The upper part of the geographic shell passes. The structure of the geographic shell

The largest natural complex of the Earth is the geographic envelope. It includes the lithosphere and atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, which interact with each other. Thanks to this, an active cycle of energy and substances occurs in nature. Each shell - gas, mineral, living and water - has its own laws of development and existence.

The main regularities of the geographical shell:

geographic zoning;
integrity and interconnection of all parts of the shell of the globe;
rhythm - repetition of daily and annual natural phenomena.

Earth's crust

The solid part of the earth, containing rocks, sedimentary layer and minerals, is one of the components of the geographic envelope. The composition includes more than ninety chemical elements, which are unevenly distributed over the entire surface of the planet. Iron, magnesium, calcium, aluminum, oxygen, sodium, potassium make up the majority of all rocks in the lithosphere. They are formed in various ways: under the influence of temperature and pressure, during the redeposition of weathering products and the vital activity of organisms, in the thickness of the earth and during precipitation from water. There are two types of the earth's crust - oceanic and continental, which differ from each other in rock composition and temperature.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the most important part of the geographic envelope. It affects the weather and climate, the hydrosphere, the world of flora and fauna. The atmosphere is also divided into several layers, and the geographical shell includes the troposphere and stratosphere. These layers contain oxygen, which is required for the life cycles of various spheres on the planet. In addition, the atmosphere layer protects the earth's surface from the ultraviolet rays of the sun.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the water surface of the earth, which consists of groundwater, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. The main part of the Earth's water resources is concentrated in the ocean, and the rest - on the continents. The hydrosphere also includes water vapor and clouds. In addition, permafrost, snow and ice cover is also part of the hydrosphere.

Biosphere and anthroposphere

The biosphere is a multishell of the planet, which includes the world of flora and fauna, hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere, which interact with each other. A change in one of the components of the biosphere leads to significant changes in the entire ecosystem of the planet. The anthroposphere, the sphere in which people and nature interact, can also be attributed to the geographic shell of the earth.

GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL, a genetically and functionally integral shell of the Earth, covering the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper layers of the earth's crust, the hydrosphere and the biosphere. All these geospheres, penetrating into each other, are in close interaction. The geographical envelope differs from other shells by the presence of life, various types of energy, as well as increasing and transforming anthropogenic influences. In this regard, the composition of the geographic shell includes the sociosphere, technosphere, and also the noosphere. The geographic shell has its spatio-temporal structure as a result of natural historical development. The main sources of all the processes occurring in the geographic envelope are: the energy of the Sun, which determines the presence of the solar thermal zone, the internal heat of the Earth and gravitational energy. Within the solar thermal zone (with a thickness of several tens of meters), daily and annual temperature fluctuations are determined by the flow of solar energy. The earth at the upper boundary of the atmosphere receives 10760 MJ/m2 per year, is reflected from the earth's surface 3160 MJ/m2 per year, which is several thousand times greater than the heat flow from the bowels of the Earth to the surface. Uneven receipt and distribution of solar energy over the spherical surface of the Earth leads to a global spatial differentiation of natural conditions (see Geographical zones). The internal heat of the Earth has a significant influence on the formation of the geographic envelope; the influence of endogenous factors is associated with the heterogeneity of the macrostructure of the lithosphere (the emergence and development of continents, mountain systems, vast plains, oceanic depressions, etc.). The boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly defined. A number of Russian geographers (A. A. Grigoriev, S. V. Kalesnik, M. M. Ermolaev, K. K. Markov, A. M. Ryabchikov) draw the upper boundary in the stratosphere (at an altitude of 25-30 km, at the level of maximum concentration of the ozone layer), where hard ultraviolet radiation is absorbed, the thermal effect of the earth's surface affects, and living organisms can still exist. Other Russian scientists (D. L. Armand, A. G. Isachenko, F. N. Milkov, Yu. processes in the troposphere with the properties of the underlying surface of the Earth. The lower boundary is often combined (A. G. Isachenko, S. V. Kalesnik, I. M. Zabelin) with the lower limit of the hypergenesis zone (a depth of several hundred meters or more) in the upper part of the lithosphere. A significant part of Russian scientists (D. L. Armand, A. A. Grigoriev, F. N. Milkov, A. M. Ryabchikov, Yu. , the sole of the earth's crust (the border of Mohorovichich). The two types of the earth's crust (continental and oceanic) correspond to different limits of the lower boundary - from 70-80 to 6-10 km. The geographic shell was formed as a result of a long (4.6 billion years) evolution of the Earth, when the main "mechanisms" of planetary processes manifested themselves with varying degrees of intensity and significance: volcanism; the formation of mobile belts; buildup and expansion (spreading) of the lithosphere; geomorphological cycle; development of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, vegetation and wildlife; human economic activity, etc. Integral processes are the geological cycle of matter, the biological cycle and moisture circulation. The geographic shell is characterized by a tiered structure with an increase in the density of the substance downwards. The geographical shell is in constant change, and its development and complication proceed unevenly in time and space. The geographical envelope is characterized by the following features:

1. Integrity, due to the continuous exchange of matter and energy between the constituent parts, since the interaction of all components binds them into a single material system, in which a change in even one link entails a conjugate change in all the others.

2. The presence of a number of cycles of matter (and the energy associated with it), which ensure the repetition of the same processes and phenomena. The complexity of cycles is different, among them are mechanical movements (atmospheric circulation, a system of sea surface currents), a change in the state of aggregation of matter (moisture cycle) and biochemical transformation (biological cycle).

3. Cyclical (rhythmic) manifestations of many natural processes and phenomena. There is a daily rhythm (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intra-secular (cycles of 25-50 years, observed in climate fluctuations, glaciers, lake levels, river flow, etc.), super-secular (change every 1800-1900 years of the cool-humid climate phase, the dry and warm phase) and the like.

4. The continuity of the development of the geographical envelope and its geographical focus - the landscape sphere of the Earth - occurs under the influence of the interaction of exogenous and endogenous forces. The consequences of this development are:

a) territorial differentiation of the surface of the land, ocean and seabed into areas that differ in internal features and external appearance (landscapes, geocomplexes); special forms of territorial differentiation - geographical zonality and altitudinal zonality of landscapes;

b) significant differences in nature in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, in the distribution of land and sea (the predominant part of the land is in the Northern Hemisphere), climate, composition of flora and fauna, in the nature of landscape zones, etc.;

c) the heterochrony of the development of the geographic envelope, due to the spatial heterogeneity of the nature of the Earth, as a result of which at the same moment different territories are either in different phases of an equally directed evolutionary process, or differ from each other in the direction of development (examples: ancient glaciation in different regions of the Earth began and ended non-simultaneously; in some geographical areas the climate becomes drier, in others at the same time - wetter, etc.).

The idea of a geographic envelope was first approached by the Russian scientists P. I. Brounov (1910) and R. I. Abolin (1914). The term was introduced and substantiated by A. A. Grigoriev (1932). Concepts similar to the geographic shell exist in foreign geography (the “earth shell” by the German scientist A. Getner and the American scientist R. Hartshorne; the “geosphere” by the Austrian geographer G. Karol, etc.), in which it is usually considered not as a natural system, but as a combination of natural and social phenomena.

Lit .: Abolin R.I. Experience of epigenological classification of swamps // Bolotovedenie. 1914. No. 3; Brounov P.I. Course of physical geography. P., 1917; Grigoriev AA Experience of analytical characterization of the composition and structure of the physical-geographical shell of the globe. L.; M., 1937; he is. Patterns of the structure and development of the geographical environment. M., 1966; Markov, K.K., Polar asymmetry of the geographic envelope, Izv. All-Union Geographical Society. 1963. T. 95. Issue. one; he is. Space and time in geography // Nature. 1965. No. 5; Carol H. Zur Theorie der Geographie // Mitteilungen der Osterreichischen Geographischen Gessellschaft. 1963. Bd 105. N. 1-2; Kalesnik S. V. General geographical patterns of the Earth. M., 1970; Isachenko, A.G., Systems and rhythms of zoning, Izv. All-Union Geographical Society. 1971. T. 103. Issue. one.

K. N. Dyakonov.

Geographical envelope, its properties and integrity

The geographic shell is an integral shell of the Earth, where its components (the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere) closely interact, exchanging matter and energy. The geographic envelope has a complex composition and structure. It is the study of physical geography.

