The 17th century is an important, in many ways a turning point, stage in the centuries-old history of Russia's relations with European countries, in Russian foreign policy.

The 17th century is an important, in many ways a turning point, stage in the centuries-old history of Russia's relations with European countries, in Russian foreign policy.

For about a century and a half, the Russian state has existed, acting on the international arena as a single, independent and fairly active entity. The country and people - even if we count from the reign of Ivan III - accumulated a huge experience in communicating with the outside world - political, diplomatic, military, commercial, cultural - which clearly no longer corresponded to the worldview of the times of the "Tsardom of Moscow". The historical paths of Europe and Russia much more and more often than before, converged, intersected and overlapped each other.

On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov as Tsar, the great-nephew of Ivan IV the Terrible (by his first wife Anastasia), a representative of one of the famous and influential boyar families.

Many contemporaries believed that this would help to finally end the protracted Troubles - at least, it would mean a formal end to the long crisis of power in Russia. This crisis began in connection with the death of the last tsar of the Rurik dynasty, Fyodor Ioannovich (1598), and fully manifested itself after the sudden death of B.F. Godunov (1605), when the throne either quickly passed from hand to hand (B.F. Godunov - False Dmitry I - Vasily Shuisky), then it turned out to be completely free (Seven Boyars), and as a result was transferred to a foreign (Polish) prince, not wished at that moment even to arrive in Russia (Vladislav). Now there is hope that the worst is over. Along with hope came an understanding of the urgency of solving many foreign policy tasks, first of all, establishing borders that would make it possible to use natural and geographical conditions (rivers, sea coasts, etc.) for the reliable protection of one’s territory, its expansion, and the development of trade with foreign countries. countries and solving other problems.

What were the borders of Russia by 1613? When and how did they develop? What contradictions were indicated (or, on the contrary, concealed)?

The entire western frontier of Russia at that point remained undefined, as the northwestern Russian lands (including Novgorod) were still occupied by Sweden, and the area between Smolensk and Moscow was largely controlled by the Commonwealth (Poland).

In the south, as before, Russia's neighbor was the Crimean Khanate - a vassal of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). The border passed on the other side of the Northern Donets and descended to the lower reaches of the Don, almost approaching the fortress city of Azov, which was owned by the Turks. Russia, therefore, was almost at the coast of the Sea of ​​Azov, but precisely "almost".

In the west and in the south, therefore, the country's foreign policy position was similar in one thing: geographically, it was close to the Baltic and Azov seas, but did not have access to their coasts.

The southeastern section of the Russian border after the Don descended (not reaching the eastern coast of the Black Sea, where again there were Turkish or Turkish-dependent possessions) to the northern spurs of the Greater Caucasus Range, with the exception of Dagestan. Then the border went along the northwestern and northern shores of the Caspian Sea.

The entire eastern border of the country was even less defined. By the beginning of the XVII century. Russia annexed the former Siberian Khanate in Western Siberia, behind which there was no longer a single large state formation in the steppe and forest spaces up to the very Chinese possessions. In this sense, the space of Eastern Siberia and the Far East was “open” (by its size it was not inferior to the entire territory of the country by the beginning of the 17th century).

Thus, the geopolitical position of Russia by the beginning of the 17th century. not much has changed since the 16th century. As then, a significant part of the western Old Russian lands, called "Belarus" and "Little Russia" (or "Ukraine", as the Poles called this territory) was part of the Commonwealth. As before, being the largest of all European powers, Russia did not have access to any of the "European" seas (the Baltic and Black), forced to be content with the "long road" to Europe - through the White Sea around the whole of Scandinavia - as well as land transit routes through the lands of unfriendly neighbors (Poland and Sweden). As before, Crimean khans raided Russian lands from the south. In the east, the Tatar khanates were conquered, but the Russian people were still attracted by boundless Siberia, more or less explored only in its western part closest to Europe.

Therefore, most of the leading directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century. turned out to be successive to the previous century:

Northeast ("Swedish") - the struggle for direct access to the Baltic Sea,

Western ("Polish") - the desire to unite together all the East Slavic peoples,

Southern ("Crimean-Turkish") - an attempt to put an end to the raids of Tatars and Turks on Russian lands,

East ("Siberian") - the hope to develop new territories, to reach the "last eastern sea".

