Africa. Population

Ethnic composition

The ethnic composition of the modern population of Africa is very complex (see map of peoples). The continent is inhabited by several hundred large and small ethnic groups. 107 of them, numbering more than 1 million people each, make up 86.2% of the total population (1983 est.). The number of 24 peoples exceeds 5 million people, and they make up 55.2% of the population of Africa. The largest of them are Egyptian Arabs, Hausa, Yoruba, Algerian Arabs, Moroccan Arabs, Fulbe, Igbo, Amhara, Oromo, Sudanese Arabs.

The countries of North and Northeast Africa are inhabited by peoples who speak the languages ​​of the Afroasian family. The most common of the Semitic languages ​​- Arabic is native to 101 million people (1 / 5 of all Africans). Arabs - the main population of Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco; 49.1% of them live in Sudan, 26% in Chad.

In the Ethiopian group of Semitic peoples, the largest is the Amhara, which, together with the related Tigray, Gurage, Tigre, form the core of the emerging Ethiopian nation.

Peoples who speak Cushitic languages ​​live in Ethiopia and neighboring countries; the largest of these is the Oromo in southern Ethiopia. The Kushite group also includes Somalis and inhabitants of the mountainous regions of southern and central Ethiopia - ometo, kaffa, shinash, yamma, sidamo, etc. The vast desert expanses in the northeast of Sudan and the adjacent regions of Egypt and Somalia are occupied by the Beja.

The ancient population of North Africa - the Berber peoples (shilh, tamazight, reefs in Morocco, Kabils and Shaviya in Algeria) - survived only in the mountainous and partly desert regions of the Sahara. A special place among them is occupied by the Tuareg (self-name imoshag), who roam the desert highlands of Ahaggar and Tassilin-Ajer in Algeria, occupy the Air highlands and the adjacent regions of the Central Sahara in Niger; there are many of them in Mali.

To the south of the Sahara, there are peoples who speak Chadic languages ​​(or Hausa languages): Hausa, Bura, Vandala, etc. The vast majority of Hausa are settled in Northern Nigeria. They also live in the adjacent regions of Niger. Hausa-related peoples - the Bura, Vandala, Bade, Masa, Kotoko, etc., are settled on the hills in the east of Nigeria.

The most extensive territory in Africa is occupied by peoples who speak the Kongo-Kordofanian languages. Among the peoples speaking the Niger-Congo languages, the ethnic groups that speak the Benue-Congo languages ​​stand out for their multiplicity. They also include the Bantu peoples, who make up the vast majority of the population in many countries of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. The 43 Bantu peoples number over 1 million people each. The largest of them are rwanda (in Rwanda, Zaire, Uganda and some neighboring countries), makua (in Malawi, Tanzania and other countries), rundi and ha (in Burundi, Zaire, Tanzania and Uganda), congo (in Zaire, Angola , Congo), Malawi (in Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique), Zulu (in South Africa), Shona (in Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana), Xhosa (South Africa), Luba (in Zaire and neighboring countries). Other major Bantu peoples include Kikuyu, Tsonga, Nyamwezi, Ganda, Mongo, Luhya, Ovimbundu, Pedi, Bemba, Suto, Tswana.

The Benue-Congo languages ​​are spoken by a number of large and small peoples of Nigeria and Cameroon (Ibibio, Tiv, Bamileke, Tikar, Ekoi, etc.).

Kwa-speaking peoples inhabit a vast area of ​​the Guinean coast from Liberia to Cameroon: large peoples - Yoruba, Igbo, Bini, as well as Nule, Gbari, Igbira, Ijo and others in Nigeria, a group of Akan peoples in southern Ghana and in the BSC, Ewe in southern Ghana, Togo and neighboring countries; fon (eastern ewe) in Benin; a group of Kru peoples in the BSC and Liberia, small peoples of the coastal lagoons of the BSC, etc.

The peoples who speak Western Atlantic languages ​​make up the main population of many countries in the extreme west of Africa: Wolof, Fulbe, Serer and others in Senegal, Balante, Fulbe and others in Guinea-Bissau, Temne, Limba, Fulbe and others in Sierra Leone , fulbe, kisi and others in Guinea. The most numerous are fulbes.

The peoples speaking Gur languages ​​are settled in Burkina Faso, Ghana, BSK, Mali. The largest of them is mine, closely related peoples - Lobi, Bobo, Dogon. Other peoples of this group include pears, gourma, tem, cabre, etc.