The upper boundary of the geographic envelope is the stratopause, before which the thermal influence of the earth's surface on atmospheric processes is manifested.

The lower boundary of the geographic shell is considered to be the foot of the stratisphere in the lithosphere, that is, the upper zone of the earth's crust.

Thus, the geographic envelope includes the entire hydrosphere, the entire biosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere and the upper lithosphere. The greatest vertical thickness of the geographic envelope reaches 40 km.

The geographic envelope of the Earth is formed under the influence of terrestrial and cosmic processes.

It contains various types of free energy. The substance exists in any state of aggregation, and the degree of aggregation of the substance is diverse - from free elementary particles to chemicals and complex biological organisms. The heat flowing from the Sun is accumulated, and all natural processes in the geographic envelope occur due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of our planet.

In this shell, a human society develops, drawing resources for its life from the geographical shell and influencing it both positively and negatively.

Elements, properties

The main material elements of the geographic envelope are rocks that make up the earth's crust, air and water masses, soils and biocenoses.

Ice massifs play an important role in northern latitudes and high mountains. These shell elements form various combinations.

The form of this or that combination is determined by the number of incoming components and their internal modifications, as well as the nature of their mutual influences.

The geographic envelope has a number of important properties. Its integrity is ensured by the constant exchange of matter and energy between its components. And the interaction of all components binds them into one material system, in which a change in any element provokes a change in the rest of the links.

In the geographic shell, the circulation of substances is continuously carried out.

At the same time, the same phenomena and processes are repeated many times. Their overall effectiveness is kept at a high level, despite the limited amount of starting materials. All these processes differ in complexity and structure. Some are mechanical phenomena, for example, sea currents, winds, others are accompanied by the transition of substances from one state of aggregation to another, for example, the water cycle in nature, biological transformation of substances can occur, as in the biological cycle.

It should be noted the repeatability of various processes in the geographical shell in time, that is, a certain rhythm.

It is based on astronomical and geological reasons. There are daily rhythms (day-night), annual (seasons), intra-secular (cycles of 25-50 years), super-secular, geological (Caledonian, Alpine, Hercynian cycles lasting 200-230 million years each).

The geographic envelope can be considered as an integral continuously developing system under the influence of exogenous and endogenous factors. As a result of this constant development, there is a territorial differentiation of the land surface, sea and ocean floor (geocomplexes, landscapes), a polar asymmetry is expressed, manifested by significant differences in the nature of the geographical shell in the southern and northern hemispheres.

Related content:

Geographic Maps

The structure of the geographical shell

The spatial structure of the geographic envelope is three-dimensional and spherical. This is a zone of active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest manifestation of physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed.

Geographic envelope boundaries fuzzy. Up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components gradually weakens, and then completely disappears.

Therefore, scientists draw the boundaries of the geographical shell in different ways.

The upper boundary is often taken to be the ozone layer, located at an altitude of 25 km, where most of the ultraviolet rays that have a detrimental effect on living organisms are retained. However, some researchers conduct it along the upper boundary of the troposphere, which most actively interacts with the earth's surface.

The base of the weathering crust up to 1 km thick is usually taken as the lower boundary on land, and the ocean floor in the ocean.

The idea of a geographical shell as a special natural formation was formulated at the beginning of the 20th century.

A.A. Grigoriev and S.V. Kalesnik. They revealed the main features of the geographic envelope: 1) the complexity of the composition and the diversity of the state of matter; 2) the flow of all physical and geographical processes due to solar (cosmic) and internal (telluric) energy; 3) transformation and partial conservation of all types of energy entering it; 4) the concentration of life and the presence of human society; 5) the presence of a substance in three states of aggregation.

The geographical envelope consists of structural parts - components.

These are rocks, water, air, plants, animals and soils. They differ in physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), level of organization (non-living, living, bio-inert), chemical composition, activity (inert - rocks, soil, mobile - water, air, active - living matter).

The geographic envelope has a vertical structure consisting of separate spheres.

The lower tier is composed of dense matter of the lithosphere, while the upper ones are represented by lighter matter of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Such a structure is the result of matter differentiation with the release of dense matter in the center of the Earth, and lighter matter along the periphery. The vertical differentiation of the geographic shell served as the basis for F.N. Milkov to single out a landscape sphere inside it - a thin layer (up to 300 m), where the earth's crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere come into contact and actively interact.

I call natural complexes formed on land territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - aquatic. The geographic envelope is a natural complex of the highest, planetary rank.

On land, it includes smaller natural complexes: continents and oceans, natural zones and natural formations such as the East European Plain, the Sahara Desert, the Amazonian Lowland, etc. The smallest natural territorial complex, in the structure of which all the main components participate, is considered physical-geographical region. It is a block of the earth's crust, connected with all other components of the complex, that is, with water, air, vegetation and wildlife.

This block should be sufficiently isolated from neighboring blocks and have its own morphological structure, that is, include parts of the landscape, which are facies, tracts and areas.

The geographical envelope has a peculiar spatial structure. It is three-dimensional and spherical.

This is the zone of the most active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. At some distance up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens, and then completely disappears.

This happens gradually and the boundaries of the geographical shell are fuzzy. Therefore, researchers draw its upper and lower boundaries in different ways. The upper boundary is often taken to be the ozone layer, which lies at a height of 25-. This layer absorbs ultraviolet rays, so life is possible below it. However, some researchers draw the boundary of the shell below - along the upper boundary of the troposphere, taking into account that the troposphere most actively interacts with the earth's surface.

Therefore, it manifests geographical zonality and zonality.

The lower boundary of the eographic shell is often drawn along the Mohorovichich section, that is, along the asthenosphere, which is the sole of the earth's crust. In more modern works, this boundary is drawn higher and limits from below only a part of the earth's crust, which is directly involved in interaction with water, air, and living organisms.

As a result, a weathering crust is created, in the upper part of which there is soil.

The zone of active transformation of mineral matter on land has a thickness of up to several hundred meters, and under the ocean only tens of meters.

Sometimes the entire sedimentary layer of the lithosphere is referred to the eographic shell.

Geographer N.A. Solntsev believes that the space of the Earth, where the substance is in liquid, gaseous and solid atomic states, or in the form of living matter, can be attributed to the eographic shell.

Outside this space, matter is in a subatomic state, forming an ionized gas of the atmosphere or compacted packings of atoms in the lithosphere.

This corresponds to the boundaries, which have already been mentioned above: the upper boundary of the troposphere, the ozone screen - up, the lower limit of weathering and the lower boundary of the granite layer of the earth's crust - down.

More articles about geographic shell

Formation of the geographical envelope

About four billion years ago, a black void surrounded the Earth. During the day, the rocky, cracking earth's surface heated up to 100 degrees or more, while at night the temperature dropped to 100 degrees. There was no air, no water, no life.

In our time, approximately the same picture is observed on the moon.

What happened to the Earth in four billion years? Why did the dead, lifeless desert come to life, and meadows and forests are now spreading around us, rivers are flowing, waves of oceans and seas are splashing, winds are blowing, and everywhere - in water, in air, and on earth - life is rapidly developing?

The fact is that the Earth has come a long and difficult path of development.

Scientists are still not entirely clear how this development went, but in general terms it was like that.

At first, an atmosphere appeared around our planet. It was not the same as it is now, but this gaseous shell covered the Earth, but it did not heat up so much during the day and did not cool down at night. Then water appeared, and the first rains fell on the dry, waterless surface. The climate has already become warmer and, most importantly, more even.

After all, water slowly heats up, but also slowly cools down. During the day, water seems to accumulate solar heat, and at night it gradually consumes it.

Then the greatest event occurs in the evolution of the Earth: life appears.

It is believed that the first living beings appeared in the water. Millions of years passed, more and more more perfect living organisms arose, and, finally, a man appeared.

Geographic zoning

Thermal belts

Natural complexes

In the geographical shell, there is a close relationship between all its links, all natural elements (soil, climate, rivers, lakes, vegetation, wildlife, etc.).

d.). These natural elements form natural complexes. The word "complex" in translation from Latin into Russian means "interlacing".

natural areas

see Natural area

Natural zones can serve as an example of large natural complexes. In each zone, all suitable elements are closely interconnected, interdependent.

Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru

Among the main natural zones, the following can be distinguished: ice zone, tundra zone, temperate forest zone, steppe zone, desert zone, savannah zone.

Natural zones within the geographic envelope are not distributed randomly, not randomly, but strictly in a certain order, which is determined primarily by climate. The natural zones of the Earth change from the North Pole to the South.

Geographical shell and man

Human influence on nature

On this page, material on the topics:

Geographic zoning report
Geographical shells of the earth message
Report geographic shell
Report geographical shell and man
Geographical zoning abstract

Questions for this article:

What do you know about the geographical shell?
What determines the distribution of vegetation on the surface of the globe?

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The geographical envelope in its development has come a long and difficult path. It was formed as a result of a long-term interaction of natural factors in the conditions of the earth's surface: - the penetration of atmospheric gases into water and rocks - the evaporation of water into the atmosphere and seepage, its filtration into the earth's crust - the dispersion of the smallest particles of rocks in the atmosphere and their dissolution in water - constant interactions at the same time atmospheric gases, waters of the hydrosphere and rocks of the lithosphere among themselves In the test, the correct answer is: d)

The geographic shell is the complex shell of the Earth, which was formed as a result of the interpenetration and interaction of the substances of individual geospheres - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

The geographic envelope is the environment of human society and, in turn, is subject to a significant transformative impact from it.

geographic shell is the shell of the Earth, including the earth's crust, hydrosphere, lower part of the atmosphere, soil cover and the entire biosphere.

The term was introduced by Academician A. A. Grigoriev. The upper boundary of the geographic shell is located in the atmosphere at high. 20–25 km below the ozone layer, which protects living organisms from ultraviolet radiation, the lower one is slightly below the surface of Mohorovichich (at a depth of

5–8 km under the ocean floor, 30–40 km at avg. under the continents, 70–80 km under the mountain ranges). Thus, its thickness varies from 50–100 km on the continents to 35–45 km within the oceans. The geographical shell differs from other geospheres in that the substance is present in it in three states of aggregation (solid, liquid and gaseous), and development occurs under the influence of both external cosmic and internal energy sources.

Its uniqueness lies in the fact that organic life originated at the junction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. The geographic shell is characterized by a tiered structure, the circulation of substances and energy, the repetition with different periodicity (daily and annual rhythms, secular and geological cycles) of processes and phenomena, and the continuity of development.

Three stages of its development are distinguished: at the first, the differentiation of land and ocean occurred and the atmosphere was formed, at the second, organic life appeared, which significantly changed all the processes that had taken place before, at the third, human society arose. The geographical envelope as a whole is studied by physical geography.

As a result of close contact and mutual influence of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere, a special shell of the Earth was formed - the geographic shell.

The geographic shell of the Earth is called a thin shell of its substance, within which the hydrosphere, biosphere, lower layers of the atmosphere and upper layers of the lithosphere penetrate each other and interact. The thickness of the geographic shell is about 55 km. It has no exact boundaries.

Life on Earth appeared later, so initially only three shells made up the geographical shell: the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the lithosphere.

The emergence of life has significantly changed the geographical shell.

Thanks to plants, oxygen was added to the atmosphere and the amount of carbon dioxide decreased. An ozone layer has formed in the atmosphere, preventing the penetration of ultraviolet rays harmful to organisms. Dying plants and animals formed minerals (peat, coal, oil) and a number of rocks (limestones).

As a result of the activity of living organisms, soil appeared.

Life on Earth turned out to be able to adapt to most conditions of existence, settled almost all over the planet. In the process of evolution, the diversity of organisms has increased, the structure of many of them has become more complicated.

Humanity lives in a geographic shell and has an impact on it, often negative.

Due to the existence of life, liquid water and some other factors, the geographic envelope of the Earth is a unique phenomenon.

There is nothing like it on other planets.
Energy is needed for all processes occurring in the geographic envelope. For the most part, the processes on the Earth are caused by solar energy, to a lesser extent - by the internal sources of energy of the Earth.

Geography is the science of the internal and external structure of the Earth, studying the nature of all continents and oceans. The main object of study are various geospheres and geosystems.

Introduction

The geographic shell or GO is one of the basic concepts of geography as a science, introduced into circulation at the beginning of the 20th century. It denotes the shell of the entire Earth, a special natural system. The geographic shell of the Earth is called an integral and continuous shell, consisting of several parts that interact with each other, penetrate each other, constantly exchange substances and energy with each other.

Fig 1. Geographical shell of the Earth

There are similar terms, with narrow meanings, used in the writings of European scientists. But they do not designate a natural system, only a set of natural and social phenomena.

Stages of development

The geographic shell of the earth has gone through a number of specific stages in its development and formation:

geological (prebiogenic)– the first stage of formation, which began about 4.5 billion years ago (lasted about 3 billion years);
biological– the second stage, which began about 600 million years ago;
anthropogenic (modern)- a stage that continues to this day, which began about 40 thousand years ago, when humanity began to exert a noticeable influence on nature.

The composition of the geographic shell of the Earth

Geographic envelope- this is a system of the planet, which, as you know, has the shape of a ball, flattened on both sides by caps of the poles, with a long equator of more than 40 tons km. GO has a certain structure. It consists of interconnected environments.

Upper and lower bounds

In the entire structure of the geographic envelope and geographic environments, a clear zoning can be traced.

The law of geographical zoning provides not only for the division of the entire shell into spheres and environments, but also for the division into natural zones of land and oceans. It is interesting that such a division naturally repeats itself in both hemispheres.

Zoning is due to the nature of the distribution of solar energy over latitudes and the intensity of moisture (different in different hemispheres, continents).

Naturally, it is possible to determine the upper boundary of the geographic envelope and the lower one. Upper bound located at an altitude of 25 km, and bottom line The geographic envelope runs at a level of 6 km under the oceans and at a level of 30-50 km on the continents. Although, it should be noted that the lower limit is conditional and there are still disputes over its setting.

Even if we take the upper boundary in the region of 25 km, and the lower one in the region of 50 km, then, compared to the total size of the Earth, we get something like a very thin film that covers the planet and protects it.

Basic laws and properties of the geographical shell

Within these boundaries of the geographical envelope, the basic laws and properties that characterize and determine it operate.

Interpenetration of components or intra-component movement- the main property (there are two types of intra-component movement of substances - horizontal and vertical; they do not contradict and do not interfere with each other, although in different structural parts of GO the speed of movement of components is different).
Geographic zoning- the basic Law.
Rhythm- the frequency of all natural phenomena (daily, annual).
The unity of all parts of the geographical shell due to their close relationship.

Characteristics of the Earth's shells included in the GO

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is important for keeping warm, and therefore life on the planet. It also protects all living things from ultraviolet radiation, affects soil formation and climate.

The size of this shell is from 8 km to 1 t km (or more) in height. It consists of:

gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, ozone, helium, hydrogen, inert gases);
dust;
water vapor.

The atmosphere, in turn, is divided into several interconnected layers. Their characteristics are presented in the table.

All shells of the earth are similar. For example, they contain all types of aggregate states of substances: solid, liquid, gaseous.

Fig 2. The structure of the atmosphere

Lithosphere

The hard shell of the earth, the earth's crust. It has several layers, which are characterized by different power, thickness, density, composition:

upper lithospheric layer;
sigmatic sheath;
semi-metallic or ore shell.

The maximum depth of the lithosphere is 2900 km.

What is the lithosphere made of? From solids: basalt, magnesium, cobalt, iron and others.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is made up of all the waters of the Earth (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and even groundwater). It is located on the surface of the Earth and occupies more than 70% of the space. Interestingly, there is a theory according to which large reserves of water are contained in the thickness of the earth's crust.

There are two types of water: salt and fresh. As a result of interaction with the atmosphere, during condensate, the salt evaporates, thereby providing the land with fresh water.

Fig 3. Earth's hydrosphere (view of the oceans from space)

Biosphere

The biosphere is the most "living" shell of the earth. It includes the entire hydrosphere, the lower atmosphere, the land surface and the upper lithospheric layer. It is interesting that living organisms inhabiting the biosphere are responsible for the accumulation and distribution of solar energy, for the migration processes of chemicals in the soil, for gas exchange, and for redox reactions. We can say that the atmosphere exists only thanks to living organisms.

