The entry into the Russian-Turkish war of France, Sardinia and England on the side of Turkey after the famous Battle of Sinop determined the transfer of armed clashes to land, to the Crimea. With the beginning of the campaign in the Crimea, the war of 1853-1856. acquired a defensive character for Russia. The Allies deployed almost 90 warships in the Black Sea against Russia (already mostly steam ships), while the Black Sea squadron consisted of about 20 sailing and 6 steam ships. There was no point in naval confrontation - the superiority of the coalition forces was evident.
In September 1854, the Allied troops landed near Evpatoria. On September 8, 1854, the Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikov was defeated near the Alma River. It seemed that the way to Sevastopol was open. In connection with the increased threat of the capture of Sevastopol, the Russian command decided to flood part of the Black Sea fleet at the entrance to the large bay of the city in order to prevent enemy ships from entering there. The guns were previously removed to reinforce the coastal artillery. The city itself did not give up. On September 13, 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began, which lasted 349 days - until August 28 (September 8), 1855.
A huge role in the defense of the city was played by admirals V.A. Kornilov, V.I. Istomin, P.S. Nakhimov. Vice Admiral Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov became the commander of the defense of Sevastopol. Under his command there were about 18,000 people (subsequently the number will be increased to 85,000), mainly from naval teams. Kornilov was well aware of the size of the Anglo-French-Turkish landing force, which numbered 62,000 people (later the number would reach 148,000) with 134 field and 73 siege guns. Already by September 24, the French occupied the Fedyukhin Heights, and the British entered Balaklava.
In Sevastopol, under the supervision of engineer E.I. Totleben, engineering work was carried out - forts were erected, redoubts were strengthened, trenches were created. The southern part of the city was more fortified. The allies did not dare to storm the city and began engineering work, but successful sorties from Sevastopol did not allow the construction of siege fortifications to be completed quickly.
The first major bombardment of Sevastopol was on October 5, 1854, after which it was planned to storm it. However, the well-aimed return fire of the Russian batteries thwarted these plans. But that day Kornilov died.
The main forces of the Russian army under the command of Menshikov undertook a series of unsuccessful attacking operations. The first was carried out on October 13 on the outskirts of Balaklava. This attack did not have any strategic advantage, but almost an entire brigade of British light cavalry was killed during the battle. On October 24, another battle took place in the region of the Inkerman Heights, lost due to the indecision of the Russian generals.
On October 17, 1854, the allies began shelling Sevastopol from land and sea. They also returned fire from the bastions. Only the British were able to achieve success, acting against the third bastion of Sevastopol. Russian losses amounted to 1250 people. In general, the defenders continued the tactics of night sorties and unexpected raids. The famous Petr Koshka and Ignatiy Shevchenko, with their courage and heroism, have repeatedly proved how high the price the enemy will have to pay for invading Russian open spaces.
The sailor of the 1st article of the 30th naval Black Sea crew Petr Markovich Koshka (1828-1882) became one of the main heroes of the defense of the city. At the beginning of the Sevastopol defense, P. Koshka was assigned to one of the batteries of the Ship side. He was distinguished by extraordinary courage and resourcefulness. By the beginning of 1855, he made 18 sorties into the enemy's location, most often acting alone. His verbal portrait has been preserved: “Medium height, lean, but strong, with an expressive cheekbones face ... A little pockmarked, with Russian hair, gray eyes, did not know the letter.” In January 1855, he already proudly wore "George" in his buttonhole. After leaving the southern part of the city, he was "dismissed for an extended vacation due to the wound." Koshka was remembered in August 1863 and called to serve in the Baltic, in the 8th naval crew. There, at the request of another hero of Sevastopol, General S.A. Khrulev, he received another "George" of the second degree. On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the defense of Sevastopol, in the homeland of the Cat and in Sevastopol itself, monuments were opened to him, and one of the streets of the city was given his name.
