assimilation of ready-made knowledge, it does not bring up theoretical cognitive interest in students, learning comes down to mastering the ways of subsuming concepts (Badmaev B.Ts., 1998; abstract).

Opens up fundamentally new possibilities third type teachings. With the third type of OOD, assimilation also occurs without significant errors. The rationality of the action, the ability to perform which is formed using such a DTE, is even higher, since the student not only takes into account the conditions necessary to achieve the desired result, but also understands well their content, their relationship to the future product. This is the main reason for increasing the stability of the action. The transfer to new tasks is complete (within the boundaries of the intended area). The assimilation process is easy, although at first the student may need some time to master the new method of work - the latter is compensated by the rapid pace of assimilation during subsequent tasks.
With this type of OOD, the basis is built by the students independently, although it is directed by the teacher, and not for each object separately, not for each individual concept, but for a whole system of them. Thus, the method of constructing the content of new knowledge and the method of its presentation are radically restructured. The orienting basis is aimed at cognition, at the study of the basic structure of the objects under study - the main units of a given area and ways of combining them into specific formations (Formation ..., 1995; abstract).
The third type requires a radical reworking of educational subjects. Learning task from Empirical - based on experience, the study of facts, based on direct observation, experiment. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">empirical is transformed into a theoretical research process, which causes the emergence of a proper cognitive interest. The latter represents a significant result. The third type differs from the first and second types of teaching in Motivation - a set of motives that determine a particular act. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">motivation, according to the developing effect, "the first and most important thing in the third type of teaching is the excitation of cognitive activity, the ever-increasing strengthening and development of cognitive interest proper. And this requires exclusion of other types of motivation... And failures should be considered in such a way as not to discourage the child, but encourage him to search for new solutions. "It is the third type that allows you to realize the developmental effect of learning. D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov note the meaningful connection of the developmental education system with the third type of doctrine developed by .
So in the works of P.Ya. Galperin and his staff made a new important step in the development of the activity approach developed by A.N. Leontiev (Leontiev A.N., 2001; abstract). A real way was found to manage the process of assimilation - the child's mastery of socially developed experience (ie, the meanings of objects, ways of acting with them, norms of interpersonal relations). In assimilation, a person can move from the active processing of social experience to the improvement and transformation of social experience accumulated before him (creativity). Assimilation is carried out in learning, play, work, etc. Assimilation can take place spontaneously in broad social experience through trial and error and in the course of organized learning through the search for generalized guidelines, mastering rational methods of action. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">learning on a psychological basis (Volovich M.B., 1995; abstract).