Fig 4. Components of the Earth's biosphere

Examples of the interaction of media (shells) of the Earth

There are many examples of media interaction.

During the evaporation of water from the surface of rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, water enters the atmosphere.
Air and water, penetrating through the soil into the depths of the lithosphere, makes it possible for vegetation to rise.
Vegetation provides photosynthesis by enriching the atmosphere with oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide.
From the surface of the earth and oceans, the upper layers of the atmosphere are heated, forming a climate that provides life.
Living organisms, dying, form the soil.

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The geographic envelope is an integral continuous near-surface part of the Earth, within which there is an intense interaction of four components: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere (living matter). This is the most complex and diverse material system of our planet, which includes the entire hydrosphere, the lower layer of the atmosphere (troposphere), the upper part of the lithosphere and the living organisms inhabiting them. The spatial structure of the geographic envelope is three-dimensional and spherical. This is a zone of active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest manifestation of physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed.

Geographic envelope boundaries fuzzy. Up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components gradually weakens, and then completely disappears. Therefore, scientists draw the boundaries of the geographical shell in different ways. The upper boundary is often taken to be the ozone layer, located at an altitude of 25 km, where most of the ultraviolet rays that have a detrimental effect on living organisms are retained. However, some researchers conduct it along the upper boundary of the troposphere, which most actively interacts with the earth's surface. The bottom of the weathering crust up to 1 km thick is usually taken as the lower boundary on land, and the ocean floor in the ocean.

The geographical shell consists of structural parts - components. These are rocks, water, air, plants, animals and soils. They differ in physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), level of organization (non-living, living, bio-inert), chemical composition, activity (inert - rocks, soil, mobile - water, air, active - living matter).

The geographic envelope has a vertical structure consisting of separate spheres. The lower tier is composed of dense matter of the lithosphere, while the upper ones are represented by lighter matter of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Such a structure is the result of the differentiation of matter with the release of a dense substance in the center of the Earth, and a lighter one - along the periphery. The vertical differentiation of the geographic shell served as the basis for F.N. Milkov to single out a landscape sphere inside it - a thin layer (up to 300 m), where there is contact and active interaction of the earth's crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere.

The geographical envelope in the horizontal direction is divided into separate natural complexes, which is determined by the uneven distribution of heat in different parts of the earth's surface and its heterogeneity. I call natural complexes formed on land territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - squall. The geographical envelope is a natural complex of the highest, planetary rank. On land, it includes smaller natural complexes: continents and oceans, natural zones and natural formations such as the East European Plain, the Sahara Desert, the Amazonian Lowland, etc. The smallest natural territorial complex, in the structure of which all the main components participate, is considered physical-geographical region. It is a block of the earth's crust, connected with all other components of the complex, that is, with water, air, vegetation and wildlife. This block should be sufficiently isolated from neighboring blocks and have its own morphological structure, that is, include parts of the landscape, which are facies, tracts and areas.

The geographical envelope has a peculiar spatial structure. It is three-dimensional and spherical. This is the zone of the most active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. At some distance up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens, and then completely disappears. This happens gradually and the boundaries of the geographical shell - fuzzy. Therefore, researchers draw its upper and lower boundaries in different ways. The upper boundary is often taken to be the ozone layer, which lies at an altitude of 25-30 km. This layer absorbs ultraviolet rays, so life is possible below it. However, some researchers draw the boundary of the shell below - along the upper boundary of the troposphere, taking into account that the troposphere most actively interacts with the earth's surface. Therefore, it manifests geographical zonality and zonality.

The lower boundary of the geographic shell is often drawn along the Mohorovichich section, that is, along the asthenosphere, which is the sole of the earth's crust. In more modern works, this boundary is drawn higher and limits from below only a part of the earth's crust, which is directly involved in interaction with water, air, and living organisms. As a result, a weathering crust is created, in the upper part of which there is soil.

The zone of active transformation of mineral matter on land has a thickness of up to several hundred meters, and under the ocean only tens of meters. Sometimes the entire sedimentary layer of the lithosphere is referred to the geographic shell.

14.1 Geographic envelope- an integral material system formed by the interaction and interpenetration of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, living matter.

Many geographers wrote that geography studies the special shell of the Earth. A. Humboldt in his work "Cosmos" "sought to embrace the phenomena of the external world in their common connection, nature as a whole, driven and animated by internal forces." His “life sphere” is similar in content to the biosphere; in the final lines he speaks of the “sphere of reason”. The clearest idea of the outer shell of the Earth was set forth in the works of P. I. Brounov. In 1910, in the preface to the "Course of Physical Geography", he wrote that physical geography studies "the modern appearance of the Earth, in other words, the modern structure of the outer shell, which is the arena of organic life ... The outer shell of the Earth consists of several concentric spherical shells, and namely: solid, or lithosphere, liquid, or hydrosphere, and gaseous, or atmosphere, to which the fourth, the biosphere, also joins. All these shells to a large extent penetrate one another and, by their interaction, determine both the external appearance of the Earth and all phenomena on Earth. The term "geographical shell" was proposed in 1932 by A. A. Grigoriev ("Subject and tasks of physical geography"). He believed that “the earth's surface is a qualitatively special vertical physical-geographical zone, or shell, characterized by deep interpenetration and active interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere, the emergence and development of organic life in it, the presence in it of a complex but unified physical-geographical process."

The shell was called differently: landscape shell (S.V. Kalesnik), landscape sphere (Yu.K. Efremov). A.I. Isachenko suggested calling the geographic shell the epigeo-sphere, emphasizing that this is precisely the outer earthly shell. I.M. Zabelin believed that the term geographic shell should be replaced by the term biogenosphere. He wrote that the term emphasizes the most important feature - the origin of life.

In geographical literature, the term "geographical environment" is often used. Some scientists put an equal sign between the terms geographic environment and geographic shell. In their opinion, these terms complement each other. However, in the term “geographical environment”, a person, human society, is put in the first place; the boundaries of the environment change along with the development of human society. The term "geographical envelope" is more literate from the point of view of geographers: in the geographical envelope, all components are given the same meaning.

The position of the upper and lower boundaries is estimated differently by different authors. AAGrigoriev draws the upper boundary of the geographic envelope in the stratosphere at a height of 20 - 25 km, below the ozone concentration layer. The lower boundary, in his opinion, is slightly below the Moho boundary. On the continents, the lower boundary runs at a depth of 30 - 40 km, under the oceans 5 - 8 km. According to A.A.Grigoriev, the thickness of the geographical envelope is 75 km on the continents and 45 km on the ocean.

Within the boundaries close to those indicated by A.A. Grigoriev, A. M. Ryabchikov considers the geographical shell. However, he drew the lower boundary at the level of the earth's crust. SV Kalesnik made the upper boundary at the level of the tropopause. It limits the lower boundary to the sedimentary layer of the earth's crust (4 - 5 km). A. G. Isachenko includes the troposphere, the hydrosphere and the sedimentary layer of the earth's crust in the geographical envelope. I.M. Zabelin connects the lower limit with the lower limit of the distribution of organic life and water in the liquid state. F.N. Milkov, D.L. Armand the upper boundary is drawn along the tropopause, the lower one - along the boundary of the earth's crust. In the Geographical Encyclopedic Dictionary and the book "The World of Geography", the authors draw the lower boundary along the hypergenesis zone, the upper one - along the tropopause ("World of Geography"), at an altitude of 25 km (Geographical Encyclopedic Dictionary).

The boundaries of the geographical envelope, obviously, should be drawn along the border of the most active interaction of all components and the manifestation of geographical patterns, features of geographical zonality. Consequently, the upper limit is located at the level of the ozone screen - 22 - 25 km; since air masses are formed in this layer of the atmosphere as a result of interaction, living matter can exist up to this boundary. The lower boundary should be drawn along the boundary of the hypergenesis zone (500-800 m), in this zone zonal weathering crusts have formed, and the cycles of matter and energy are taking place. The geographic envelope includes the entire hydrosphere. In this case, the thickness of the geographic envelope is 23 - 26 km.