The heroism of the defenders of Sevastopol was massive. Sevastopol women, under enemy fire, bandaged the wounded, brought food and water, and mended clothes. The annals of this defense included the names of Dasha of Sevastopol, Praskovya Grafova and many others. Dasha Sevastopolskaya was the first sister of mercy and became a legend. For a long time her real name was not known, and only recently it turned out that Dasha was an orphan - the daughter of a sailor Lavrenty Mikhailov who died in the Sinop battle. In November 1854, “for exemplary diligence in caring for the sick and wounded,” she received a Gold Medal with the inscription “For Diligence” on the Vladimir Ribbon and 500 silver rubles. It was also announced that upon her marriage, she would be "given another 1,000 silver rubles for the acquisition." In July 1855, Daria married the sailor Maxim Vasilyevich Khvorostov, with whom they fought side by side until the end of the Crimean War. Her further fate is unknown and still awaits research.
The surgeon N.I. provided invaluable assistance to the defenders. Pirogov, who saved the lives of thousands of wounded. The great Russian writer L.N. took part in the defense of Sevastopol. Tolstoy, who described these events in the cycle "Sevastopol stories".
Despite the heroism and courage of the defenders of the city, the deprivation and hunger of the Anglo-French army (the winter of 1854-1855 turned out to be very severe, and the November storm scattered the allied fleet on the roadstead of Balaklava, destroying several ships with stocks of weapons, winter uniforms and food) it was impossible to change the general situation - it was impossible to unblock the city or effectively help it.
On March 19, 1855, during the next bombing of the city, Istomin died, and on June 28, 1855, during a detour of the advanced fortifications on the Malakhov Hill, Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The circumstances of his death are truly tragic. The officers begged him to leave the heavily shelled mound. “Not every bullet is in the forehead,” the admiral answered them, and these were his last words: in the next second, a stray bullet hit him in the forehead. An outstanding Russian naval commander, Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov (1802-1855), actively participated in the defense of Sevastopol, commanding the defense of the strategically important southern side of the city. Shortly before his death, he was promoted to the rank of admiral. Nakhimov is buried in the Vladimir Cathedral of Sevastopol. Ships of the national fleet, naval schools in Sevastopol and St. Petersburg bear his name. In 1944, in memory of the admiral, an order of his name of two degrees and a medal were established.
Attempts by the Russian land army to distract the enemy ended in failure in battles, in particular, on February 5, 1855 near Evpatoria. The immediate result of this failure was the dismissal of Commander-in-Chief Menshikov and the appointment of M.D. Gorchakov. Note that this was the last order of the emperor, who died on February 19, 1855. Overcoming the severe flu, the sovereign “remained in line” to the end, visiting marching battalions sent to the theater of war in severe frost. “If I were a simple soldier, would you pay attention to this ill health?” He remarked to the protest of his life doctors. "There is not a doctor in Your Majesty's entire army who would allow a soldier in such a condition to be discharged from the hospital," replied Dr. Carrel. "You have done your duty," replied the emperor, "let me do my duty."
On August 27, the last shelling of the city began. In less than a day, the defenders lost from 2.5 to 3 thousand killed. After a two-day massive bombardment, on August 28 (September 8), 1855, the French troops of General McMahon, with the support of the British and Sardinian units, launched a decisive assault on Malakhov Kurgan, which ended with the capture of the height dominating the city. The fate of Malakhov Kurgan was decided by the stubbornness of McMahon, who, in response to the order of the commander-in-chief Pelissier, replied: "I'm staying here." Of the eighteen French generals who went on the assault, 5 were killed and 11 were wounded.
Realizing the gravity of the situation, General Gorchakov gave the order to retreat from the city. And on the night of August 27-28, the last defenders of the city, having blown up the powder magazines and flooded the ships that were there in the bay, left the city. The Allies thought that Sevastopol was mined and did not dare to enter it until August 30th. During the 11 months of the siege, the Allies lost about 70,000 men. Russian losses - 83,500 people.
Important memories of the defense of Sevastopol were left by Theofill Klemm, whose ancestors in the 18th century. came to Russia from Germany. His story is strikingly different from the memoirs written by representatives of the aristocratic strata of Russia, since a significant part of his memoirs is devoted to soldiers' everyday life, the difficulties of field life.