Of the Mande peoples, the Mandinka are widely settled - in Guinea, Mali, Senegal, BSK. Close to them, the Bamana inhabit the central regions of Mali, the Mende live in Sierra Leone, the Soninka in northern Mali in neighboring states, and the Susu in the coastal regions of Guinea. The Mande group also includes Dan, Queni, Mano, Diula, Vai, Busa, Bandi, Loma, etc.

The peoples speaking the Adamawa-Eastern languages ​​make up the majority of the population of the Central African Republic, they are also settled in Zaire, Cameroon and Sudan. The largest peoples are: Banda, Gbaya, Azande (Zande), Chamba, Mbum.

The Kordofan languages ​​are spoken by the small peoples inhabiting the Kordofan mountains in Sudan: Koalib, Tumtum, Tegali, etc.

The peoples who speak Nilo-Saharan languages ​​make up six groups. Shari-Nile languages ​​are spoken by many peoples of the Nile river basin. Most of the Eastern Sudanese peoples (southern Luo - Acholi, Lango, Kumam, etc.; Joluo, Dinka, Nubians, Kalenjin, Teso, Turkana, Karamojong, Nuer, Masai, etc.) live in southern Sudan, in Uganda, Kenya. The Central Sudanese group is formed by the Moru-Madi, Mangbetu, Bagirmi and Sara, as well as the Pygmies - Efe, Aka, Asua and some others.

Khoisan peoples inhabit semi-desert territories in the southwestern part of Africa (in Namibia, Botswana, Angola, South Africa). These include Bushmen, Hottentots, mountain Damara. The island of Madagascar is inhabited by Malagasy speakers of Austronesian languages.

The Indo-European languages ​​​​(Germanic, Romance and Indo-Aryan) are spoken by the population of European (Afrikaners, or Boers, British, French, Spaniards, Italians, Portuguese, etc.) and Asian (immigrants from India and Pakistan, Indo-Mauritians, etc.) origin. Individuals of European descent make up less than 1.5% of the African population. Their number after the African countries gained political independence has noticeably decreased. However, in South Africa they occupy a dominant position in economic and political life.

In terms of language and partly in culture, the mixed mestizo population adjoins the Europeans. In South Africa, it includes the so-called colored people. They are subjected, along with other "non-white" peoples, to severe racial discrimination. On the oceanic islands surrounding the African continent, as a result of ethnic mixing, various mestizo ethnic groups were formed (Reunion, Green Mys, Mauritian Creoles, etc.).

B. V. Andrianov, S. I. Bruk.

Ethnic processes - a change in the main features of an ethnic community (language, culture, self-consciousness, etc., that is, those features that distinguish this community from others) - are divided into processes of ethnic unification, including assimilation, consolidation and integration, and processes of ethnic separation . In Africa, not only their different types are represented, but also various stages of consolidation, integration and assimilation processes, as well as various forms of ethnic communities - from small wandering groups of gatherers and hunters, preserving the remnants of the tribal system, to various ethnic groups of a transitional type, ethnolinguistic and ethnopolitical communities , large nationalities and multi-million nations.

The formation of the population of Africa took place for a long time as a result of complex migration processes, interaction and mutual influence of various ethno-cultural components. One of the important stages in the ethnic history of Africa is associated with the movement of the inhabitants of the Sahara as it dries up (from the 3rd century BC). Gradually, the Negroid tribes spread to the south of the continent. As a result of centuries-old migrations of peoples, different in anthropological type and language, stages of consolidation and assimilation, a mixed population was formed in West Africa. The next stage is associated with the movement of the Bantu peoples from the west (starting from the 1st millennium AD). In East Africa, they pushed back to the north and partially assimilated the tribes of the Kushites and in the southwest - the Bushmen and Hottentots. As a result of the contacts of the newcomer Bantu-speaking tribes with the original ethnic substrate, the formation of the ethnic image of modern peoples took place. In the VII-XI centuries. Arabs migrated to North Africa, then to Central and Eastern Sudan, to the East African coast and the islands of the Indian Ocean. The ancient and medieval states of Africa - Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Congo, Cuba, etc., had a great influence on the ethnic history. Within their borders, related tribes were united and gradually consolidated into nationalities. However, this natural process was disrupted by the slave trade, which led to the devastation of vast territories. The period of colonialism had a significant impact on the ethno-cultural development of Africa. Colonial dependence, the reactionary policy of the colonialists, aimed at maintaining socio-economic backwardness, at separating peoples, conserving obsolete institutions of the tribal society, separating the borders of colonies of single ethnic groups - contributed to ethnic stratification and isolationism, hampered the process of rapprochement of various ethnic groups. However, unification processes also developed during the colonial period. Centers of ethnic consolidation were emerging in different countries, and processes of ethnic integration were outlined. In the struggle against the colonialists, national self-consciousness developed and strengthened. After the achievement of political independence by the African states, a new stage in their ethno-cultural development began. In the new historical conditions, the processes of formation of large ethnic communities are developing rapidly, capturing at the same time various levels and forms of the ethno-social structure - from families (large and small) to entire nationalities. Most ethno-social communities have already passed the stage of development denoted by the term "tribe". Everywhere there are processes of formation of nationalities, mixing, transformation of ethnic communities of different levels, replacement of tribal ties with territorial ones, strengthening of social stratification.

