When breathing, the human lungs are compressed and unclenched. When the lungs contract, air passes through the larynx, across which the vocal cords are located in the form of elastic muscles. If an air stream comes out of the lungs, and the vocal cords are moved and tense, then the cords vibrate - a musical sound (tone) occurs

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The device of the speech apparatus

When breathing, the human lungs are compressed and unclenched. When the lungs are compressed, the air passes through the larynx, across which are locatedvocal cordsin the form of elastic muscles. If from l eg ki there is an air stream, and the vocal cords are moved and tense, then the cords vibrate Xia - there is a musical sound ( tone ). Tone is needed for the pronunciation of vowels and voiced g la dreams x.

If the vocal cords are divided into wow, they are silent. The air jet passes freely through the larynx and does not touch it. l o s s s x links. Such a lol nie is necessary for the pronunciation of voiceless consonants.

After passing the larynx, the air stream enters the oral cavity and. if a small tongue ( uvula ) does not close the passage, - in the nasal.

The oral and nasal cavities serve as resonators: they amplify sounds of a certain frequency. Changes in the shape of the resonator are achieved by the fact that the tongue moves back, forward, rises up, falls down.

If the palatine curtain is pubescent, then the passage to the nasal cavity is open and the nasal resonator is also connected to the oral one.

In the formation of sounds that from n o s t s without the participation of tone - deaf consonants - not tone is involved, but noise .

All organs of speech in the oral cavityare divided into two groups:

1. active - mobile and perform the main work during the articulation of sound: tongue, lips, uvula (small tongue), vocal cords;
2. passive immobile and perform an auxiliary role during articulation: teeth, alveoli (protrusions or teeth), hard palate, soft palate.

Consonants and vowels and their classification

Speech sounds - minimal units of the speech chain, which are the result of complex human articulatory activity and are characterized by certain acoustic and perceptual (associated with the perception of speech) properties [LES].

One of the linguistic universals is the presence of consonants and vowels.

Consonants

1. the presence of an obstacle in the path of the air stream;
   1. uneven tension of the organs of speech;
   2. the presence of noise;
   3. in the vicinity of vowels, consonants cannot be syllable-forming.

The consonant system of a given language or dialect is called consonantism (from lat. consonans - consonant).

Classifications of consonants

Consonants are classified according to the following criteria.

I. By participation (ratio) in their formation of voice and noiseconsonants are divided into sonorous and noisy.

1. Sonorants or sonants(lat. sonorous - sonorous) are such consonants, in the formation of which voice and slight noise participate: [ j ], [l], [m], [n], [p], [l '], [m '], [n '], [p '].
   1. noisy are such consonants, in the formation of which noise prevails over the voice. They, in turn, are divided into:
      1. voiced noisy, the formation of which is characterized by noise accompanied by voice, and
         1. deaf noisy, which are formed only by noise.

By the presence or absence of voices, voiced and deaf noisy formcorrelative pairs of voiced-deafness:[b] - [p], [d] - [t], [c] - [f], [g] - [k], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], can be and unpaired voiceless, for example, [x], [x'], [c], [h].

P. By place of education(i.e. by active incumbent)consonants are subdivided into following. groups.

1. Lip consonants are divided into:

1) labial are formed by closing the lower lip with the upper:

[b], [n], [m], and in Russian there are also soft [b '], [n '], [m '].

2) labio-dental are formed by bringing the lower lip closer to the upper teeth: [c], [f], soft [c '], [f '].

1. Lingual consonantsare divided into anterior, middle and posterior lingual, depending on which part of the tongue - anterior, middle or posterior - plays an active role in the formation of sound.
   1. Anterolingual:
      1. dorsal (the front of the tongue closes with the upper teeth): [d], [d ’], [t], [t "], [h], [h ’], [s], [s ’], [l], [l '], [n], [n '], [c].

B) apical (raising the front of the tongue to the alveoli and palate): eng.[d], [t].

1. how cuminal (the tip of the tongue rises to the sky): [g], [w], [p], [h], w.

D) retroflex(the tip of the tongue rises to the sky and turns back) - in Indian languages.