“A lot has been written and said about this Sevastopol life, but my words will not be superfluous, as a participant in this glorious military life for a Russian soldier living in this bloody feast, not in the position of a white hand, like those writers and talkers who know everything from hearsay, but a real laborer-soldier, who was in the ranks and performed, along with the rest of the guys, everything that was only in human power.
You used to sit in a trench and look into a small embrasure that is being done in front of your nose, you can’t stick your head out, now they’ll remove it, without such cover, it was impossible to shoot. Our soldiers made fun, they hang a hat on the ramrod and push it out from behind the trench roller, the French arrows shoot it in a sieve. It used to happen that quite often it would click somewhere, the soldier would fall, hit him in the forehead, his neighbor would turn his head, cross himself, spit, and continue his work - firing somewhere, as if nothing had happened. The corpse will fit somewhere aside so that it does not interfere with walking along the trench, and so, cordially, lies until the shift, - at night the comrades will drag him to the redoubt, and from the redoubt to the mass pit, and when the pit is filled with the required number of bodies, they fell asleep first, if there is, with lime, but if not, with earth - and the matter is settled.
After such a school, you will become a real soldier in blood and bones, and I bow low to any such combat soldier. And what a charm he is in wartime, what you want you will find in him when you need him, he is good-natured, cordial, when you need him, he is a lion. With my own feeling for his endurance and good qualities of a soldier, I love him with my heart and soul. Without claims, without special requirements, patient, indifferent to death, diligent, despite obstacles, danger. I believe that only one Russian soldier is capable of anything, I speak from what I have seen, the past.
Despite the fact that English rifled guns hit almost three times as far as Russian smooth-bore guns, the defenders of Sevastopol proved more than once that technical equipment is far from the main thing in comparison with fighting courage and courage. But in general, the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol demonstrated the technical backwardness of the army of the Russian Empire and the need for change.
CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856
Causes of war and balance of power. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia participated in the Crimean War. Each of them had their own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.
For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the XIX century. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Iskelessi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. This had a severe effect on the Russian fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits, to strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.
The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.
England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power, to deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.
The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy grew into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and personally Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A.S., was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was instructed to obtain privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right to patronize the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. The failure of the mission of A.S. Menshikov was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated the conflict situation. Thus, it would seem that a private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, the dispute over the Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and later the all-European war.
Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, hoping for the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smooth-bore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies. The artillery is outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no good communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, as well as human replacements. The Russian army could successfully fight against the Turkish army, which was similar in state, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.
The course of hostilities. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were brought into Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853 declared war on Russia. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of "armed neutrality". Russia found itself in complete political isolation.
The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign itself - was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. On the second (April 1854 - February 1856) - Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.
The main event of the first stage is the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.
The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began the landing of an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisaray. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.
In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The garrison of the fortress showed unprecedented heroism. Admirals V.A. became famous in Sevastopol. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, lieutenant general of artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.
The main part of the Russian army undertook distracting operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the attack on Evpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied troops, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.
In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.
The extreme exhaustion of the allied forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. However, she lost the right to protect the Danubian Principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating was the condition of the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.
The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nikolaev's rule, stirred up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.
Development of agriculture.
The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology.
Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.
Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of Alexander's are a wonderful beginning."
Peasant question. Decree "on free cultivators". Government measures in the field of education. State activity of M.M. Speransky and his plan of state reforms. Creation of the State Council.
Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.
Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of the war. The results and significance of the war.
Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Union.
The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. military settlements.
The foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. Northern and Southern society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. Significance of the Decembrist uprising.
The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. censorship statute. The era of censorship terror.
Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of the state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "on obligated peasants".
Polish uprising 1830-1831
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.
Eastern question. Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.
Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.
Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Reasons for the war. The course of hostilities. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.
Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.
The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian war. Significance of joining the Caucasus to Russia.
Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.