The conquest of independence contributed to the destruction of the patriarchal-feudal isolation of many areas, the strengthening of economic ties, the spread of common forms of culture and common literary major languages ​​(Swahili in eastern Africa, Hausa and others in the west). There is a process of folding nations in the north, the extreme south (Afrikaners), in a number of countries of Tropical Africa (among the Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo in Nigeria, Congo in Zaire and some others). As a rule, this process takes place on the basis of the consolidation of already existing nationalities. As for the formation of nations within state borders, at the present stage of ethno-social development, one can only speak of the trend of this process.

The diversity, lack of formality and amorphousness of ethnic communities in the states of Tropical Africa, the mobility of ethnic boundaries, the presence of a large number of transitional types do not always make it possible to characterize the level of ethnic development with certainty.

The processes of ethnic consolidation are intensively developing in Africa - the formation of large ethnic communities on a more or less homogeneous ethnic basis, or the further consolidation of the formed ethnos as its socio-economic and cultural development develops. They are observed among the Luhya and Kikuyu in Kenya, among the Akan peoples in Ghana, among the Igbo, Yoruba, Nupe and Ibibio in Nigeria, etc. Thus, ethnic groups close in language and culture living on the southern and eastern slopes of Mount Kenya are grouped around the Kikuyu: Embu, Mbere, Ndia, Kichugu, Meru. In terms of language, Embu, Kichugu, Mbere and Ndia are closest to the Kikuyu. Tribal languages ​​and ethnic self-names are still preserved; Kikuyu, Embu and Meru are counted separately in censuses.

The level of consolidation processes in different ethnic groups is different. The Igbos in Nigeria are compactly settled and have a common material and spiritual culture. However, remnants of tribal division, tribal dialects remain, there are local differences in culture. If, according to the 1952-53 census, all the Igbos considered themselves a single people, then during the Nigerian crisis of 1966-70 (see article Nigeria. Historical outline) and subsequent years, there was a tendency to separate ethnic divisions. Ethnic divisions continue to exist among the Yoruba (Ijesha, Oyo, Ife, Egba, Egbado, Ondo, etc.). The trend towards the isolation of individual ethnic divisions is holding back the consolidation processes among the Igbo and Yoruba.

Along with the consolidation in many countries, the processes of interethnic integration, the rapprochement of different ethnic groups, the emergence of common cultural features have developed. They proceed on the basis of the interaction of various ethnic components that differ in language, as well as the level of socio-economic and cultural development. These processes can develop into a complete ethnic integration of different ethnic groups within the framework of one state.

Integration processes are taking place everywhere in Africa, and in some countries they are taking place on the scale of the entire state and at the level of individual nationalities. Socio-economic transformations, the creation of a single national market, the gradual emergence of a national culture within state borders, consisting of many ethnic cultures, contribute to the gradual formation of a community consciousness - Nigerian, Congolese, Guinean, etc. Africans are increasingly calling themselves non-traditional ethnonyms, and by the name of the state - Nigerians, Congolese, Guineans, etc.

An example of integration at the level of individual nationalities is the ethnic processes of the Hausa. Around the Hausa, who make up the majority of the population of Northern Nigeria, not only closely related ethnic groups are grouped, but there is also a gradual assimilation of many small tribes in the central regions of the country: the language and culture of the Hausa is spreading more and more. From these heterogeneous ethnic components, the Hausa nation is formed. It consists of: proper Hausa, Angas, Ankwe, Sura, Bade, Boleva, Karekare, Tantale, Bura, Vandala, Masa, Musgu, Mubi, etc. Most of these groups retain their self-names. The majority speaks the Hausa language, while others are bilingual and speak their native languages. Many of these peoples were part of the Hausa states (see Hausa states), their economic and cultural contacts with the Hausa have a long history, which contributes to the integration processes. In some cases, integration processes can lead to the formation of a single ethnic community within state borders. In other cases, in conditions of ethnic pluralism and the complexity of interethnic relations, several centers of integration and, accordingly, several ethno-social communities may arise. As a result of integration processes in African states, new ethno-political ones are being formed. (meta-ethnic) communities.