As before, by its nature, Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century was was heterogeneous: if in relations with the West (the first and second of the directions) diplomacy, wars and trade prevailed, then in the East (the fourth direction) - colonization, economic development of territories that did not yet know statehood, and the collection of tribute from the local population. As for the “Crimean Tatar” direction, here the diplomatic and military efforts of the government were combined with the large-scale construction of defensive fortifications (“defensive lines”), which, in turn, caused an influx of people into these places, as well as the military and economic activity of the “free » Cossacks on the Don.

With the relative stability of the main directions and character, the priorities of Russia's foreign policy throughout the 17th century. often changed depending on the internal (forces and means) and international (balance of forces) position of the country.

At the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645), Russia had to solve two primary tasks in the international arena:

End the Troubles in the international legal aspect, that is, conclude agreements with the intervention countries (the Commonwealth and Sweden), minimizing, if possible, their territorial losses;

To achieve official recognition by them, as well as by other states of the West and East, of the new government in Moscow.

For this, in turn, Mikhail Fedorovich and his entourage had to prove abroad: the Russian Time of Troubles was finally over, the current tsar, unlike his predecessors, took the throne as a “legitimate” monarch for a long time, and therefore with this power it is possible and necessary establish and maintain a serious relationship without fear of her fall or overthrow.

In order for Tsar Mikhail to be recognized abroad, the Moscow elites had to put an end to the most complicated formal-dynastic crisis that arose after the Muscovites, who swore allegiance to the Polish prince Vladislav as the Russian Tsar in the fall of 1610, three years later again swore allegiance - now to Tsar Mikhail. Why, Mikhail himself (at that time a 14-year-old teenager), among others, kissed the cross, swearing allegiance to the “sovereign of All Russia” Vladislav! In such a situation, the legitimacy of the Zemsky Sobor of 1613, and hence the rights of Mikhail to the throne, looked very doubtful. Therefore, any relations between Russia and other countries at that moment largely depended on the course and results of negotiations between Russia and the Commonwealth, or, more precisely, Moscow and Vladislav.

In 1614, the Polish lords sent the Moscow boyars (pretending that the tsar was still not in the Kremlin) a letter reproaching Vladislav for “treason” and proposing negotiations. The boyars ardently stood up for the honor of Mikhail, but agreed to negotiations. Louder than others, Mikhail was defended by those who once swore allegiance to Vladislav: princes F.I. Mstislavsky, F.I. Sheremetev, I.N. Romanov (Uncle Mikhail) and others. Now they settled down well under the new sovereign and therefore rushed together to his defense.

Negotiations with the Commonwealth continued intermittently for four years (1615-1618). Each side followed its own logic. At first, the Russian ambassadors tried to replace the discussion of the question of the tsar by enumerating the "humiliations" that the boyars allegedly suffered from the Poles in Moscow. The Polish ambassadors spoke to the point: they say, the whole country swore allegiance to Prince Vladislav, and “only Cossacks” chose the boyar son Mikhail. The Russian delegation had no choice but to refer to the will of God: “God entrusted the State of Moscow to Mikhail Fedorovich from the forefathers; he didn’t want that he should own us and be a sovereign.”

The Russian-Swedish negotiations, which began in 1616 with the mediation of the British (which Moscow asked them to do), in terms of the nature of the arguments of the parties, were very similar to the Russian-Polish ones. The Moscow delegation, in response to accusations of “treason” by the Swedes, stated that “God did not choose glorious kings from royal roots,” after which they persistently advised those to sort out their internal affairs first.

Nevertheless, in Stolbovo on February 27, 1617, the “perpetual peace” between Russia and Sweden was signed. According to its terms, Karl-Philip no longer claimed the Russian throne, and Novgorod land remained with Russia. Mikhail Fedorovich had to pay 20,000 rubles with “ready, kind, walking, undeceptive silver Novgorod money” and renounce all rights to Karela, Ingria and Livonia, in other words, reconcile with the loss of access to the Baltic Sea. The agreement confirmed the traditional trade between the two countries and the free transit of Russian ambassadors to Western Europe, and Swedish ambassadors to Persia, Turkey and the Crimea.