Circle of N.V. Stankevich and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical letter" P.Ya.Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" A.I. Herzen.
Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in the 60-70s of the XIX century.
peasant reform. Preparing for reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. duties of the peasants. Temporary state.
Zemstvo, judicial, city reforms. financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. censorship rules. military reforms. Significance of bourgeois reforms.
Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.
Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.
The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. The agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the XIX century.
The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.
"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Repartition". The assassination of Alexander II March 1, 1881 The collapse of the "Narodnaya Volya".
Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Striking fight. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. factory law.
Liberal populism in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.
Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".
Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.
Alexander III. Manifesto on the "immutability" of the autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.
The international position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the foreign policy program of the country. The main directions and stages of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.
Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of three emperors.
Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. Goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.
Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).
- Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Enlightenment, 1996.
The Crimean War of 1853-1856 was a war between the Russian Empire and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The war was caused by the expansionist plans of Russia in relation to the rapidly weakening Ottoman Empire. Emperor Nicholas I tried to take advantage of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples in order to establish control over the Balkan Peninsula and the strategically important Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. These plans threatened the interests of the leading European powers - Great Britain and France, constantly expanding their sphere of influence in the Eastern Mediterranean, and Austria, which sought to establish its hegemony in the Balkans.
The reason for the war was the conflict between Russia and France, connected with the dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic churches for the right of custody of the holy places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, which were in Turkish possessions. The growth of French influence in the Sultan's court caused concern in St. Petersburg. In January-February 1853, Nicholas I proposed to Great Britain to agree on the division of the Ottoman Empire; however, the British government preferred an alliance with France. During his mission to Istanbul in February-May 1853, the tsar's special representative, Prince A. S. Menshikov, demanded that the sultan agree to a Russian protectorate over the entire Orthodox population in his possessions, but he, with the support of Great Britain and France, refused. On July 3, Russian troops crossed the river. Prut and entered the Danubian principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia); The Turks protested strongly. On September 14, the combined Anglo-French squadron approached the Dardanelles. On October 4, the Turkish government declared war on Russia.
Russian troops, under the command of Prince M. D. Gorchakov, entered Moldavia and Wallachia, in October 1853 occupied a very scattered position along the Danube. The Turkish army (about 150,000), commanded by Sardarekrem Omer Pasha, was located partly along the same river, partly in Shumla and Adrianople. There were less than half of the regular troops in it; the rest consisted of the militia, which had almost no military education. Almost all regular troops were armed with rifled or smoothbore percussion guns; the artillery is well arranged, the troops are trained by the European organizers; but the officer corps was unsatisfactory.
On October 9, Omer Pasha informed Prince Gorchakov that if after 15 days a satisfactory answer was not given about the cleansing of the principalities, then the Turks would open hostilities; however, even before the expiration of this period, the enemy began to shoot at Russian outposts. On October 23, the Turks opened fire on the Russian steamships "Prut" and "Ordinarets" passing along the Danube past the fortress of Isakchi. 10 days after that, Omer Pasha, having gathered 14 thousand people from Turtukai, crossed to the left bank of the Danube, took the Oltenitsky quarantine and started building fortifications here.
On November 4, the battle of Oltenitz followed. General Dannenberg, who commanded the Russian troops, did not finish the job and retreated with the loss of about 1 thousand people; however, the Turks did not take advantage of their success, but burned the quarantine, as well as the bridge on the Arjis River, and retired again to the right bank of the Danube.
March 23, 1854 began the crossing of Russian troops on the right bank of the Danube, near Braila, Galati and Izmail, they occupied the fortresses: Machin, Tulcha and Isakcha. Prince Gorchakov, who commanded the troops, did not immediately move to Silistria, which would have been relatively easy to capture, since its fortifications at that time had not yet been completely completed. This slowing down of actions, which began so successfully, was due to the orders of Prince Paskevich, who was prone to exaggerated caution.