1. Middle language (raising the middle part of the tongue to the sky): [ j].
   1. back lingual (rapprochement of the back of the tongue with the soft palate): [g], [k], [x], their soft pairs.
2. Uvular, or reed(lat. uvula - tongue): French burr [p].
3. Pharyngeal, pharyngeal:Ukrainian mountain, garna maiden.
4. Laryngeal, laryngeal, ligamentous: tat. tә emin, tә Esir, also in Arabic. lang. Rus. "N e-a ".

III . According to the method of education (those. by way of overcoming obstacles):

1. occlusive - consonants, which are formed by the complete closure of the organs of pronunciation, so the air, bumping into an obstacle, breaks it with force and produces a noise characteristic of these sounds (they are also called explosive): [b], [p], [d], [t] , [g], [k].
2. Connecting passages(a passage remains between the organs of speech):
   1. lateral [l], [l].
   2. nasal [m], |n], tat. [ң ].
3. slotted consonants are formed by incomplete convergence of the active and passive organs of speech, as a result of which a narrow gap remains between them through which air passes: [h], [s], [g], [w], [c], [f], [x ], [ j].
4. Allocate also stop-slit, or affricates. In the initial stage of articulation, they are formed as occlusions, but at the end of articulation, the occlusion does not instantly open, but passes into a gap, as in the case of gaps. This is [c] and[ h ] .
5. Trembling (vibrants)- consonants, during the formation of which the tip of the tongue either closes or opens with the alveoli during the passage of the air stream, i.e. vibrates: [r], soft [r '].

IV . According to the position of the palatine curtain:

1. Nasal , during the formation of which the palatine curtain opens a passage into the nasal cavity, through which part of the air exits: [m], [n], tat. [ң ].

2. Oral (clean)- the palatine curtain covers the passage to the nasal cavity: all the rest.

V. P o the presence or absence of an exhaled stream of air:

1. Respiratory : all consonants rus. lang.
2. Non-respiratory (clicking)arise through sucking movements of the organs of speech; in Tajik and Turkmen they mean, for example, negation.

VI. By the presence or absence of softening (palatalization)(in Russian) - by hardness-softnessall consonants are divided into 1. solid and 2. soft (palatalized), which formcorrelative pairs for hardness-softness: [b] - [b '], [p] - [p '], [c] - [c '], [f] - [f '], [d] - [d '], [t] - [ t ’], [s] - [s ’], [s] - [s ’], etc .; unpaired:. [c], [h '], [ j].

Vowels - speech sounds that are characterized by:

1. the absence of an obstacle in the way of the exhaled air stream;
2. uniform tension of the organs of speech;
3. consist of tone (voice);
4. are syllabic.

The vowel system of a language or dialect is called vocalism.

Vowels are pure tonal sounds. Musical tone, the voice is formed in the larynx as a result of the vibration of the vocal cords. The cavities of the mouth and pharynx are resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the different structure of the organs of speech - lips, tongue, lower jaw.

Classifications of vowels

Classifications of vowel sounds of the modern Russian literary language are based on the following main features.

I . According to the degree of elevation of the tongue (movement of the tongue vertically),according to the degree of its approach to the sky during the formation of sound, all vowels are divided into:

1. High vowels:[and], [s], [y].
   1. Middle vowels:[e], [o].
   2. Low vowels:[a] (see table).

When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually slightly moves away from the upper jaw, creating a narrow mouth opening. Therefore, high vowels are also called narrow. When pronouncing low vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening. Therefore, low vowels are also called wide.

P. At the place of the rise of the tongue, i.e. by the movement of the tongue horizontally during the formation of sound, differ

1. Front vowels:[and], (e).
   1. Middle vowels:[s]. [a].
      1. Back vowels:[y], [o].

When forming front vowels, the tongue moves forward, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, and the middle part of the tongue rises slightly. When pronouncing back vowels, the tongue moves back, the tip of the tongue moves away from the lower teeth, and the back of the tongue rises to the palate. The middle vowels occupy a middle position between the front and back vowels.

III. By the participation of the lips vowels are divided into:

1. Rounded (labialized- from lat. labium - lip) - lips are rounded and stretched forward: [y], [o], in Tat. lang. there are more of them.
   1. Non-deformed (non-labialized): rest.