As soon as they made peace with Sweden, the news came that Vladislav had set out from Warsaw to the east. In Ukraine, he was joined by detachments of Hetman Sahaidachny. The king's son moved slowly, winning bloodless victories. It was enough for the governors of Dorogobuzh and Vyazma to find out that Vladislav himself was with the army, and they dutifully laid down their arms: he entered their cities as the “king of Moscow”. There was something to be proud of - and now the "Moscow Tsar" sends to the capital "our boyars, devious and so on." letter, promising to pardon in case of immediate surrender. And along the way, for the umpteenth time, he accused Filaret, the father of Mikhail Romanov, of treason: he wanted to remind him of the hostage sitting in his dungeon. Vladislav knew perfectly well: as long as Filaret was in Polish captivity, a favorable peace was guaranteed to him.

The Poles approached Moscow, but they could not take it by storm. The Russians waited for their faithful ally - the cold weather - and negotiations began between the opponents. On December 1, 1618, in the town of Deulino (to the north of Moscow), a kissing of the cross and an exchange of records took place. Vladislav did not renounce his rights to the Moscow throne, but a truce was concluded between Russia and the Commonwealth for 14.5 years. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth no longer claimed the vast territory to the west of Moscow, where the detachments of the gentry ruled in previous years, but retained the strategically important Smolensk. An exchange of prisoners was scheduled for the spring of 1619, which took place on June 1.

In parallel, Russia tried to regulate relations with Sweden. Here, too, there was a prince - Karl-Philip - and he also aimed at the Russian tsars. Fortunately, only Novgorod swore allegiance to him, which since then has found itself between two fires: occupied by the troops of Jacob Delagardie, he nevertheless wanted a break with Moscow. When the people of Novgorod, driven to ruin by the Swedes, found out about the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, they hurried to turn to the new tsar with a plea for help. In response, they received two letters from Mikhail Fedorovich: one - explicit (for Delagardi), where the boyars severely reproached them for treason, and the other - secret, where the tsar released all their guilt to the Metropolitan of Novgorod and the townspeople.

Having learned about this and seeking to create a more favorable situation for himself in future negotiations, the new Swedish king Gustav-Adolf in the fall of 1614 captured Gdov, and in July 1615 he laid siege to Pskov. He did not need Moscow or even Novgorod, but, trumping the rights to both, he hoped to conclude a profitable peace: to firmly secure the coast of the Gulf of Finland for Sweden, who once

Two weeks later, on the outskirts of Moscow, near the Presnya River, after a nine-year separation, father and son met. Filaret and Mikhail for a long time "climbed on the ground, from the eyes, like a river, joyful tears shed." Soon Filaret was named the Patriarch of All Russia and (as the father of the great Sovereign Michael) - the great Sovereign. A dual kingdom was established in Moscow, which lasted until the death of Filaret (1619-1633).

So, relations with the closest European neighbors and direct participants in the Time of Troubles - the Commonwealth and Sweden - were settled. But - only in a formal aspect, and even then not completely: the most unpleasant question for Moscow - about the "Tsar of Moscow Vladislav" - was not resolved, but postponed for a decade and a half.

The establishment of official relations with European and Eastern states was the second most important foreign policy task of the new government after 1613, which they began to solve not after, but simultaneously with the settlement of "Polish affairs", apparently assuming in advance the intransigence of the Poles. Moscow tried to get other powers to recognize Mikhail Fedorovich as the de facto ruler of Russia, shifting the focus from discussing the legitimacy of his election to stating that he was fulfilling the functions of sovereign and autocrat. It was possible at first with great difficulty, because abroad they were not at all sure that the Time of Troubles in Russia had really ended and that the Romanovs in power would not soon be replaced by someone else.

Already in 1613, immediately after the Zemsky Sobor, Russian ambassadors were sent to Western Europe, carrying with them, just in case, the following “verbal portrait” of the new tsar, in which Mikhail himself hardly recognized himself. “God adorned his royal majesty with dignity, image, courage, reason, happiness, he is merciful and good-natured to all people. God adorned him with everything over all people with all blessings, morals and deeds, ”for example, noble Stepan Ushakov and clerk Semyon Zaborovsky, sent in June 1613 to Vienna, the capital of the Holy Roman Empire, should have said so.