Only as a result of the energetic demand of Emperor Nikolai Paskevich ordered the troops to move forward; but this offensive was carried out extremely slowly, so that only on May 16 did the troops begin to approach Silistria. The siege of Silistria began on the night of May 18, and the chief of engineers, the highly talented General Schilder, proposed a plan according to which, subject to the complete imposition of the fortress, he undertook to take it in 2 weeks. But Prince Paskevich proposed another plan, extremely unprofitable, and at the same time did not block Silistria at all, which, thus, could communicate with Ruschuk and Shumla. The siege was waged against the strong forward fort of Arab-Tabia; on the night of May 29, they already managed to lay a trench 80 fathoms from it. The assault, without any order taken by General Selvan, ruined the whole thing. At first, the Russians were successful and climbed the rampart, but at that time Selvan was mortally wounded. In the rear of the storming troops there was a retreat, a difficult retreat began under the pressure of the enemy, and the whole enterprise ended in complete failure.
On June 9, Prince Paskevich with all his might made an intensified reconnaissance to Silistria, but, being shell-shocked at the same time, surrendered the command to Prince Gorchakov and left for Iasi. From there, he still sent orders. Soon after, General Schilder, who was the soul of the siege, received a serious wound and was forced to leave for Calarasi, where he died.
On June 20, siege work moved so close to Arab-Tabia that an assault was scheduled for the night. The troops prepared, when suddenly, around midnight, the field marshal's order came: immediately burn the siege and go to the left bank of the Danube. The reason for such an order was a letter received by Prince Paskevich from Emperor Nicholas, and the hostile measures of Austria. Indeed, the sovereign allowed the siege to be lifted if the siege corps was threatened by an attack by superior forces before taking the fortress; but there was no such danger. Thanks to the measures taken, the siege was lifted completely unnoticed by the Turks, who almost did not pursue the Russians.
Now, on the left side of the Danube, the number of Russian troops reached 120 thousand, with 392 guns; in addition, 11/2 infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade were in Babadag, under the command of General Ushakov. The forces of the Turkish army stretched up to 100 thousand people, located near Shumla, Varna, Silistria, Ruschuk and Vidin.
After the Russians left Silistria, Omer Pasha decided to go on the offensive. Having concentrated more than 30 thousand people at Ruschuk, on July 7 he began to cross the Danube and, after a battle with a small Russian detachment that stubbornly defended Radoman Island, captured Zhurzha, losing up to 5 thousand people. Although then he stopped his offensive, but Prince Gorchakov also did nothing against the Turks, but on the contrary, he began to gradually clear the principalities. Following him, the special detachment of General Ushakov, who occupied Dobruja, returned to the Empire and settled down on the Lower Danube, near Ishmael. As the Russians retreated, the Turks slowly moved forward, and on August 22, Omer Pasha entered Bucharest.
By the middle of the 19th century, the international situation in Europe remained extremely tense: Austria and Prussia continued to concentrate their troops on the border with Russia, England and France asserted their colonial power with blood and sword. In this situation, a war broke out between Russia and Turkey, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Causes of military conflict
By the 50s of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had finally lost its power. The Russian state, on the contrary, after the suppression of revolutions in European countries, rose. Emperor Nicholas I decided to further strengthen the power of Russia. First of all, he wanted the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits of the Black Sea to become free for the Russian fleet. This led to hostilities between the Russian and Turkish empires. Besides, the main reasons were :
- Turkey had the right to let the fleet of the allied powers through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in case of hostilities.
- Russia carried out open support for the Orthodox peoples under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish government has repeatedly expressed its indignation at Russia's interference in the internal politics of the Turkish state.
- The Turkish government, led by Abdulmecid, was eager for revenge for the defeat in two wars with Russia in 1806-1812 and 1828-1829.
Nicholas I, preparing for the war with Turkey, counted on the non-intervention of the Western powers in the military conflict. However, the Russian emperor was cruelly mistaken - the Western countries, incited by Great Britain, openly came out on the side of Turkey. British policy has traditionally been to root out the slightest strengthening of any country with all its might.