IV. Longitude (in some languages, for example, in English):

1.Long: [i:] meat, [u:] cool.

2. Brief: [ i ].

V . According to the position of the palate(see above):

1. Nasal - were in the Old Russian language.

2. Clean - all vowel sounds of modern Russian. lang.

VI . By uniformity of sound or articulation:

1. Monophthongs.
   1. Polythongs - combinations of several vowel elements within one syllable. So, their variety is diphthongs: english go , in Latin, Latvian and other languages. Diphthongs, in turn, are divided into
      1. true, in which both elements are equivalent, and
         1. false, in which one element is the top of the syllable, and the other side:

A) descending - the strong element is the first: eng. home, German in aum,

B) ascending, where the strong element is the second: Spanish. Bueno.

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The speech apparatus is represented by a system of interconnected organs responsible for the production of sounds and the construction of speech. It is a system by which people can communicate through speech. It consists of several departments and different elements of the human body, inextricably linked.

The structure of the speech apparatus is a kind of system in which many human organs are involved. It includes the respiratory organs, active and passive components of speech, elements of the brain. The respiratory organs play an important role, sounds cannot be formed without exhalation. With the contraction of the diaphragm interacting with the intercostal muscles, on which the lungs rest, inhalation occurs, with relaxation - exhalation. The result is a sound.

Passive organs do not have much mobility. These include: the jaw region, nasal cavity, laryngeal organ, palate (hard), pharynx and alveoli. They are the supporting structure for active organs.

Active elements produce sound and produce one of the main functions of speech. They are represented by: the area of ​​the lips, all parts of the tongue, vocal cords, palate (soft), epiglottis. The vocal cords are represented by two muscular bundles that produce sounds when contracted and relaxed.

The human brain sends signals to other organs and controls all their work, directing speech according to the will of the speaker.

The structure of the human speech apparatus:

• Nasopharynx
• Hard palate and soft palate.
• Lips.
• Language.
• Incisors.
• Throat area.
• Larynx, epiglottis.
• Trachea.
• Bronchus on the right side and lung.
• Diaphragm.
• Spine.
• Esophagus.

The listed organs belong to two departments that form the speech apparatus. This is the central part of the peripheral.

Peripheral department: its structure and functioning

The peripheral speech apparatus is formed by three sections. The first section includes the respiratory organs, which play a major role in the pronunciation of sounds during exhalation. This department supplies jets of air, without which it is impossible to create sound. The outlet air flows have two important functions:

• Voting.
• Articulation.

With violations of speech breathing, sounds are also distorted.

The second section consists of the passive organs of human speech, which have the main impact on the technical component of speech. They give speech a certain color and power, creating characteristic sounds. This is the vocal department responsible for the characteristic features of human speech:

• strength;
• Timbre;
• Height.

When the vocal cords contract, the airflow at the exit is converted into a vibration of air particles. It is these pulsations, transmitted to the external air environment, that are audible, like a voice. The strength of the voice depends on the intensity of contractions of the vocal cords, which is regulated by the air flow. The timbre depends on the shape of the oscillation vibrations, and the height depends on the force of pressure on the vocal cords.

The third section includes active speech organs that directly produce sound and perform the main work during its formation. This department plays the role of the creator of sounds.

Articulation apparatus and its role

The structure of the articulatory apparatus is built on the basis of the following elements:

• Lip area;
• Components of the language;
• Soft and hard palate;
• Maxillary department;
• Laryngeal region;
• vocal folds;
• Nasopharynx;
• Resonators.

All these organs are composed of individual muscles that can be trained, thereby working on your speech. The jaws (lower and upper) when lowered and raised close or open the way to the nasal cavity. The pronunciation of some vowel sounds depends on this. The shape and structure of the jaws are reflected in the spoken sounds. Deformations of this part of the department lead to speech disorders.

• The main element of the articulatory apparatus is the tongue. It is very mobile thanks to numerous muscles. This allows it to become narrower or wider, long or short, flat or arched, which is important for speech.