A number of scientists proposed to replace the term "geographical envelope" with the term "biosphere". They believe that the biosphere, in the understanding of V. I. Vernadsky, in terms of power and meaning invested in the concept, coincides with the geographical shell. Moreover, the term "biosphere" is widely used in scientific and popular literature and is understood by all the inhabitants of the planet. However, in the traditional sense, in the term "biosphere" the central place is assigned to living matter, the remaining components form its environment, which is not entirely correct. In addition, the geographic envelope exists for a longer time than the biosphere. The biospheric stage is the stage of development of the geographic envelope.

14.2 Geographical space. Many scientists, such as Yu.K. Efremov, D.L. Armand, K.K. Makarov, N.M. Svatkov, V.S. .Lyamin believes that "there are many real-life forms of space and time, we can talk about chemical, biological, geographical space and time." Space is the mutual arrangement of the components of the system, time is the alternation of states of a given self-developing system. The Geographical Encyclopedic Dictionary gives the following definition of geographic space: “geographical space is a form of existence of geographical objects and phenomena within the geographic shell; a set of relationships between geographical objects located in a particular territory and developing over time.

A broader interpretation of "geographical space" is given by K.V. Pashkang. He believes that the geographic shell is closely connected with the outer space surrounding it and with the inner parts of the Earth. Solar energy coming from the Sun to the Earth is the source of all geographical processes. The gravitational force of the Sun keeps the Earth in orbit around the Sun, the gravitational force of the Moon causes the formation of tides. Meteorites fall on the Earth's surface. Endogenous energy comes from the bowels of the Earth, which determines the formation of the largest forms of the earth's surface. The upper boundary of the geographic space is located at a height of 10 Earth radii, on the upper boundary of the magnetosphere; the lower one is on the Moho surface. Geographic space is divided into four parts.

1. Near space. The lower boundary runs along the upper boundary of the atmosphere at an altitude of 2000 km above the Earth. Here there is an interaction of cosmic factors with magnetic and gravitational fields. The corpuscular radiation of the Sun is delayed in the magnetosphere.

2. High atmosphere. From below, it is limited to the stratopause. This is where cosmic rays are slowed down, converted, and ozone is formed.

3. Geographic cover.

4. Underlying bark. The lower boundary is the Moho surface. This is an area of manifestation of endogenous processes that form geotectures and morphostructures of the planet.

14.3. Components, structural levels of the geographic shell.Components geographic shells are homogeneous material formations. These include natural water, air, rocks, plants, animals, soils.

Components are distinguished by their state of aggregation - solid, liquid and gaseous. Now a fourth state is being isolated - water in capillaries: it does not freeze at zero degrees, but becomes viscous.

Components can have different levels of organization: living, inert (abiotic), bio-inert (organo-mineral). Living components include plants, animals; to bioinert - soils; to inert - air, water, rocks.

According to the degree of activity, the components are divided into stable ones - rocks, soils; mobile - water, air; active - plants, animals. Some scholars classify the components into primary - water, air, rocks, plants, animals; and derivatives - soils, ice, frozen rocks (K. I. Gerenchuk, V. A. Bokov, I. G. Chervanev). Sometimes the components of the geographic shell include relief, climate (A.A. Polovinkin, K.K. Markov, A.G. Isachenko, V.S. Zhekulin), or the lithosphere, the atmosphere. However, not the entire lithosphere and atmosphere are included in the composition of the geographic shell, and the relief and climate are not components, but properties of rocks and air.

There are three structural levels of the geographic envelope. First level - geocomponent. This is the simplest level, the individual components are studied by the natural sciences - geology, botany, geochemistry and geophysics.

The second level is called geospheric.Geospheres are shells occupied predominantly by one component. Geospheres determine the vertical structure of the geographic shell, they are arranged in tiers and distributed according to their specific gravity. Upper - the atmosphere formed by the lightest gases. The hydrosphere and lithosphere lie below. These shells form heavier chemical elements.

The shell has the most complex structure at the contact of spheres: atmosphere and lithosphere (Earth's surface), hydrosphere and lithosphere (ocean floor), atmosphere and hydrosphere (ocean surface), atmosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere (in the coastal zone of the ocean).

Third level - geosystemic.Geosystems - complexes formed by the interaction of all components. Geosystems form a horizontal structure of the geographic envelope. The differentiation of the geographic shell into geosystems is due to the uneven distribution of heat and moisture, the heterogeneity of the earth's surface.

The geographical shell has a qualitative originality and differs from the primary geospheres that form it:

The geographic shell is the most complex shell of the planet, characterized by a variety of material composition;

Within the geographic envelope, the substance is in three states of aggregation, has a wide range of physical characteristics;

There are various types of energies in the shell, solar energy is converted into the energy of chemical bonds, thermal and mechanical;

Within the geographic envelope, there is a close interaction of its constituent components, which leads to the formation of qualitatively new formations - natural complexes;

Within the geographic shell, life arose, there is a human society.

14.4. Stages of development of the geographical envelope. There are several stages in the life of the geographic shell. The earliest is the pre-biospheric, then the biospheric stage of development. At present, more and more often, scientists began to say that a new stage begins in the life of the geographical shell - the noo-spheral one. The development followed the path of complication of the structure, in the process of interaction new components and complexes were formed. Each new stage is characterized by the emergence of new cycles of matter and energy.

pre-biospheric (geological) stage of development lasted from 4.5 billion years to 570 million years. At this time, the formation of continents and oceanic depressions took place, the atmosphere and hydrosphere were formed. At the pre-biospheric stage, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere interacted. Living matter existed, but did not have a continuous distribution. At this time, the integrity of the shell was maintained by the cycles of water and chemical elements. As a result of the interaction of the primary components - water, air, rocks - the components of the geographical envelope were formed. Natural water and air were formed, i.e. components carry the results of shell interaction. Natural air is no longer only atmospheric gases, it contains hydrosphere water and solid particles of the lithosphere. Natural water contains salts and gases. Sedimentary rocks have formed. At the pre-biospheric stage, the upper boundary of the geographic shell was probably located at an altitude of 80 km (in this layer there are noctilucent clouds consisting of frozen gases and ice, i.e., water vapor was carried to this height during the gyres). In addition, the boundary of the homosphere passes at this height. The lower boundary ran along the boundary of the sedimentary layer: sedimentary rocks are the result of the impact on rocks of water and air, in addition, it is here that groundwater horizons are located.

On the second, biospheric, stage, living matter is included in the interaction (from 570 million years to 40 thousand years). A biogenic one is added to the cycles: inorganic elements in the world are converted into organic matter due to the reaction of photosynthesis, and transpiration is added to evaporation. The components of the geographic envelope become more complex; living matter is involved in their transformation. Natural water acquires a specific gas and salt composition, which is the result of the vital activity of organisms. Weathering crusts and soils are formed, their formation is also associated with the activity of living matter. The gases of the atmosphere have passed through biological cycles. Vegetation and animals are added to the components. Obviously, the components become biogenic. However, mother-of-pearl clouds and sedimentary rocks are outside the zone of active circulation. The upper boundary of the geographic envelope descends to the ozone screen (zonal air masses are formed here), the lower boundary outlines the zone of hypergenesis.

At the third stage, the geographical envelope enters into noospheric stage of development. Under noosphere(the sphere of reason) understand the sphere of interaction between nature and society, in which the rational activity of man becomes the determining factor in development. At the noospheric stage, the anthropogenic circulation of matter and energy is added to the cycles. Anthropogenic components begin to form, they carry the results of the impact of human activity. The boundaries of the geographic shell of the noospheric stage, obviously, should expand, in the future, humanity will master the entire solar system. A detailed description of the noosphere is given in a separate chapter.

14.5. The cycle of matter. The migration of matter in GO has the form of cycles of various scales. The circles are not closed. Gaseous and liquid substances, being very dynamic, penetrate into the solid lithosphere through pores and cracks. Water forms underground aquifers. A lot of water is in a bound state. Water dissolves rocks and transports dissolved substances over long distances, complex interaction processes occur, as a result of which not only new substances are formed, but also various structural formations. In turn, solid substances penetrate into the air and water environment. The movement of matter is called its circulation. Especially significant are the results of the circulation of substances over geological periods of time.