Assimilation processes are obvious where people live in the neighborhood, which differ sharply in terms of socio-economic development, origin, language and culture. Such are the Kikuyu in Kenya and the Ndorobo groups assimilated by them, the Luo Nilots and the Bantu-speaking Kisii and Suba; in Rwanda, Rwanda and the Twa Pygmies; in Botswana, the Tswana and the Bushmen; in Togo, small ethnic communities gradually merge with the Ewe - akebu, akposo, adele. In Guinea, there is a merger with Kisi close in language and culture to Baga, Mmani, and Landum. At the same time, many Baga and Landuma speak the Susu language and are partly assimilated by the Susu. In the Sudan, the Arabs assimilate the Nubians, the Beja, and others. In the BSK Baule, the Lagoon peoples, the Krobu, the Gwa, and others assimilate.

Along with the unification processes in a number of regions of Africa, processes of ethnic division are also observed, although in the past their role was incomparably greater. Thus, in the history of Africa, widespread migrations of Arab tribes are known, which led to the formation of separate ethnic groups. In ancient times, for centuries in Central Africa, there was a complex process of spreading and separating the Bantu-speaking ethnic groups; Medieval migrations of the Luo from the banks of the Nile to the south - to the Mezhozerie are known, accompanied by their division into a number of ethnic groups; a similar process took place in the 19th century, when part of the South African Zulu (Nguni) tribes migrated north. In Kenya, the Masaba and Bukusu ethnic groups separated from the Gishu.

The nature and pace of ethnic processes in Africa are determined by historical, socio-economic, and political factors: general economic backwardness, the multi-structural nature of the economy, the dominance of foreign monopolies in many countries, the unresolved social problems, the acuteness of the national question, extraterritorial problems inherited from colonialism, etc.

Many of the African ethnic groups retain a complex hierarchical ethno-social structure, when the same set of people is simultaneously part of ethnic communities of different levels. Such, for example, is the multimillion-strong ethnolinguistic community of the Akans, which unites a group of ethnic groups in southern and central Ghana and neighboring regions of the BSC. The proximity of the Akan languages ​​contributes to ethnocultural rapprochement both within the framework of the entire broad ethnolinguistic community, and at the level of large ethnosocial divisions - Ashanti, Fanti, Akim, and others. This process is developing in parallel with the formation of a broad ethno-political community within the state of Ghana.

Ethnic processes in modern Africa are not only complex, but also extremely contradictory. On the one hand, there is an increase in self-awareness, the erasure of tribal differences, the creation of larger ethno-social and ethno-political communities, the rejection of narrow tribal interests and the emphasis on national ones. On the other hand, there is an increase in ethnic self-consciousness, an increase in its role in political life, and an increase in tribal separatism.

Progressive economic and cultural processes, urbanization, and population migration contribute to the rapprochement of peoples. African cities with a rapidly growing working class, developing bourgeoisie and intelligentsia have become the center of the development of consolidation and integration processes. In cities, there is an intensive exchange of cultural values ​​between representatives of different peoples, convergence of languages ​​and dialects, and the formation of literary languages. All this is an important condition for the elimination of tribal isolation (detribalization).

New inter-ethnic ties are emerging in the cities, although this does not mean that the city dweller immediately breaks with his ethnic group. There are numerous ethnic unions and fraternities in the cities, which testifies to the preservation of community-tribal ties.

Mass migrations of the population, work in cities at the same enterprises of people of different ethnicity contribute to the breakdown of traditional tribal structures and activate ethnic processes. Small ethnic groups, as a rule, quickly adapt to a different ethnic environment and can be completely assimilated; numerous migrants prefer to settle together and, to a certain extent, retain the ethnic characteristics inherent in their way of life in their homeland, and a certain specificity of their social organization. In some cases, migrants are forced to stick together not always by the friendly attitude of the local population and the risk of conflict. Ethnic particularism is also facilitated by the order of population distribution established in colonial times in many cities and large villages: settlement in quarters is ethnic in nature, people from the same ethnic group prefer to settle together. In Ghana, the quarters where the alien population lives are called "zongo", in Northern Nigeria - "sabon gari" (in the Hausa language - "new city"). This situation not only does not lead to detribalization, but, on the contrary, strengthens ethnic self-awareness.