7.3.6. An example of the organization of training when using different types of OOD

An example of the organization of educational activities when using first type OOD can serve as conducted in the study of N.S. Pantina experimental teaching children how to write letters. The teacher demonstrated a sample letter, highlighting its elements, and giving the following explanation: "We start writing here (indicates), we lead down the ruler until now (indicates), and now we turn up and lead to this corner (indicates)" ( ). If we analyze this explanation, it turns out that the student receives practically no guidance, but only a sample of the final product. The child had to repeat the process of writing a letter 174 times (on average) until he managed to "feel" the necessary landmarks to write it correctly. The role of the teacher in this case was limited to stating the mistakes made and instructions for correcting them. Thus, the used Approximate basis of action (OBA) - a system of human ideas about the goal, plan and means of carrying out the upcoming or ongoing action. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">OOD was specific, suitable only for writing one letter, incomplete in terms of the composition of the landmarks, and was found by the child almost completely independently (he received from the teacher only a sample of the finished product). In order to move on to writing the next letter, the student again made the whole long journey of independent search for landmarks, which required an average of 163 attempts. As you can see, learning to write the second letter took place with a smaller number of repetitions, which indicates some transfer from the first task; this transfer, however, is small.
In the same pilot study, one can find an example of assimilation using OOD of the second type. The child also received a sample of a given product - a certain letter, but at the same time a system of dots was applied to the paper, with the help of which it was possible to carry out the executive part of the action and obtain the desired contour. The child copied these points and reproduced the contour from them. As we can see, the child in this case receives the entire set of necessary guidelines and uses them in his action. However, these landmarks are specific, suitable only for the reproduction of a given letter. Therefore, when moving on to mastering the next letter, the teacher must again give the system of points corresponding to it, which the student will use as another particular OOD. With such training, it took only 22 repetitions to master the ability to reproduce the contour of the first letter, and only 17 to master the spelling of the second. Thus, the transfer was already more significant, although also not very large.
At OOD of the third type learning is very different. The teacher no longer gives a ready-made system of landmarks, but instead explains to the students the principle of finding them. He tells them to put dots where the line changes direction. The demonstration is usually made on one letter, but the child performs the task of writing several different letters, assimilating the proposed principle. Each of these tasks no longer has a particular meaning, but allows you to bring to the consciousness of the student what constitutes the essence of each of the particular phenomena. The first letter was correctly reproduced after only 14 repetitions, and the second - after 8. Starting with the eighth letter, students performed the tasks from the first time without error. The transfer was significant: they were able to reproduce almost any outline - Latin, Georgian and Arabic letters. The students have become much better at drawing. Moreover, a transfer to the recalculation of objects in the Perception field was unexpectedly discovered - a holistic reflection of objects, situations and events that occurs when physical stimuli directly affect the receptor surfaces (see Receptor) of the sense organs. Together with the processes of sensation, Perception provides a direct-sensory orientation in the surrounding world. Being a necessary stage of cognition, it is always to a greater or lesser extent associated with thinking, memory, attention, is guided by motivation and has a certain affective-emotional coloring (see Affect, Emotions). It is necessary to distinguish between Perception, adequate to reality, and illusions. Crucial for checking and correcting a perceptual image (from Latin perceptio - perception) is the inclusion of Perception in the processes of practical activity, communication and scientific research. The emergence of the first hypotheses about the nature of Perception dates back to antiquity. In general, the early theories of Perception were consistent with the provisions of traditional associative psychology. The decisive step in overcoming associationism in the interpretation of Perception was made, on the one hand, thanks to the development of I.M. Sechenov's reflex concept of the psyche, and on the other hand, thanks to the works of representatives of Gestalt psychology, who showed the conditionality of the most important phenomena of Perception (such as constancy) by invariable relationships between the components of a perceptual image. The study of the reflex structure of Perception led to the creation of theoretical models of Perception, in which an important role is assigned to efferent (centrifugal), including motor, processes that adjust the work of the perceptual system to the characteristics of the object (A. V. Zaporozhets, A.N. Leontiev). Examples are the movements of a hand feeling an object, the movements of the eyes tracing a visible contour, the tension of the muscles of the larynx reproducing an audible sound. The dynamics of the recognition process in most cases is adequately described by the so-called "onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">perception and even on Assimilation - the child's mastery of socially developed experience (i.e., the meanings of objects, ways of dealing with them, the norms of interpersonal relations).In assimilation, a person can move from the active processing of social experience to the improvement and transformation of social experience accumulated before him (creativity).Assimilation is carried out in learning, play, work, etc. Assimilation can take place spontaneously in broad social experience through trial and error and in the course of organized learning through the search for generalized landmarks, mastering rational ways of doing things.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">learning dance movements The latter phenomena are explained by the fact that the selection of "reference points" is actually a component of the ability to analyze the location of objects on a plane and in space.
Similar differences in learning outcomes using different types of OOD were also found in other academic disciplines (Talyzina N.F., 1975).
Also interesting were the possibilities of the fourth type of OOD, which was studied in the experimental teaching of logical actions (Ibid.).