In the history of Z., large stages of the predominance of mountain building are known, alternating with relatively calm geological stages, when the processes of leveling the relief prevailed, which was and is accompanied by a redistribution of huge volumes of matter. As a result, loose surface rocks found themselves at great depths, underwent the action of great pressures and high temperatures, turning, for example, into metamorphic rocks. Or, conversely, the bottom sediments of the sea can compose mountain ranges. Movement amplitudes reach tens of kilometers. The ratio of land and sea changed many times.

The water cycle in nature is well known from the school course. It is accompanied by the exchange of matter between land and sea. As already noted, 577 thousand km 3 of water enters the atmosphere from the earth's surface annually due to evaporation and transpiration by plants, and the same amount returns to the earth's surface in the form of precipitation. The main links of the water cycle: evaporation, the transfer of water vapor or cloud formations by air currents, precipitation. There is a general, or large cycle, in which the Ocean, land and atmosphere participate, as well as small ones - intracontinental and intraoceanic.

The circulation of matter between land and sea, associated with the water cycle, is also distinguished. Not only pure water participates in the cycle, but also salts, suspensions, solutions. Due to the so-called solid runoff carried away from the land, terrigenous bottom sediments of the Ocean are formed. The intensity of the solid runoff is determined by the tectonic setting, which also determines the ratio of the land to the sea, the slopes of the earth's surface, its dissection, etc.

14.6. Energy cycle. All types of energy are connected by the law of equivalence and gradually turn into heat, therefore they are measured in calories. The energy of the Earth has 2 sources: the internal energy of the Earth and the energy of the S. and Cosmos. The internal energy of the earth is 50 erg/cm 2 per second, or 3x10 17 kcal/year for the entire surface of the earth. This is predominantly radioactive heat. External energy: Space -1.4 X 10 13 kcal / year. The main solar energy is 1.4 X 10 21 kcal/year.

An insignificant part of the energy is accumulated in the biomass of green plants in the form of chemical energy capable of further transformations. In finished form, this energy is then used by all heterotrophic organisms. The total amount of energy accumulated by the living matter of the biosphere is about 10 19 kcal/year. The annual production of biomass in terms of energy is about 8x10 17 kcal. After the death of organisms, chemical energy is converted into thermal energy as a result of oxidation, part of it is accumulated by the humus shell, which, in the end, also turns into thermal energy. Thus, the Earth, how much energy it receives, gives away as much (partially accumulating).

In the processes of the circulation of matter and energy, the connection of particular geographical shells and the unity of GO are expressed.

14.7. Landscape structure of the geographical shell, natural-territorial complexes. GO - huge, covering the entire Earth, natural (geographical complex). Its components: the substance of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), atmosphere (air), organisms. Their combination can be observed anywhere on the earth's surface, because the GO is continuous. Solid, but not everywhere the same. The development of civil defense led to the formation of the so-called NTC (natural-territorial complexes), geographical landscapes. Each NTC is a relatively homogeneous area of the earth's surface, which differs from neighboring ones in the nature of the interaction between the components, the main of which are 1) relief with the rocks that form it, 2) soils with weathering crust, 3) water, 4) atmospheric air, 5) living organisms . Examples of PTC are the landscape of a river floodplain, the landscape of a moraine hill, etc. When classifying the simplest element of the PTC, facies is considered (sometimes identified with the concept of biogeocenosis). Facies form a higher order PTC. The study of NTC, both unchanged and modified by human activities, is the branch of physical geography, called by most geographers landscape science. , where the PTC hierarchy will also be considered.

By landscape, all geographers understand a natural complex, but some extend this concept to any natural complex, regardless of its size and complexity (landscape = natural complex). Others call a landscape only a natural complex of a certain rank, distinguished by individuality, uniqueness in space and time, and take it as the main unit in physical and geographical zoning. In this case, natural complexes that are more complex than landscapes are combinations of landscapes, and less complex ones are parts of the landscape.

PTC on a planetary scale - geographic zones and natural areas . The PTCs of land and Ocean are not the same. On land, a huge variety of PTCs has been identified. To be convinced of this, it is enough to travel along the meridian from one pole to another. In this case, such NTCs as polar deserts, steppes of temperate latitudes, tropical forests, etc. will be encountered. The location of NTCs is subject to a certain pattern, which is called latitudinal (horizontal) zonality. Zonality is one of the main patterns of GO, which also include its azonal, wholeness, rhythmicity, sectorality, and regionality.

14.8. The law of zonality and geographical zonation of the nature of the earth's surface expresses regular changes in all GO components in the direction from the equator to the poles. These changes are a consequence of the spherical shape of the Earth, the surface of which, in the process of daily and annual movement in a stream of parallel sunlight, receives a different amount of heat and light, depending on latitude.

The inclination of the earth's axis causes a change in the influx of solar energy over time for each latitude, and, consequently, changes in natural processes and phenomena within a year.

The zoning fades up and down from the earth's surface, which is caused by a decrease in solar radiation (energy), therefore, within the GO, they emit landscape area, adjacent to the earth's surface. Zoning is not clearly seen at the upper and lower boundaries of the GO.

The largest zonal structures of GO are natural (geographical) belts (GB). If we compare the maps of the climatic and natural zoning of the globe, we can see that the boundaries of the HP coincide with the boundaries of climatic zones, moreover, they have the same names: equatorial, 2 subequatorial, 2 tropical, 2 subtropical, 2 temperate, 2 subpolar, 2 polar(Arctic and Antarctic).

The relative homogeneity of temperature conditions within the climatic (and, consequently, the HP) is due to the dominance of homogeneous types of air masses, or their regular change. As you know, there are 4 types of air masses: equatorial, tropical, temperate and arctic (antarctic) . The properties of air masses are determined to a decisive extent by the conditions of heating and cooling of the underlying surface at certain latitudes, and, consequently, of the air, as well as by other factors. Accordingly, there are 7 major climate zones – 1 equatorial, 2 tropical, 2 temperate (polar), arctic and antarctic. Within these belts, one air mass dominates throughout the year. In addition, allocated 6 transitional climatic zones , 3 in each hemisphere. Their names begin with the prefix "sub-" ("almost"): subarctic, subantarctic, 2 subtropical, 2 subequatorial.

The identification of transitional belts is associated with the peculiarities of the formation of climatic conditions during the seasonal change of air masses. The change in air masses is caused by the relative movement of the zenithal position of the Sun during the year. At the time of the summer solstice of the northern hemisphere (June 22), the boundaries of the distribution of air masses are shifted following the zenithal ray of the Sun and occupy the extreme northern position. On the contrary, on the day of the summer solstice of the southern hemisphere, the air masses shift to the south and their borders occupy the extreme southern position. Within the limits of transitional climatic zones, thus, during the year, weather and climate are formed by two air masses (air masses of the main belts located either to the north or south): in the subarctic summer there is air of temperate latitudes, and in winter - arctic, in subtropical summer - tropical, in winter - temperate (aka polar air), in subequatorial summer - equatorial, in winter - tropical.

In total, 13 climatic zones have been identified, where the conditions for the formation of climate determine the properties and mode of change of these air masses.

We emphasize once again that the decisive factor in dividing GO into HP is temperature differences determined by the value of the temperature balance, i.e. difference between heat input and output. The zonal distribution of solar energy largely determines the zoning of cloudiness and moisture, atmospheric circulation, and so on.

GPs include both parts of the continents and land. Zonal differences in the Ocean can be traced at depths up to 2 thousand meters.

Within the land areas of the GP, natural zones are distinguished. Natural zones are clearly distinguished by the predominant type of vegetation cover. For example, the terms “tundra zone”, “forest zone”, “desert zone”, “steppe zone”, “subtropical forest zone”, “equatorial forest zone”, etc. are widely known. In total, about 50 natural zones have been identified.

The main criterion for determining the boundaries of natural zones is the ratio of heat and moisture. Quantitative indicators of this ratio are moisture coefficients, dryness indices, hydrothermal coefficients, which are used by researchers who deal with issues of landscape (physico-geographical) zoning.