The African states that were formed within the framework of former colonial borders inherited all the difficulties arising from the discrepancy between political and ethnic borders. Such large peoples as the Ewe, Kongo, and others found themselves in different states. The division by political borders of a single ethnic territory of a people and the long-term preservation of such a division lead to the emergence of serious differences between parts of the people. The general socio-economic and political conditions in which ethnic processes take place are of significant importance. State policy can promote integration processes and the formation of a single community from different ethno-linguistic components, otherwise several ethnic communities may form. Thus, in Togo, with the favorable development of integration processes, the Ewe can merge into a single Togolese ethnic community; in Ghana, they can remain as an independent ethnic unit.

In the conditions of a multistructural economy, the social structure of ethnic communities, including nationalities and emerging nations, is extremely heterogeneous. The preservation of many archaic institutions and structures that originate from the depths of the tribal society: castes, patriarchal slavery, contempt for certain professions, ethnic prejudices and prejudices, tribal morality, a significant role of traditional power systems, ethnic stratification, etc. - leave a significant imprint on the pace and level of ethnic, primarily integration processes.

Specific historical conditions predetermine various variants of ethnic development. In the countries of North Africa with a more or less homogeneous ethnic composition, multi-million Arabic-speaking nations have already formed - Algerian, Egyptian, Moroccan, etc. In most countries, ethnic development is proceeding along the path of strengthening the largest ethnic communities and strengthening integration processes. The most striking example of the formation of a single ethno-political community is Tanzania, where on the basis of the Swahili language, recognized as the official language of the country, more than a hundred different ethnic groups form a single community that can turn into a Tanzanian nation.

In South Africa, the ethnic development of the indigenous African peoples is deformed by the reactionary racial policy of the ruling circles of South Africa. The processes of formation of large ethnic communities (nationalities and nations) among the Bantu peoples are actively going on. The creation of bantustans and the ongoing conservation of traditional institutions of tribal society in South Africa have a negative impact on the processes of national consolidation.

In the history of Russia, the 17th century is an important moment in its development. Being surrounded by numerous enemies, important processes took place inside the country that influenced the further development of the state.

The main tasks of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century

At the beginning of the 17th century, the Time of Troubles began in Russia. The Rurik dynasty was interrupted and the Polish-Swedish intervention began. It was only in 1612 that the country was able to defend its sovereignty and reassert itself on the world stage by launching a broad foreign policy activity.

The main task of the new Russian dynasty was the return of Russian territories lost during the Time of Troubles. This also included the local task of gaining access to the Baltic Sea, because during the Russian Time of Troubles these lands were occupied by Sweden.

Rice. 1. Map of Russia at the beginning of the 17th century.

The task of uniting the territories of the former Kievan Rus around Moscow remained historical. Moreover, it was not only about the unification of the people, but also an increase in arable land and the number of taxpayers.

In other words, Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century met the objectives of uniting and restoring the integrity of the country.

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And, of course, with the destruction of the Siberian Khanate, Russia's road to Siberia was opened. The development of wild, but rich regions remained a priority for a weakened state.

Rice. 2. Siege of Chigirin.

Table "Foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century"

Task	Event	the date	Outcome
Eliminate the raids of the Crimean Tatars	Russo-Turkish War		Defeat in the war
	Crimean campaigns		Failed to stop raids
Return of Smolensk	Smolensk war		Mikhail Romanov is recognized as legitimate by the Poles. Serpeysk and Trubchevsk went to Russia
Getting access to the Baltic Sea	War with Sweden		Failed to return access to the sea
Support for the Orthodox population in the Commonwealth	Russian-Polish war		Smolensk land returned to Russia, as well as Kyiv and adjacent lands
	Russo-Turkish War
Development of Siberia and the Far East	Annexation of Eastern Siberia	Throughout the 17th century	Huge Siberian territories mastered

Many modern European historians consider the development of Siberia to be colonization and the relationship of Moscow with the local population as a colony with the metropolis.

It should be noted the emergence of the "Caspian issue" for Russia. The Rurikovichs were not in contact with all the countries located in Eurasia. One of these was Persia.

In 1651, the Persian army entered Dagestan and the Caspian lands, wanting to claim their rights to them. As a result, military campaigns ended in nothing. Alexei Mikhailovich in 1653 managed to achieve the preservation of the position of the borders until the start of the Persian campaign. However, the struggle for the coast of the Caspian Lake from that moment was just beginning for Russia.