There is a frenulum in the structure of the language that significantly affects pronunciation. With a short frenulum, the reproduction of eye sounds is disturbed. But this defect is easily eliminated in modern speech therapy.

• The lips play a role in the articulation of sounds, helping their mobility to take the tongue to a specific location. By changing the size and shape of the lips, articulatory creation of vowels is provided.
• The soft palate, which continues the hard palate, can descend or rise, providing separation of the nasopharynx from the pharynx. It is in a raised position during the formation of all sounds, with the exception of "H" and "M". If the functioning of the palatine curtain is disturbed, sounds are distorted, the voice turns out to be nasal, “nasal”.
• The hard palate is a component of the lingo-palatal shutter. The strength of tension required from the language when creating sounds depends on its type and shape. The configurations of this department of the articulatory system are different. Depending on their varieties, some components of the human voice are formed.
• The volume and clarity of the sounds produced depend on the resonator cavities. The resonators are located in the extension pipe. This is the space above the larynx, represented by the oral and nasal cavities, as well as the pharynx. Due to the fact that a person's oropharynx is one cavity, it is possible to create different sounds. The tube that these organs form is called the extension tube. It plays the fundamental function of a resonator. By changing the volume and shape, the extension tube is involved in creating resonance, as a result, some of the sound overtones are muffled, and some are amplified. As a result, a speech timbre is formed.

Central apparatus and its structure

The central speech apparatus is the elements of the human brain. Its components:

• Cerebral cortex (mainly its left part).
• Nodes under the bark.
• Nucleus of nerves and trunk.
• Pathways that carry signals.

Speech, like all other manifestations of the work of the higher nervous system, develops due to reflexes. These reflexes are inextricably linked with the work of the brain. Some of its departments play a special, major role in speech reproduction. Among them: the temporal part, the frontal lobe, the parietal region and the occipital, related to the left hemisphere. In right-handers, this role is performed by the hemisphere of the right side of the brain.

The lower, they are also frontal, gyrus play a major role in the creation of oral speech. The convolutions in the region of the temples are the auditory part, which perceives all sound irritations. Thanks to her, you can hear someone else's speech. In the process of understanding sounds, the main work is performed by the parietal region of the human cortex. And the occipital part is responsible for the visual part and the perception of speech in the form of a letter. In children, it is active when observing the articulation of older people, and leads to the development of oral speech.

The characteristic color of the voice depends on the subcortical nuclei.

The brain interacts with the peripheral elements of the system through:

• Centripetal paths.
• Centrifugal paths.

Centrifugal pathways connect the cortex with the muscles that regulate the work of the peripheral section. The beginning of the centrifugal path takes in the cerebral cortex. The brain sends signals along these pathways to all peripheral organs that produce sounds.

Response signals to the central section pass along centripetal pathways. Their origin is located in the baroreceptors and proprioreceptors located inside the muscles, as well as tendons and articular surfaces.

The central and peripheral departments are inextricably linked and the dysfunction of one will inevitably lead to disruption of the other. They constitute a single system of the speech apparatus, thanks to which the body is able to produce sounds. The articulatory department, as an element of the peripheral part, plays a separate role in the formulation of correct and beautiful speech.

Each sound of speech is a phenomenon not only physical, but also physiological, since the central nervous system of a person is involved in the formation and perception of speech sounds. From a physiological point of view, speech appears as one of its functions. Pronouncing the sound of speech is a rather complex physiological process. A certain impulse is sent from the speech center of the brain, which travels along the nerves to the speech organs that carry out the command of the speech center. It is generally accepted that the direct source of the formation of speech sounds is a jet of air pushed out of the lungs through the bronchi, trachea and oral cavity. Therefore, the speech apparatus is considered both in the broad and narrow sense of the word.