Start of hostilities
The reason for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches over the right to possess the holy lands in Palestine. In addition, Russia demanded that the Black Sea straits be recognized as free for the Russian navy. The Turkish Sultan Abdulmecid, encouraged by the support of England, declared war on the Russian Empire.
If we talk briefly about the Crimean War, then it can be divided into two main steps:
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- First stage lasted from October 16, 1853 to March 27, 1854. The first six months of hostilities on three fronts - the Black Sea, Danube and Caucasian, Russian troops invariably prevailed over the Ottoman Turks.
- Second phase lasted from March 27, 1854 to February 1856. The number of participants in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 increased due to the entry into the war of England and France. There is a turning point in the war.
The course of the military company
By the autumn of 1853, events on the Danube front were proceeding sluggishly and indecisively for both sides.
- The Russian grouping of forces was commanded only by Gorchakov, who thought only about the defense of the Danube bridgehead. The Turkish troops of Omer Pasha, after futile attempts to go on the offensive on the border of Wallachia, also switched to passive defense.
- Events in the Caucasus developed much more rapidly: on October 16, 1854, a detachment consisting of 5 thousand Turks attacked the Russian border outpost between Batum and Poti. The Turkish commander Abdi Pasha hoped to crush the Russian troops in Transcaucasia and unite with the Chechen Imam Shamil. But the Russian General Bebutov upset the plans of the Turks, defeating them near the village of Bashkadyklar in November 1853.
- But the loudest victory was obtained at sea by Admiral Nakhimov on November 30, 1853. The Russian squadron completely destroyed the Turkish fleet located in the Sinop Bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet, Osman Pasha, was captured by Russian sailors. It was the last battle in the history of the sailing fleet.
- The crushing victories of the Russian army and navy were not to the liking of England and France. The governments of the English Queen Victoria and the French Emperor Napoleon III demanded that Russian troops be withdrawn from the mouth of the Danube. Nicholas I refused. In response, on March 27, 1854, England declared war on Russia. Due to the concentration of the Austrian armed forces and the ultimatum of the Austrian government, Nicholas I was forced to agree to the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danubian principalities.
The following table presents the main events of the second period of the Crimean War, with dates and a summary of each of the events:
| the date | Event | Content |
| March 27, 1854 | England declared war on Russia |
|
| April 22, 1854 | Attempt of the Anglo-French fleet to besiege Odessa |
|
| Spring 1854 | Attempts to penetrate the British and French on the coast of the Baltic and White Seas |
|
| Summer 1854 | The allies are preparing a landing in the Crimea |
|
| September 20, 1854 | Battle on the Alma River |
|
| October 5, 1854 | The allies began shelling Sevastopol |
|
| October 17, 1854 - September 5, 1855 | Defense of Sevastopol |
|
| October 25, 1854 | Battle of Balaclava |
|
| November 5, 1854 | Inkerman battle |
|
| August 16, 1855 | Battle on the Black River |
|
| October 2, 1855 | The fall of the Turkish fortress of Kars |
|
Quite a few peasants tried to avoid recruitment in order not to get into the army. This did not speak of their cowardice, just that many peasants sought to avoid recruitment due to their families who needed to be fed. During the years of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, on the contrary, there was a surge of patriotic sentiments among the population of Russia. Moreover, people of various classes were recorded in the militia.
End of the war and its aftermath
The new Russian sovereign Alexander II, who replaced the suddenly deceased Nicholas I on the throne, directly visited the theater of military operations. After that, he decided to do everything in his power to end the Crimean War. The end of the war was at the beginning of 1856.
In early 1856, a congress of European diplomats was convened in Paris to conclude peace. The most difficult condition put forward by the Western powers of Russia was a ban on the maintenance of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea.
Main terms of the Paris Treaty:
- Russia pledged to return the Kars fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol;
- Russia was forbidden to have a fleet on the Black Sea;
- Russia lost part of the territories in the Danube Delta. Navigation on the Danube was declared free;
- Russia was forbidden to have military fortifications on the Aland Islands.