Rice. 3. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

One of the reasons for the unresolved majority of tasks was the technological backwardness of Russia from European countries. After the Thirty Years' War in Europe, military science took a step forward, but it bypassed the Russian military art.

What have we learned?

Speaking briefly about the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century, it should be noted that Russia was engaged in the restoration of its historical borders and the return of territories lost during the Time of Troubles. Most of the tasks facing it in the 17th century could not be solved.

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Have a good day everyone! We continue our dive into the history of Russia. The foreign policy of the 17th century is a topic that needs to be very well understood. Of course, it differs from the complexity, diversity of directions. However, it is worth remembering that the main directions have remained unchanged. This topic is important. You have no idea how many kids trip over it in an exam. Therefore, I recommend that you read this article to the end.

Episode of the Smolensk War

Directions

In the 17th century, the main directions of foreign policy, traditional for it, were relevant to the Moscow state:

The western direction included several tasks

1. Reunification with the old Russian Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, which were under the rule of the Commonwealth since the 14th century. From the beginning of the century, Poland began to actively pursue a policy of polonization of the Orthodox Ukrainian population, to impose Polish (the toughest) serfdom, to introduce the Polish language and the Catholic faith. Such violent actions caused a protest, at first passive, when people united in brotherhoods and did not accept the new order, and then active, which resulted in the uprising of Bogdan Khmelnitsky. As a result, the matter ended with the fact that in 1654 the left-bank Ukraine with Kyiv on the right bank of the Dnieper recognized the supremacy of Muscovy and became part of it on the rights of autonomy. This led to a long Russian-Polish war of 1654 - 1667, read more about it.
2. The struggle for access to the Baltic Sea. You must remember that in the 16th century there was a long Livonian war for access to the Baltic in order to establish trade through the Baltic Sea. But nothing came of Ivan the Terrible. Why, . Of course, the task required solutions. As a result, under Alexei Mikhailovich, Muscovy began a war with Sweden in 1656-1658. The conflict ended with the Peace of Cardis, according to which Muscovy renounced all its acquisitions during the war in this region. There was no war on two fronts!

South direction

In the south, the key opponents of the Moscow kingdom were the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire. The Crimeans continued to attack the south of the country, captivate people and do all sorts of lawlessness. Turkey, in general, had imperial plans to conquer Poland, Austria, to expand its territories in the Balkans.

When the war with Poland broke out in Ukraine, Turkey decided to take advantage of the situation and attack it. The hetman of the Pravoberezhnaya Nezalezhnaya, Petro Doroshenko, recognized the power of the sultan, who, in turn, soon promised the hetman the acquisition of Kyiv, as well as other lands east of the Dnieper.

And as we said above, these lands were already behind Muscovy. Consequently, the Russian-Turkish war of 1672-1681 was inevitable. It ended with the Bakhchisaray peace treaty, according to which the border between the countries now passed along the Dnieper, the Ottomans recognized Kyiv and Left-bank Ukraine as Moscow; the Cossacks could now fish, and the Crimeans could roam near the Dnieper. Thus, the Muscovite kingdom conquered Ukraine not only from Poland, but also from Turkey.

East direction

I am sure that many of you are asking yourself the question: well, what could be the eastern direction, because back in the 16th century Moscow annexed the Kazan Khanate (1552), Astrakhan (1556), the Siberian began to annex from 1581! Farther to the East where? After all, there were few people in the country.

The answer will be pretty simple! The fact is that here we have the so-called spontaneous colonization. Many peasants fled from serfdom, wars and devastation, unrest to the East. Here they passed on the Russian language, the Orthodox faith, to the locals. There were also various adventurers like Khabarov, Dezhnev, Poyarkov and others who wanted to know what was next, in the East!

Expedition Dezhnev

As a result, in 1689, the Treaty of Nerchinsk was concluded between Muscovy and China, according to which the border between the states passed along the Amur River. In fact, central Siberia and the Far East were not at all mastered by the Russian people. These were original areas where the local population lived, who obtained food in traditional ways. If you think about it, even now in a number of regions of these territories the way of life has not changed much.

So the Japanese could have easily seized Kamchatka, if only they had not been too carried away by the massacre of each other, and afterward they had not protected themselves from the whole world with a policy of self-isolation. They had a great chance! And now they are forced to live on their islands, waiting for a new eruption of deadly volcanoes!