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In a broad sense, the concept speech apparatus include the central nervous system, the organs of hearing (and vision - for writing), necessary for the perception of sounds, and the organs of speech, necessary for the production of sounds. The central nervous system is responsible for the production of speech sounds. It is also involved in the perception of speech sounds from the outside and awareness of them.

speech organs, or speech apparatus in the narrow sense, consist of respiratory organs, larynx, supraglottic organs and cavities. The organs of speech are often compared to a wind instrument: the lungs are bellows, the windpipe is a pipe, and the oral cavity is valves. In fact, the speech organs are controlled by the central nervous system, which sends commands to various parts of the speech organs. In accordance with these commands, the organs of speech produce movements and change their positions.

respiratory organs are the lungs, bronchi and windpipe (trachea). The lungs and bronchi are the source and conductor of the air stream, pumping the exhaled air with the tension of the muscles of the diaphragm (abdominal obstruction).

Rice. one. Breathe-helping machine:

1 - thyroid cartilage; 2 - cricoid cartilage; 3 - windpipe (trachea); 4 - bronchi; 5 - terminal branches of bronchial branches; 6 - tops of the lungs; 7 - bases of the lungs

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Larynx, or larynx(from the Greek larynx - larynx) - this is the upper expanded part of the trachea. The larynx contains the vocal apparatus, which is made up of cartilage and muscles. The skeleton of the larynx is formed by two large cartilages: the cricoid (in the form of a ring, the signet of which is turned back) and the thyroid (in the form of two connected shields protruding at an angle forward; the protrusion of the thyroid cartilage is called Adam's apple, or Adam's apple). The cricoid cartilage is fixedly connected to the trachea and is, as it were, the base of the larynx. On the top of the cricoid cartilage are two small arytenoid, or pyramidal, cartilages that look like triangles and can move apart and shift towards the center, turn inward or outward.

Rice. 2. Larynx

BUT. Larynx in front: 1 - thyroid cartilage; 2 - cricoid cartilage; 3 - hyoid bone; 4 - middle shield-hyoid ligament I (connecting the thyroid cartilage with the hyoid bone); 5 - middle cricoid ligament; 6 - trachea

B. Larynx behind: 1 - thyroid cartilage; 2 - cricoid cartilage; 3 - upper horns of the thyroid cartilage; 4 - lower horns of the thyroid cartilage; 5 - arytenoid cartilages; 6 - epiglottis; 7 - membranous (back) part of the trachea

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Across the larynx, obliquely from the top of the front to the bottom of the back, two elastic muscular folds are stretched in the form of a curtain, converging in two halves to the middle - the vocal cords. The upper edges of the vocal cords are attached to the inner walls of the thyroid cartilage, the lower - to the arytenoid cartilages. The vocal cords are very elastic and can be shortened and stretched, relaxed and tense. With the help of the arytenoid cartilages, they can converge or diverge at an angle, forming a glottis of various shapes. The air forced by the respiratory organs passes through the glottis and causes the vocal cords to tremble. Under the influence of their vibrations, sounds of a certain frequency are produced. This begins the process of creating speech sounds.

It should be noted that, according to the neuromotor theory of voice formation, the vocal cords actively contract not under the influence of a mechanical breakthrough of exhaled air, but under the influence of a series of nerve impulses. Moreover, the frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords during the formation of speech sounds corresponds to the frequency of nerve impulses.

In any case, the process of creating sounds in the larynx is just beginning. It ends "on the upper floor" of the speech apparatus - in the supraglottic cavities with the participation of the organs of pronunciation. Resonator tones and overtones are formed here, as well as noise from air friction against adjacent organs or from the explosion of closed organs.

The upper floor of the speech apparatus - the extension tube - begins with the pharyngeal cavity, or pharynx(from the Greek phárynx - pharynx). The pharynx can narrow in its lower or middle region by contracting the circular muscles of the pharynx or moving back the root of the tongue. In this way, pharyngeal sounds are formed in Semitic, Caucasian and some other languages. Further, the extension pipe is divided into two outlet pipes - the oral cavity and the nasal cavity. They are separated by the palate (lat. palatum), the front part of which is hard (hard palate), and the back is soft (soft palate, or palatine curtain), ending with a small tongue, or uvula (from lat. uvula - tongue). The hard palate is divided into anterior and middle.