Moisture coefficient (N.N. Ivanova) - the ratio of the amount of precipitation falling over a certain period ( R) to the evaporation value ( E) for the same period, i.e.k= R: E, expressed as a percentage. For example, the moisture coefficient for RMS according to this formula is calculated as the ratio of the layer of precipitation (350 mm per year) to the layer of water that can evaporate from the given territory in a year with the existing influx of solar energy (about 750 mm), i.e. 350mm:750mm x 100% = 47%.

Radiation Dryness Index (according to M.I. Budyko) - the ratio of the annual radiation balance of the underlying surface ( R) to the amount of heat (lr), needed to evaporate the annual rainfall (r) on the same area (L – latent heat of vaporization), i.e. R : lr. For example, for SCO, this indicator can be calculated as follows:

30 kcal / cm 2 per year: (600 cal / g x 35 g) \u003d 1.4, where 30 kcal / cm 2 per year is the annual radiation balance of the underlying surface of the SOC, 600 cal / g is the latent heat of evaporation, 35g is the volume in grams a layer of water falling on 1 cm 2 of the surface per year.

Selyaninov hydrothermal coefficient - value K = (Rx 10): sumt, whereR – the sum of precipitation in mm for the period with temperatures above 10 0 , sumt – sum of temperatures in degrees for the same time. The hydrothermal coefficient is a characteristic of the moisture content of the territory (moisture supply). It is assumed that the moisture consumption for evaporation in the warm months of the year is approximately equal to the sum of temperatures reduced by 10 times. According to calculations, the northern border of the steppe belt of the European part of Russia coincides with the isoline K = 1, and the northern border of the semi-desert with the isoline K = 0,., For SKO

K varies from 1.1 in the north to 0.7 in the south of the region.

Since the availability of moisture depends not only on the latitude of the place, but also on many other factors (atmospheric circulation, topography, distance from the ocean, etc.), the configuration of natural zones is different and depends on a complex of regional reasons. Natural zones have both latitudinal and meridional strike, they can have isometric forms.

14.9 Vertical zonality. The influence of the relief on the ratio of heat and moisture, which determines the formation of natural complexes, is especially great. It is the influence of the relief that explains the presence of vertical zonality in mountainous countries. As one rises upwards, the amount of heat (radiation balance) decreases, humidity changes with a complex ruggedness of the relief (surface collapse into mountain folds). All taken together leads to the formation of natural complexes in the mountains, which have features that are not characteristic of lowland countries.

The mountains of each GP have their own combinations of altitudinal belts, changing sequentially from the foot to the top. The foot belt corresponds to the horizontal zone, the place where the slope of the mountain system is located. The completeness of the spectrum of zones of altitudinal zonation, therefore, depends on the position of the mountainous country and the height. Of great importance in the formation of vertical zones is the exposure of slopes (windward or leeward slope, etc.), which again ultimately determine the ratio of heat and moisture.

Altitude zones can be replaced, dropped out, changed places, etc.

14.10. Asymmetry (azonality) of the geographic envelope. Along with the practically symmetrical location of HPs (their frequency in the northern and southern hemispheres relative to the equator), the presence of asymmetry has long been noticed in GO. The latter is not expressed in the full manifestation of zonal symmetry and in many other manifestations of the properties of the planet. According to the generalization of Academician K.K. Markov, manifestations of asymmetry include:

asymmetry of the figure of the Earth;

uneven distribution of land and sea (19 and 39% of land, respectively, in the southern and northern hemispheres);

state of the atmosphere (pressure, circulation);

differences in temperature (in the northern hemisphere 15.2 0 , in the southern hemisphere 13.3 0 С);

temperature amplitudes are smaller in the southern hemisphere than in the northern;

the state of modern glaciation (differences in age, dynamics, etc.);

the "Western drift" current exists only in the southern hemisphere;

not all natural zones are repeated in each of the hemispheres (in the southern there are no zones of tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, mixed forests).

14.11. The integrity of the geographic envelope - connected with the fact that it is a complex natural complex, a natural system, all components of which are in mutual relationships and dependencies. A change in one component causes a chain of reactions, up to destruction. In recent times, man has been exerting more and more influence on the development of established relationships in natural complexes. For example, D.L. Armand writes in his book “To Us and Our Grandchildren”: “In American literature, a case is described when herbicides improved the herbage of meadows, but at the same time killed the willows that served as food for beavers. The beavers abandoned the river, which was kept high by dams. The dams gradually collapsed, the river became shallow, and the trout and other fish that lived in it died. Then the level of groundwater dropped throughout the area and rich floodplain meadows, for which herbicides were applied, dried up and lost their value. The planned event did not work, because people tried to influence only one link in the complex interweaving of causes and effects.

14.12. Rhythm geographic shell - repeatability of similar processes and phenomena in time. We have already considered daily, seasonal, annual rhythms, 11-year cycles of solar activity, mentioned the recurrence of the galactic year with a period of 180-200 million years. The recurrence of these phenomena is known, although we do not always know about their consequences, about how they act when superimposed on each other. We probably do not know the reasons for the recurrence of some other processes and phenomena. For example, the reasons for the periodicity of glaciations and interglacials of the Quaternary, changes in the polarity of the Earth's magnetic field in the geological past, changes in climate and the levels of inland water bodies associated with it, etc.

14.13. Sector geographical envelope- Longitudinal change of landscapes. On the continents, western coastal sectors, sectors of the central parts of the continents, eastern coastal territories with their specific features associated with the influence of the oceans, ocean currents, the direction of prevailing winds, remoteness from the sea, etc. are distinguished.

14.14. Regionality of the geographic shell - the presence of regional features within natural zones. For example, within the coniferous forests of the temperate zone, regions are distinguished with a predominance of cedar, or European spruce, Siberian spruce, etc.

14.15. The system nature - population - society. At the initial stages of the development of modern GO, the formation of its inorganic part - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere - took place. This process went along the line of differentiation of the corresponding part of the planet's matter, the complication of its structure and each geosphere included in it. In the course of development, the prerequisites for the emergence of life were created.

The emergence of living matter marked the onset of a qualitatively new stage in the development of the system. Living matter, as it develops and becomes more complex, becomes a powerful geological force, which led to a significant change in the composition of the atmosphere, lithosphere, the appearance of a soil cover, and the emergence of new processes (biogeochemical, etc.). A complex unity of inorganic and biological components was formed - the biosphere.

Finally, the emergence of human society meant the final formation of an extremely complex system of interaction between three forms of the movement of matter - planetary inorganic, biological and social - modern GO. A new state of the biosphere as a result of the gigantic work of mankind V.I. Vernadsky named noosphere (the realm of the mind). However, the conclusion that far from everything in it is reasonable is becoming more and more obvious.

Let us briefly consider some aspects of the interaction between nature and man (society) - the most burning problem of our time.

The stability of the natural system, its elasticity, its ability and desire for natural balance are amazing. In the history of the Earth, geological and climatic perturbations took place - transgressions, orogenies, glaciations, but they, in the final analysis, served nature, at least living nature - only for the benefit. After such a "compression" nature-"spring" again "spread out". Creating difficulties for existence, great changes led to the destruction of weak genera and gave birth to others, more adapted to the opening of new ecological niches, more enduring and resourceful.

Obviously, human pressure would also have an effect if it continued for a long geological time and slowly. But it is too short for the creation of new species, it has developed and is developing rapidly, although for some time the influence of human society in intensity and content did not differ from the influence of the animal world. People were collecting. A major milestone in changing the natural environment is the transition from gathering to farming. With the development of cattle breeding, and especially agriculture (slash-and-burn at first), the impact of man on nature has increased dramatically. The forests were particularly affected. Previously, all forests began to be destroyed in Western Europe. Ancient Europeans were surrounded by a green ocean. For 3 thousand years, forests were reduced in Europe on an area of about 600 million hectares. Practically Europe is deforested (natural forests are preserved only in Eastern Europe, in Scandinavia and in the mountains).

At present, the forests of Western Europe are also suffering, but already due to "sulphurous rains". Such rains occur when atmospheric moisture combines with sulfur dioxide, a product of combustion. From the combustion of 10 tons of coal, 1 ton of sulfur dioxide is formed. With a high concentration of industrial enterprises, a huge amount of sulfur dioxide is formed, and acid rains destroy forests, all life in rivers and lakes. In West Germany, a political party called the "Greens" has been created to protect the environment; and one of the slogans of this party: "First the forest will die, then we will die."