As you can see, there were a lot of events in the 16th century. And we haven't covered all of them. In my training courses, I provide all the necessary materials for studying this topic in the form of my own video tutorials, author's tables, presentations, auxiliary webinars. Our guys also solve tests on this topic in the exam format. It is not surprising that 90 points is the average result of our guys. So I invite you to join us, while all the places are not yet occupied. And then it will be too late!

Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov

The events of the 17th century were of great importance in the development of the Russian state. The country was surrounded by numerous enemies, and important political processes took place inside Russia, which left a noticeable mark on its history.

The main tasks of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century

The beginning of the century - the years of the Great Troubles. The Rurik dynasty ended, Russia lost a lot of land and was forced to resist the Polish-Swedish attack. In this difficult situation, the country was not immediately able to defend its independence and reassert itself as a great power by launching large-scale foreign political activities.

Sagittarius - the basis of the Russian army in the 17th century

Russia considered the return of territories that had passed to the invaders during the Time of Troubles as its main foreign policy task. It was necessary to provide access to the Baltic Sea, occupied by Sweden, to return the Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod lands. In addition, relations with the Turks remained difficult. The Ottoman Empire dominated the Black Sea, closing all waterways to its northern neighbor.

The liquidation of the Siberian Khanate made the road to Siberia free for Russia. Therefore, one of the priority tasks in the field of foreign policy in the 17th century was the use of the opportunities that had opened up in the eastern direction. The development of rich regions could render a great assistance to a weakened state in its revival and further development.

The task of territorial unification around Moscow of the lands of the former Kievan Rus was considered historical. The goal was not only to create a single society of people, but also to increase the area of ​​agricultural land and the number of peasants - potential taxpayers.

The main directions of Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century

Relations with other states in their own interests in those days could only be carried out by conducting military operations. Russia led them for almost the entire 17th century. The most iconic military campaigns were:

• Smolensk war of 1632-1634. In it, Russia failed to fulfill all the tasks set for the liberation of its lands. But as a result of the conclusion of the Polyanovsky Peace, a number of cities were returned, the Poles were forced to renounce their claims to the Russian throne and recognize Mikhail Romanov as sovereign;
• The Russian-Polish war, which began in 1654 after the reunification of Ukraine with Russia and lasted 13 years. The task of Russia was to support the Orthodox population in the Commonwealth. The war allowed the return of the Smolensk lands, as well as Kyiv with the surrounding territories. The outbreak of a military conflict with Sweden, which scattered the forces of the Russian army in two directions, did not allow Russia to win a complete victory;
• The war with Sweden in 1656–1658 ended with a truce for 3 years, and in 1661 with the conclusion of a peace treaty. Russia returned the lands occupied by the Swedes, but the main goal - access to the Baltic - was not successful;
• Russian-Turkish war, the main confrontation of which took place in 1676-1681. Russia was drawn into the war because of the desire of the Ottoman Empire to intervene in the conflict between Russia and Poland. The Crimean campaigns against the Tatars, who were considered allies of the Turks, were also undertaken in different years. But it was not possible to stop the raids of the Crimean Tatars, just as it was not possible to interrupt the dominance of the Ottoman Empire in the Black Sea.

More peaceful and successful were the actions of the state aimed at annexing the Siberian and Far Eastern lands. The names of the pioneers Semyon Dezhnev and Vasily Poyarkov are known to many Russians living today.

Results of Russian foreign strategy in the 17th century

Having returned Novgorod, Smolensk, capturing Azov, Russia by the end of the century was left with an important unresolved problem: access to the seas was never won. Nevertheless, over the course of a century, Russia was able to return many of its western lands. Reunification with Ukraine made it possible to noticeably improve the strategic position. The country has managed to raise its international prestige by becoming a member of European alliances of a military-political orientation.

This chapter will consider the most important points related to the issues of the foreign policy of the Russian state in the 17th century. At the beginning of the 17th century, a necessary condition for the country's exit from a deep crisis was the cessation of foreign intervention and the stabilization of the foreign policy situation. Several tasks can be traced in the foreign policy of the 17th century: 1) overcoming the consequences of the Time of Troubles; 2) access to the Baltic Sea; 3) fight against the Krymchaks on the southern borders; 4) development of Siberia.

Foreign policy of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645)

Restoring the state after the Troubles, the new government was guided by the principle: everything should be in the old days. One of his main concerns was to overcome the consequences of the intervention, but all attempts to expel the Swedes from the Russian lands failed. Then, using the mediation of the British, Mikhail began peace negotiations, which ended in 1617 with the signing of the "eternal peace" in the village of Stolbovo. Under this treaty, Novgorod was returned to Russia, but the coast of the Gulf of Finland, the entire course of the Neva and Karelia remained with Sweden.