7.4. General educational skills and abilities

7.4.1. Definition of the concept of "general educational skills and abilities"

General educational skills and abilities- these are skills and abilities that correspond to actions that are formed in the process of teaching many subjects, and which become operations for performing actions used in many subjects and in everyday life.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> General educational skills and abilities- these are skills and abilities that correspond to actions that are formed in the process of teaching many subjects, and which become operations for performing actions used in many subjects and in everyday life.(Fig. 14) .
For the assimilation of individual subjects, the so-called specific skills and abilities. They correspond to such actions that are formed in any educational subject, which can become operations for performing only other specific actions of this subject or related subjects..
For example, the skills of reading and writing natural numbers and actions on them during the initial formation are purely mathematical skills (actions), but then, when they are already formed, they turn into operations that are widely used not only for performing various mathematical actions, but also for actions. in many other subjects (even such as history or literature) and in everyday life practice. Therefore, these skills are general educational. But the ability to find the derivative of a certain function corresponds to such an action that is used in the course of mathematics and, in some cases, in the courses of physics and chemistry. Therefore, this skill is narrowly focused.
As you can see, a clear boundary between narrow-subject and general educational skills and abilities is such skills that correspond to actions that are formed in the process of teaching many subjects, and which become operations for performing actions used in many subjects and in everyday life. " onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> general educational skills and abilities quite difficult to carry out.
At the same time, all educational skills and abilities formed in some academic subject can be divided into two categories:
1) General, which are formed in students not only when studying this subject, but also in the process of teaching many other subjects, and having application in many academic subjects and in everyday life practice, for example, writing and reading skills, working with a book, etc.;
2) Specific(narrow-subject), which are formed by students only in the process of teaching a given subject and are used mainly in this subject and partly in related subjects, for example, determining the total resistance of a circuit of conductors in physics, or calculating the valency of a complex chemical substance, etc. .