But the fate of the North American forests is especially indicative and deplorable, where the colonists entered the virgin land with energy and enthusiasm. Such a change in the surface of the Earth began, the like of which history has not yet known. ... The white inhabitants of this new country, in their conquest of the "desert" and "conquest of the west", set a stunning record of devastation and destruction. Millions of hectares of slopes, once covered with majestic forests, were bare by flat washout; endless ravines crossed the once richest lands. For 100 years in Sev. America was cut down 540 million hectares of forests. The consequence is catastrophic water and wind erosion, sandstorms, floods, and summer droughts. Now the United States covers only 60% of the cost of oxygen consumed by their industry, Switzerland - only 25%. Because forests are the lungs of the planet. These are one of the many sad examples of the violation of the existing equilibria in natural systems, which have huge negative consequences.

The area of tropical and equatorial forests has also been significantly reduced. The World Conservation Strategy states that they are retreating at a rate of 44 hectares per minute. If the retreat of forests proceeds at an increasing rate, as it has been until now, then in the current century it will be necessary to grow forests "for oxygen".

In the following decades, the problem of air pollution becomes very acute.

Anthropogenic pollution is currently being produced more than their volcanoes supply. There are especially many: 1) cars (60% of all air pollution in the USA); 2) industrial enterprises (sulphurous gas has already been mentioned, but besides it there are other harmful emissions - smoke, soot, CO 2, etc.; dust from rubbing parts - ¼ of the metal produced per year turns into dust (in cities, the soil contains 10 times more metal dust than in rural areas.) One machine produces 10 kg of rubber dust per year. It is estimated that in 1970 almost 40 billion tons of various products of production were emitted into the atmosphere, and by 2000 this figure will increase to 100 billion. t.

The problem of soil conservation is also ominously acute. Arable land currently makes up 10% of the land (1450 million hectares); this means that there are 0.5 ha per capita in the world. On the territory of the former USSR, on average, there are 0.8-0.9 ha per inhabitant, in the USA - 1.0 ha, in Canada - 2.0 ha. To satisfy all human needs with the current crop yield per person, 1 hectare of arable land is required, however, the yield depends on the quality of the soil, on climatic features, etc. Therefore, a person tries to improve the quality of soils, increase fertility: proper cultivation, fertilizers, drainage, watering, irrigation, erosion protection - all this has a positive effect. At the same time, the reverse process also takes place: erosion, pollution with chemicals, salinization, waterlogging, diversion for buildings, reservoirs, quarries, dumps, communication facilities, etc.

Chemical pollution is especially dangerous - 30 thousand chemicals are produced annually - detergents, chemical fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, etc. Environmental pollution is dangerous because many harmful, toxic substances are involved in the biological cycle, and they enter the body through food chains person. And this is fraught with many undesirable consequences. Radiation pollution is also dangerous: nuclear weapons were tested on the island of Bikini in the early 50s - there is still no life on the island.

The damage from negative processes has taken on alarming proportions: the decrease in the area of soils is 1000 times faster than their formation. Lost about 20 million km 2 of soil. No less acute is the problem of fresh water. The main problem is the pollution of land surface waters (about 40% of the river runoff is polluted) and its lack in many industrial and agricultural regions.

The facts of irretrievable, irreplaceable losses in the animal and plant world are well known. 105 species of plants and animals (bison, sea cow, etc.) disappeared; 600 species are currently close to extinction; some of them are being restored, especially protected.

Up to a certain period of burden, the biosphere could be considered for mankind an unlimited environment of life, not placing any restrictions on its economic development. The resources seemed inexhaustible and the natural environment unshakable. But already in the 2nd half of the 19th century, the global impact of mankind on nature was realized (a great merit in this was Academician V.I. Vernadsky). However, it took a whole century for the truth about the reverse effect of nature changed by people on man, on his economy, to be deeply and universally understood. So that the extent of the danger that has arisen due to the imbalance in the “nature-man-society” system has loomed quite clearly in the minds of people.

The main contradictions that have arisen between modern society and nature are as follows:

nature is a source of raw materials for material production and, at the same time, a habitat; by increasing production, a person worsens the quality of the environment for himself;

for the development of the economy, more and more natural materials are needed, but the faster the pace, the worse the habitat;

Scientific and technological progress is a powerful factor of pressure on nature, but at the same time it is a lever for constructive actions to protect the environment.

Positive impacts include the breeding of a huge number of new breeds of animals, plant varieties, and their cultivation, enrichment of soils with organo-mineral fertilizers that increase fertility, drainage of swamps, irrigation of arid territories, the destruction of pathogens, the search and production of new materials that reduce the removal of natural resources, new resource-saving, few - about waste-free technologies, etc.

14.16 The problem of the use of natural resources. At present, mankind has realized the exhaustibility of natural resources, facing the fact of their growing deficit. One of the main problems was the provision of raw materials and energy resources. A wide awareness of the problem of resources occurred in the 70s of the last century, when energy, raw materials, and environmental crises emerged. Why? Problems should be divided into regional and global ones.

Regional: different countries have different availability of mineral resources depending on the geological structure and distribution of minerals (oil and gas and ore belts, provinces, zones, etc.).

Global: repeated increase in volumes of withdrawn natural materials. If in ancient times 19 chemical elements were used, at the beginning of the 20th century - 60, now - all those found in nature, and hundreds of thousands of artificial substances. If in 1913, on average, 4.9 tons were mined per person, in 1940 - 7.4 tons, in 1985 - 28 tons, then in 2000 - 35-40 tons. Over the last 30-35 lei, about the same amount of raw materials was used , how much for the entire previous history. 1000 billion tons are withdrawn annually, while 1-2% of the useful component (final product) is received (98-99% is waste).

Natural resources are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible (solar radiation, river runoff, wind). The former are subdivided into renewable (soil fertility, vegetation, fauna, atmospheric components) and non-renewable (mineral raw materials - ores, oil, gas, coal, etc.).

Exhaustibility depends on reserves (explored and undiscovered) and on the rate of production. As non-renewable resources are depleted, the technological complexity and energy intensity of production increase. The use of available and rich in useful components deposits is a thing of the past. Society is forced to switch to the use of poor ores, to mine them in remote and hard-to-reach places.

Judging by the rate of production, in a few decades the reserves of diamonds, ores of copper, lead, mercury, cadmium, tin, zinc (Table 1), tungsten, gold, silver will be exhausted. Uranium reserves are limited. Scientific and technological progress makes it possible to penetrate deeper and deeper into the subsoil: oil is already extracted from a depth of about 8 km, the depth of mines reaches 4 km, quarries - 800 m.

It is possible that technologies will appear for the extraction of iron-manganese nodules from the ocean floor (Cu, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn), the reserves of which are estimated at 100 billion tons only at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. In the future, it is possible to extract useful components from sea water (iodine, U, NaCl, etc.), as well as by processing granite. 100 tons of granite contains uranium and thorium equivalent to 5 thousand tons. coal, in addition, - about 8 tons of aluminum, 5 tons of iron, 0.5 tons of titanium, 80 kg of manganese, 30 kg of chromium, 17 kg of nickel, etc.

An acute shortage of minerals is felt in Japan, England, France, Germany, Italy, Holland, Belgium, etc.

The number of years that the world reserves of some ores will last in the production of metals at the level of 1992; R-explored, P-forecast reserves

Table 1


Aluminum

Production and exploration of oil in the North Sea is 15-17 times more expensive than in the Middle East. The reserves of the shelf of Antarctica are estimated to be 6 billion tons of oil and 11.5 trillion. m cu. gas, but it is very difficult and expensive to extract them.

Environmental problems are exacerbated by disproportions in the distribution of both resources and consumption of manufactured products. About 30 years ago, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, led by Gro Harlem Brundtland, prepared the report Our Common Future, which preceded the Rio 92 World Forum. This report made a clear conclusion: poverty is the main cause and effect of global environmental problems. It is therefore hopeless to attempt to address them without a broader consideration of the factors causing world poverty and international inequality. The main share of the world's products is consumed by only a quarter of the world's population (the "golden billion"). "Overconsumption" by this part of the population, according to the commission, is the main cause of resource depletion and environmental pollution.

Distribution of world consumption, on average for 1980-1982, in %

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