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Depending on the position of the palatine curtain, the air flow leaving the larynx can enter the oral cavity or the nasal cavity. When the veil of palate is raised and fits snugly against the posterior pharyngeal wall, air cannot enter the nasal cavity and must pass through the mouth. Then oral sounds are formed. If the soft palate is lowered, then the passage to the nasal cavity is open. Sounds acquire nasal coloring and nasal sounds are obtained.

Rice. 3. pronunciation apparatus

The oral cavity is the main "laboratory" in which speech sounds are formed, since it contains movable speech organs, which, under the influence of nerve impulses coming from the cerebral cortex, produce various movements.

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The oral cavity can change its shape and volume due to the presence of movable pronunciation organs: lips, tongue, soft palate, uvula, and in some cases, the epiglottis. The nasal cavity, on the contrary, acts as a resonator that does not change in volume and shape. The tongue plays the most active role in the articulation of most speech sounds.

Knead the tip of the tongue, the back (the part facing the palate) and the root of the tongue; The back of the tongue is divided into three parts - anterior, middle and posterior. Of course, there are no anatomical boundaries between them. In the oral cavity there are also teeth, which are its solid border of a fixed form, and alveoli (from Latin alveolus - groove, notch) - tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth, which play an important role in the formation of speech sounds. The mouth is covered with lips - upper and lower, representing a soft border of a mobile form.

According to the role in the pronunciation of sounds, the organs of speech are divided into active and passive. Active organs are mobile, they make certain movements necessary to create barriers and forms of air passage. Passive organs of speech do not perform independent work in the formation of sounds and are 1 the place where the active organ creates a bridge or gap for] the passage of an air stream. The active organs of speech include the vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, back of the pharynx, and the lower jaw. Passive organs are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, and also the upper jaw. In the pronunciation of some sounds, the active organs may not take a direct part, thereby passing to the position of passive organs of speech.

The tongue is the most active organ of the human speech apparatus. Parts of the tongue have different mobility. The tip of the tongue has the greatest mobility, which can be pressed against urubam and alveoli, bend up to the hard palate, form constrictions in various places, tremble at the hard palate, etc. The back of the tongue can merge with the hard and soft palate or rise towards them, forming constrictions.

Of the lips, the lower lip has more mobility. It can merge with the upper lip or form a labial with it.

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constriction. Protruding forward and rounding, the lips change the shape of the resonator cavity, which creates the so-called rounded sounds.

The small uvula, or uvula, may tremble intermittently as it closes against the back of the tongue.

In Arabic, the epiglottis, or epiglottis, is involved in the formation of some consonants (hence epiglottis, or epiglottal, sounds), which physiologically covers the larynx at the time of the passage of food into the esophagus.

In order to master English pronunciation, the student first of all needs to know the structure of the speech apparatus, the organs of speech and their functions.

We make sounds by exhaling air from the lungs. Exhaled air through the trachea (the trachea) enters the larynx (the glottal cavity ["glɔtәl" kævıtı]) - the upper part of the trachea, in which the vocal cords are located (the vocal cords ["vәυkәl "kɔ׃dz]).

The vocal cords are two muscular elastic folds, they can approach and simultaneously stretch or move apart and relax; the space between them is called the glottis (the glottis ["glɔtıs]). When the vocal cords are tense, the air flow causes them to vibrate, they vibrate, producing a musical tone or voice (tone or voice), which we hear when pronouncing vowels, sonants and voiced consonants, for example, [n], [z]. When the vocal cords are not tense and parted, air freely exits through the glottis. This is the position of the vocal cords when pronouncing voiceless consonants, for example [s], [p]. If you touch larynx, you can feel the vibration of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants and the absence of vibration when pronouncing deaf consonants.

Above the larynx is the pharyngeal cavity (the pharyngeal [ˌfærın"ʤıәl] cavity), the oral cavity (the mouth cavity) and the nasal cavity (the nasal ["neızәl] cavity). Their volume affects the quality of sounds.

From the pharyngeal cavity, exhaled air can exit through the oral cavity if the soft palate (the soft palate ["pælıt]) with a small tongue (the uvula ["ju: vjulə]) is raised, or through the nasal cavity if the soft palate is lowered. In the first case, oral (oral ["ɔ: rәl]) sounds are formed, in the second - nasal (nasal) sounds. In English, three nasal consonants are [m], [n], [ŋ], one guttural [h ], the rest are oral.