7.4.2. Formation of general educational skills and abilities

The formation of general educational skills and abilities is a special pedagogical task. However, not all teachers consider this problem from this point of view. It is often believed that a special, purposeful development of these skills and abilities is not needed, since the students themselves acquire the necessary skills in the learning process - this position is incorrect.
The student in his educational activity really processes and transforms the methods of educational work that the teacher asks him. Such internal processing leads to the fact that the way the child has learned to work with educational material can sometimes differ quite sharply from the teacher's standard. At the same time, the teacher, as a rule, does not control this process, fixing only the quality of the result obtained by the student (solved or unsolved problem; meaningful or shallow, fragmentary, uninformative answer, etc.) and does not imagine what individual skills, techniques educational work in the child spontaneously developed. And these techniques may turn out to be irrational or simply incorrect, which significantly prevents the student from advancing in the educational material, developing educational activities. Cumbersome systems of irrational methods slow down the educational process, make it difficult to form skills and automate them.
So, throughout the course of schooling, students need to form general educational skills, and the skills are consciously controlled, some of which are then automated and become skills. What should the teacher do about it? Let's note two main moments, or stages: goal setting and organization of activities (see animation) (Bardin K.V., 1973; abstract).
First of all, a special goal is set for children - to master a certain skill. When a teacher is confronted with a student's lack of a particular skill, he must first ask himself the question, has such a goal been set before him? Are students aware of it? After all, only the most intellectually developed students independently identify for themselves and realize the operational side Educational activity is one of the main types of human activity aimed at mastering theoretical knowledge in the process of solving educational problems.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> learning activities, the rest remain at the level of intuitive-practical possession of skills.
A very common shortcoming in the organization of students' educational work is that they do not see the educational task, the educational goal behind the work they perform. Of course, at first, and periodically in more complex cases in the future, the teacher, giving this or that task, himself indicates the learning task that the student must solve when completing this task. But gradually, students acquire the ability, ability and habit to see behind any work they do the knowledge, skills and abilities that they must acquire as a result of this work.
In addition to understanding the goal, the student needs to understand its relationship to Motive (from Latin movere - set in motion, push) - 1) incentives for activities related to satisfying the needs of the subject; 2) object-oriented activity of a certain force; 3) the object (material or ideal) that stimulates and determines the choice of the direction of activity, for the sake of which it is carried out; 4) a perceived reason underlying the choice of actions and actions of the individual. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">the motive of your activity. Learning motivation is always individual: each child has his own system of motives that encourage him to learn and give meaning to learning. It is known that the informal mastering of higher intellectual skills is possible only with cognitive motivation. Nevertheless, even with the predominance of cognitive motivation, the child will still have other motives - broad social, achieving success, avoiding punishment, etc. The teacher has to focus on this whole wide range of motives. Setting the goal of teaching this skill, he must enable each student to understand what personal meaning will be contained in this work, why he needs this skill (having mastered it, he will be able to perform complex tasks that are much more interesting than those that he is doing now; he will be able to quickly and correctly solve problems of a certain type, get high marks, etc.).
In order to set a clear goal for the students, he must first himself have an appropriate program for the formation of skills. With the planned-thematic system of organizing the educational process, this program is provided in each educational minimum - a list of basic knowledge - a reflection in the child's head of the properties of objects, phenomena of the world (knowledge of facts, concepts, terms, definitions, laws, theories) and methods of action with them (rules, techniques, methods, methods, prescriptions). ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">knowledge , Skill is the ability to consciously perform a certain action. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">skills and A skill is a way of performing actions that has become automated as a result of exercises.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">skills which must be necessarily learned by all students in the study of the educational topic. The training minimum includes only the most important, essential issues, without the knowledge of which the subsequent study of the curriculum is impossible. It also includes the development of learning skills, both provided for by the curriculum and not provided for by it, without mastering which the activities of students will not be sufficiently rational and effective (we will consider this system below).
After the motivational formation of skills, the stage of organizing joint activities with the teacher follows. In this joint activity, the student must, first of all, receive a sample or rule, an algorithm of work. It is desirable that, having received a ready-made model, the children themselves (but under the guidance of a teacher) develop a system of rules by which they will act. This can be achieved by comparing the task being performed with a given sample.
For example, when teaching the ability to draw up a plan diagram, the teacher can show in the form of a sample plan for a specific topic already familiar to children. Focusing on it, students complete a task on another, related topic - they make a plan for this educational material. Then, together with the teacher, they carefully analyze several works from the class, comparing them with each other and with the sample. It is determined which elements in the plan-scheme are highlighted, which connections are shown, which are absent, and which are superfluous, unnecessary. As can be seen from the above example, joint activity with the teacher to develop a conscious skill is always externally deployed. Students usually have an insufficiently developed ability to act internally, theoretically, having a cognitive task. In any case, acting according to the plan, they encounter significant difficulties. Therefore, they need easier, more accessible actions, external in form. Thus, the main path here is a joint activity, and the method is the execution of external actions. Moreover, external actions should be maximally deployed at first, and only then, as the skill is developed, they can be reduced.
After students understand the rules by which they need to act, exercises are needed to use the acquired skill. It is not enough for a student to know the rational rules of academic work; he must also learn to apply them in his own practice. Exercises during which the skill is worked out should be varied. For example, when teaching the ability to distinguish between the main and the secondary, the following exercises-tasks are used, in particular: to highlight in the text those parts of it that are most essential for revealing its content; omit secondary points when retelling the text; arrange the educational material in a certain order, corresponding to the degree of its importance; compare any phenomena that are similar in the main and different in particular, while clearly explaining what is significant here and what is not.
The training required to develop a skill should not be one-sided or excessive. The ability that the child has mastered sufficiently on simple material is then often difficult to include in a complex Activity - a dynamic system of interactions of the subject with the world, in the process of which the emergence and embodiment of a mental image in the object and the realization of the related subject mediated by it in objective reality occur. In activity, from the point of view of its structure, it is customary to single out movements and actions. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">activities involving the use of different skills. Performing a special exercise, the student focuses on the correct application of one new skill. When a more difficult task requires him to distribute his attention, to include this skill in the system of previously established ones, it begins to “fall out”. So, in the lessons of the Russian language and literature, a student who did the exercises well may make mistakes, not using the same rules in dictation, and one who correctly wrote dictations may make mistakes when working on an essay. This can be avoided by teaching the child to combine the formed skill or skill with others so that he can use them together, at the same time, mastering more and more complex ways of activity.
Thus, all this complex work is aimed at ensuring that the external practical activity of the student becomes his internal property and can be performed mentally.
(; see materials on the development of general educational skills),
(; see the website of the Moscow School of Economics),
(; see material on the International Baccalaureate system).