Rice. 3. Congress of Paris 1856
The Russian Empire suffered a serious defeat. A powerful blow was dealt to the country's international prestige. The Crimean War exposed the rottenness of the existing system and the backwardness of industry from the leading world powers. The lack of rifled weapons in the Russian army, a modern fleet and a shortage of railways could not but affect military operations.
Nevertheless, such key moments of the Crimean War as the Battle of Sinop, the defense of Sevastopol, the capture of Kars or the defense of the fortress of Bomarzund, remained in history as a sacrificial and majestic feat of Russian soldiers and the Russian people.
The government of Nicholas I introduced the most severe censorship during the Crimean War. It was forbidden to touch on military topics, both in books and in periodicals. Publications that wrote in an enthusiastic manner about the course of hostilities were also not allowed into the press.
What have we learned?
Crimean War 1853-1856 discovered serious shortcomings in the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Empire. About what this war was, why Russia was defeated, as well as about the significance of the Crimean War and its consequences, the article “Crimean War” tells.
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The Crimean War corresponded to the long-standing dream of Nicholas I to get the Black Sea straits into Russian possession, which Catherine the Great dreamed of. This was contrary to the plans of the Great European Powers, which intended to oppose Russia and help the Ottomans in the coming war.
The main causes of the Crimean War
The history of the Russian-Turkish wars is incredibly long and controversial, however, the Crimean War is perhaps the brightest page in this history. There were many reasons for the Crimean War of 1853-1856, but they all converged on one thing: Russia sought to destroy the dying empire, while Turkey opposed this and was going to use military operations to suppress the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples. The plans of London and Paris did not include the strengthening of Russia, so they expected to weaken it, at best, separating Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia. In addition, the French still remembered the humiliating loss of the war with the Russians during the reign of Napoleon.
Rice. 1. Map of the fighting of the Crimean War.
During the accession to the throne of Emperor Napoleon III, Nicholas I did not consider him a legitimate ruler, since after the Patriotic War and the Foreign Campaign, the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from possible contenders for the throne in France. The Russian Emperor addressed Napoleon in a congratulatory letter as "my friend" and not "my brother", as etiquette required. It was a personal slap in the face of one emperor to another.
Rice. 2. Portrait of Nicholas I.
Briefly about the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, we will collect information in the table.
The immediate reason for the fighting was the question of control in Bethlehem of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The Turkish sultan handed over the keys to the Catholics, which offended Nicholas I, which led to the outbreak of hostilities through the entry of Russian troops into the territory of Moldova.
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Rice. 3. Portrait of Admiral Nakhimov, a participant in the Crimean War.
Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War
Russia took an unequal battle in the Crimean (or as printed in the Western press - Eastern) war. But this was not the only reason for the future defeat.
The Allied forces greatly outnumbered the Russian soldiers. Russia fought with dignity and was able to achieve the maximum during this war, although it lost it.
Another reason for the defeat was the diplomatic isolation of Nicholas I. He pursued a flamboyant imperialist policy, which caused irritation and hatred from his neighbors.
Despite the heroism of the Russian soldier and some officers, theft took place among the highest ranks. A vivid example of this is A.S. Menshikov, who was nicknamed the "traitor".
An important reason is the military-technical backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe. So, when sailing ships were still in service in Russia, the French and English fleets already made full use of the steam fleet, which showed its best side during the calm. Allied soldiers used rifled guns that fired more accurately and farther than Russian smoothbore guns. The situation was similar in artillery.
The classic reason was the low level of infrastructure development. Railways did not yet lead to the Crimea, and the spring thaws killed the road system, which reduced the provision of the army.
The result of the war was the Treaty of Paris, according to which Russia did not have the right to have a navy on the Black Sea, and also lost its protectorate over the Danubian principalities and returned South Bessarabia to Turkey.
What have we learned?
Although the Crimean War was lost, it showed Russia the ways of future development and pointed out weaknesses in the economy, military affairs, and the social sphere. There was a patriotic upsurge throughout the country, and the heroes of Sevastopol were made national heroes.
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