The tongue is the most important organ of articulation. It is very flexible and mobile and can take various positions in the oral cavity to form vowels and consonants. The rise of the tongue in the oral cavity depends on the size of the oral solution, i.e. from the position of the lower jaw (the lower jaw [ʤɔ:]).

For the convenience of describing articulation, the tongue can be conditionally divided into three parts: the front part, in which, in turn, the front edge and its tip stand out (the front edge with the tip of the tongue), the middle part (the middle part), and the back part (the back part). At rest, the front of the tongue is located against the alveolar arch (the alveolar [æl "vıәlә] ridge) on the hard palate, the middle part is against the hard palate (the hard palate ["ha: d "pælıt]), the back is against the soft palate (the soft palate) The surface of the entire tongue is called the dorsal surface (the dorsal ["dɔ: sәl] surface), the surface of its front part is called the predorsal surface (predorsal).

The front part of the tongue is the most active part, it is almost exclusively used to form various obstructions (complete and incomplete) in the articulation of consonants. In the production of vowels, it is passive and lies behind the lower teeth.

The middle and back parts of the tongue make up the bulk of the tongue, which is less mobile, but nevertheless can move horizontally and vertically, participating in the formation of vowels.

The upper and lower teeth, as well as the upper and lower lips, can form complete and incomplete barriers to the articulation of consonants, for example [b], [v], [w]. The position of the lips, as well as the lower jaw, regulates the size and shape of the mouth opening when pronouncing vowels, for example [ɪ], [ɪ:].

The totality of a number of organs that perform articulatory work is called the speech apparatus. Figures: 1 and 2 show a diagram of the cross section of the human speech organs - the so-called sagittal section(sagittal cross section).

Moving organs of speech are active, motionless - passive.

speech apparatus- this is the totality and interaction of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It consists of two departments: central and peripheral. The central section is the brain with its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves. The peripheral section is the whole set of executive organs of speech, including bones, cartilages, muscles and ligaments, as well as peripheral sensory and motor nerves, with the help of which the work of these organs is controlled.

The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three main sections that act together.

1st department- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only when exhaling. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs, when relaxed - exhalation;

2nd department- organs of speech are passive - these are motionless organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx. They have the greatest influence on the technique of speech;

3rd department- active speech organs are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilage of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can be moved apart to different widths of the solution;

The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply a jet of air, the second to form a voice, the third is a resonator that gives strength and color to the sound and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, which arise as a result of the activity of individual active parts of the articulatory apparatus. The latter include the lower jaw, tongue, lips and soft palate.

The lower jaw drops and rises; the soft palate rises and falls, thus closing and opening the passage to the nasal cavity; tongue and lips can take a variety of positions. A change in the position of the speech organs entails the formation of locks and constrictions in various parts of the articulatory apparatus, due to which this or that character of the sound is determined.

The tongue is rich in muscles that make it very mobile: it can lengthen and shorten, become narrow and wide, flat and arched.

The soft palate, or palatine curtain, ending in a small tongue, lies at the top of the oral cavity and is a continuation of the hard palate, which begins at the upper teeth with alveoli. The palate has the ability to rise and fall and thus separate the pharynx from the nasopharynx. When pronouncing all sounds except m and n, the palatine curtain is raised. If the palatine curtain is inactive for some reason and is not raised, then the sound turns out to be nasal (nasal), since when the palatine curtain is lowered, sound waves pass mainly through the nasal cavity.

The lower jaw, due to its mobility, is a very important organ of the articulatory (sound-producing) apparatus, as it contributes to the full development of stressed vowels (a, o, u, e, and, s).

The painful state of individual parts of the articulatory apparatus is reflected in the correctness of resonation and the clarity of the sounds pronounced. Therefore, in order to develop the necessary articulation, all organs involved in the formation of speech sounds must work correctly and in concert.

The organs of speech are shown in the following figure:

1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; 6 - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - the middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - the root of the tongue; 11 - vocal cords; 12 - soft palate; 13 - tongue; 14 - larynx; 15 - trachea..