Summary

• Knowledge is the result of the process of cognition of reality, verified by socio-historical practice and certified by logic; its adequate reflection in the human mind in the form of ideas, concepts, judgments, theories. Knowledge is fixed in the form of signs of natural and artificial languages.
  • Knowledge is the core of the content of education. On the basis of knowledge, students develop skills, mental and practical actions; knowledge is the basis of moral convictions, aesthetic views, worldview.
  • Knowledge can be: pre-scientific; worldly; artistic (as a specific way of aesthetic assimilation of reality); scientific (empirical and theoretical).
• Knowledge can have different qualities. According to I.Ya. Lerner, V.M. Polonsky and others, such, for example, are: consistency; generality; awareness; flexibility; effectiveness; completeness; strength.
  • Knowledge can be assimilated at different levels: reproductive level - reproduction according to a model, according to instructions; productive level - the search and finding of new knowledge, non-standard way of action.
  • Delimiting reproductive and productive types of activity and considering their structure from the point of view of self-fulfillment, V.P. Bespalko singled out the following levels of assimilation of educational information: understanding, recognition, reproduction, application, creativity.
• Skill is the ability to act, which has not reached the highest level of formation, performed completely consciously.
  • Skill is the ability to act that has reached the highest level of formation, performed automatically, without awareness of intermediate steps.
  • The application of knowledge, skills and abilities is the most important condition for preparing students for life, the way to establish a connection between theory and practice in educational work. Their use stimulates educational activity, inspires students' confidence in their abilities.
• Created by P.Ya. Galperin, the general psychological concept of the systematic phased formation of mental actions and concepts was confirmed and found effective application in the practice of schooling, as well as other forms of education. In general psychological terms, it is based on a new methodology of psychological research, a radical restructuring of traditional ideas about the psyche and about the subject and method of psychology.
  • The transition of external activity inward is called internalization. According to the generally accepted point of view, this term means a transition, as a result of which processes external in their form with external, material objects are transformed into processes that occur in the mental plane, in the plane of consciousness; at the same time, they undergo a specific transformation - they are generalized, verbalized, reduced and, most importantly, they become capable of further development, which goes beyond the boundaries of the possibilities of external activity.
  • Among the independent characteristics (parameters) of the action are: form, generality, deployment and mastery (automation, speed, etc.). In addition to these basic characteristics, the action has a number of secondary properties: reasonableness, consciousness, abstractness, strength.
  • On the basis of the types of indicative bases of actions P.Ya. Galperin identified three types of teaching, each of which is characterized by: its orientation in the subject; the course of the learning process, the quality of its results; the attitude of children to the process and subject of teaching; developmental effect.
• General educational skills and abilities are such skills that correspond to actions that are formed in the process of teaching many subjects, and which become operations for performing actions used in many subjects and in everyday life.
  • For the assimilation of individual subjects, the so-called narrow-subject skills and abilities are necessary. They correspond to such actions that are formed in some educational subject, which can become operations for performing only other specific actions of this subject or related subjects.
  • The formation of general educational skills and abilities is a special pedagogical task. However, not all teachers consider this problem from this point of view. It is often believed that a special, purposeful development of these skills and abilities is not needed, since the students themselves acquire the necessary skills in the learning process.

Glossary of terms

1. Action
2. The action is material
3. The action is perceptual
4. Speech action
5. mental action
6. Knowledge
7. Interiorization
8. Skill
9. Generalization of action
10. Generalization of knowledge
11. learning
12. General educational skills and abilities
13. Oriented basis of action
14. Mastery of action
15. Awareness of knowledge
16. Completeness of knowledge
17. Understanding
18. Application
19. Consistency of knowledge
20. Skills and Skills
21. Skill
22. assimilation