The situation with Poland was even more difficult. If the Swedes had no reason to expand their aggression beyond the territories they had already captured, then the Poles had such reasons. The Polish king Sigismund did not recognize the accession to the Moscow throne of Mikhail Romanov, still considering his son to be the Russian tsar. He undertook a campaign against Moscow, but failed. The king did not refuse claims to the Russian throne, but he could not continue the war either, therefore in the village of Deulino in 1618 only a truce was signed for a period of 14 years. Smolensk, Chernigov and 30 other Russian cities continued to remain under Polish occupation. In 1632, Moscow troops tried to free them, but to no avail. In 1634, an "eternal peace" was signed with Poland, but it did not become eternal - a few years later hostilities resumed. True, Prince Vladislav renounced the Russian throne.

Foreign policy of Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1678)

The foreign policy of the next ruler - Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, who ascended the throne after the death of his father in 1645 - turned out to be quite active. The consequences of the Time of Troubles made inevitable the resumption of the struggle against Russia's main enemy - Poland. After the Union of Lubin in 1569, which united Poland and Lithuania into one state, the influence of the Polish gentry and the Catholic clergy on the Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox population increased dramatically. The imposition of Catholicism, attempts at national and cultural enslavement aroused sharp opposition. In 1647, a powerful uprising began under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, which grew into a real war. Unable to cope with a strong opponent alone, Bogdan Khmelnitsky turned to Moscow for help and patronage.

The Zemsky Sobor of 1653 was one of the last in the history of Russia. He decided to accept Ukraine as part of the Russian lands, and the Pereyaslav Rada, representing the Ukrainian population, on January 8, 1654, also spoke in favor of reunification. Ukraine became part of Russia, but received wide autonomy, retained self-government and its own judicial system.

Moscow's intervention in the Ukrainian question inevitably entailed a war with Poland. This war went on, with some interruptions, for thirteen years - from 1654 to 1667 - and ended with the signing of the Andrusov peace. Under this agreement, Russia regained Smolensk, Chernihiv-Seversk land, acquired Kyiv and the Left-Bank Ukraine. The right-bank part and Belarus remained under Polish rule. The lands that once belonged to Sweden could not be recaptured in the 17th century. Thus ended another attempt to reunite the ancient Russian lands under the auspices of Moscow.

But it should not be assumed that the peoples inhabiting them unconditionally supported this process. Over the centuries of separation, Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians have experienced various influences, they have developed their own characteristics of language, culture, way of life, as a result of which three nationalities have formed from the once single ethnic group. The struggle for liberation from the Polish-Catholic enslavement had as its goal the acquisition of national independence and independence. Under these conditions, the appeal to Russia for protection was considered by many as a forced step, as an attempt to choose the lesser of two evils. Therefore, this kind of association could not be sustainable. Under the influence of various factors, including Moscow's soon-to-be desire to limit the region's autonomy, part of the Ukrainian and Belarusian population withdrew from Russian influence and remained in Poland's sphere of influence. Even in Left-Bank Ukraine, the situation remained unsettled for a long time: both under Peter 1 and under Catherine 2, anti-Russian movements took place.

A significant expansion of the country's territory in the 17th century was also observed at the expense of Siberia and the Far East - Russian colonization of these lands began. Yakutsk was founded in 1632. In 1647, the Cossacks, led by Semyon Shelkovnikov, founded a winter hut on the shores of the Sea of ​​​​Okhotsk, on the site of which Okhotsk, the first Russian port, is today. In the middle of the 17th century, Russian explorers, such as Poyarkov and Khabarov, began to explore the south of the Far East (Amur and Primorye). And already at the end of the 17th century, Russian Cossacks - Atlasov and Kozyrevsky began to explore the Kamchatka Peninsula, which at the beginning of the 18th century was included in the Russian Empire. As a result, the territory of the country from the middle of the 16th to the end of the 17th century. increased annually by an average of 35 thousand km², which is approximately equal to the area of ​​\u200b\u200bmodern Holland.

So, during the reign of the first Romanovs, much has changed in the country's foreign policy situation. First, foreign intervention from Poland and Sweden was overcome as a relic of the Time of Troubles. Secondly, the territory of Russia was significantly expanded due to the annexation of Ukraine, as well as due to the colonization of Siberia and the Far East.