Questions for self-examination

1. How is the concept of "knowledge" interpreted in the psychological and pedagogical literature?
2. What are the functions of knowledge?
3. Name the main types of knowledge.
4. What forms of existence of educational knowledge are distinguished by V.I. Ginetsinsky?
5. Name the main properties of knowledge.
6. What is the difference between depth of knowledge and breadth of knowledge?
7. What does student learning include?
8. What is the basis of knowledge acquisition?
9. Name the main stages of the process of educational cognition.
10. What levels of knowledge acquisition are distinguished by A.K. Markov?
11. Give a description of the levels of assimilation of knowledge according to V.P. Bespalko.
12. Give examples of tasks for diagnosing the levels of knowledge assimilation (according to V.P. Bespalko).
13. What is the essence of the problem of understanding?
14. How are knowledge and understanding related?
15. Give the main interpretations of the concepts "skill" and "skill".
16. What are the main levels of mastery of skills and abilities.
17. What is the peculiarity of the application of knowledge, skills and abilities?
18. What is the essence of the theory of gradual formation of mental actions and concepts?
19. Name the main stages in the formation of mental actions.
20. Describe mental actions.
21. Name and describe the main types of orienting basis of action.
22. Describe the main types of teaching according to P.Ya. Galperin.
23. Give an example of the organization of training when using different types of OOD.
24. Define the concept of "general educational skills and abilities".
25. What is the difference between general educational skills and special educational skills?
26. What are the features of the formation of general educational skills and abilities?

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40. Elkonin D.B. Selected psychological works. M., 1989.

Topics of term papers and essays

1. The problem of knowledge in the psychological and pedagogical literature.
2. Forms of existence of educational knowledge.
3. Psychological and pedagogical conditions for the assimilation of knowledge.
4. The main stages of the process of educational cognition.
5. The problem of understanding in the psychological and pedagogical literature.
6. The main levels of mastery of skills and abilities.
7. Essence of the theory of gradual formation of mental actions and concepts.
8. The main types of orienting basis of action.
9. Types of teaching (according to P.Ya. Galperin).
10. The formation of general educational skills and abilities as one of the main pedagogical tasks.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….3

1. Stages of education and characteristics of students in the learning process………5

2. Psychological patterns of formation of skills and abilities……….9

2.1. The theory of the gradual formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities……………………………………………………………………….10

3. Methodological and general theoretical foundations of the pedagogical concept of the learning process………………………………………………………………...16

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...20

List of sources used…………………………………………….....22

Introduction

The success of a certain activity depends on skill. As a systemic education, skill contains knowledge, techniques, skills, and other components of the individual experience (sensory, practical, intellectual, emotional, reflective) of the subject. It is based on the knowledge and skills of a person, as well as on her willingness to successfully perform a certain activity.

Skill - the ability to use existing knowledge, concepts, operate with them to identify the essential properties of objects and phenomena, successfully solve theoretical and practical problems

The student must possess a variety of specific and generalized skills.

Knowledge becomes the basis of skill if it is adequate to reality (corresponds to the objective properties of objects and phenomena), the properties of objects and phenomena are essential for goals, turning into action, and actions ensure the use of these properties to achieve the goal.

The ability is formed easily with a deep understanding by children of the essence of concepts, properties, patterns of relationships. The decision may make it difficult to mask significant connections with many secondary data or information, the student's attitude to use a certain method of solving the problem. The selection of characteristics that are essential for tasks depends on the student's ability to understand the situation as a whole, and not its individual elements. The previous experience of the student plays an important role here.

Skills are taught by setting tasks for students that require the use of the knowledge they have acquired. Children engage in search activities in many ways: for example, through trial and error, purposefully, creatively using heuristic methods. In a different approach, students learn the features that distinguish one type of problem from others. In the process of solving, they determine the type of problem and learn the appropriate operations designed to solve them. Often, students are specially trained in the mental activity necessary for the use of knowledge. In practice, teachers use various ways of developing skills, often this happens spontaneously.

1. Stages of education and characteristics of students in the learning process

Each student has individual personal and activity characteristics. At the same time, all students at a certain educational level are characterized by initial common and typical features for them.

1. The elementary school stage is the beginning of the social existence of a person as a subject of educational activity. Readiness for schooling means the formation of attitudes towards school, learning, and knowledge. Expectation of the new, interest in it underlie the educational motivation of the younger student.

In elementary school, the primary schoolchildren form the main elements of the leading activity during this period, the necessary educational