The nobleman Aleksey Zyuzin made the most successful trip to England in the summer of 1613. Respect for the sovereign of Moscow was rendered in all forms, mutual courtesies knew no bounds. King James and Prince Charles both took off their hats and held them in their hands, and the ambassadors, on the contrary, begged them to put on their hats; they modestly but firmly refused. In addition to official recognition, Zyuzin also needed to obtain material assistance from the king: “thousands for 100 rubles, at the very least for 80,000 or 70,000, and for the very need for 50,000.” As you can see, when writing the order, the Boyar Duma made a subtle distinction between the “very last measure” and “the very need”, estimating it at 20,000 - 30,000 rubles.

Russian ambassadors then asked for money wherever they went, but in return they received, as a rule, only promises. There were also surprises: in 1614, the States General of Holland did not give money to Russia, but ... they gave the ambassadors themselves, in view of their poverty, 1,000 guilders. In 1617, Moscow again asked the British "treasuries of thousands for 200 and 100, at the very least for 80,000 and 70,000 rubles, and not to take less than 40,000." They gave 100,000 rubles, but only 20,000 got to Moscow.

So, by 1619, that is, during the first five years of the government of Mikhail Fedorovich in power, Russia's place in the system of international relations still remained complex and uncertain. The treaties with the Commonwealth and Sweden, legally securing the preservation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Russia (although forced to suffer serious territorial losses), did not answer the main question that interested abroad: who is the "legitimate" tsar in Moscow - Mikhail or Vladislav? To a large extent because of this, relations with other countries, despite the obvious diplomatic activity of Moscow, did not go beyond the mutual "representation" and "clarification of intentions." The aggressively pleading demeanor of the Russian ambassadors, characteristic of this period, is explained precisely by the situation of “being driven into a corner”: the country’s foreign policy isolation and an acute shortage of its own financial resources to overcome the most severe economic ruin.

Priority for Russia's foreign policy in the 20-40s. 17th century became the "Polish" (Western) direction.

Borders established in 1617 - 1618 and from the point of view of Russia, and in the opinion of its opponents - Poland and Sweden - were not final. The recent military successes of the Poles and Swedes have fueled their aggressive intentions; on the other hand, the completion of the Time of Troubles and intervention allowed the government of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich to begin preparations for war.

The very line of Russia's western border was so bizarre and whimsical that it looked like a spatially visible incentive for further decisive action - both for Moscow and for its opponents. The border with Sweden ran from north to south, as in the days of the Novgorod Republic (that is, a century and a half ago), cutting off Finland from the Kola Peninsula, and then at a very small distance from the coast of the Gulf of Finland. So small that, according to Stockholm, it should have been increased, and according to Moscow, on the contrary, it should be completely eliminated and the outlet to the Baltic Sea returned. The Russian-Swedish border ended in a small section between Narva and Lake Peipus. And then, right up to the Black Sea steppes, there was a border with the Commonwealth, skirting Lake Peipus from the east, then the Velikaya River from the west, then sharply arching to the east, that is, it went almost the same as at the beginning of the 16th century (!), leaving on the Polish side the ancient Russian lands: Smolensk, Dorogobuzh, Starodub, Novgorod-Seversky and Chernigov.

The Treaty of Deulino aroused ill-concealed irritation in Poland; for Russia, from the very beginning it was a forced and very painful step. Not peace, not war, but in fact a militant truce was maintained between the parties. However, everything indicated that it would be violated at the first opportunity.

The Polish ruling circles did not leave plans for a new campaign against Moscow. They hoped for the help of Vienna. But the Austrian Habsburgs (the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, which included Austria, the Czech Republic, Moravia, Tyrol and German lands) could not help: they had to suppress the uprising that began in 1618 in the Czech Republic and start fighting against a number of German princes. The latter were supported by England, Holland, Denmark, France and Sweden, who were not satisfied with the desire of the Catholic Viennese court for hegemony in Europe. The Austrian Habsburgs, in turn, were joined by their relatives - the Spanish Habsburgs, who sought to bring the Netherlands, their former possession, to their knees.

Thus began the devastating Thirty Years' War (1618 - 1648) - the largest pan-European military conflict of the 17th century. Since the Commonwealth joined the coalition of Catholic states led by the Habsburgs, the government of Mikhail Fedorovich leaned towards their opponents - the anti-Habsburg coalition. The fire of the Thirty Years' War did not even come close to the territory of the Commonwealth, and therefore Russia did not directly participate in hostilities. It limited itself to the supply of cheap bread to Denmark and Sweden, as well as the periodic resumption of diplomatic soundings by the Swedish king and the Turkish sultan for an alliance against the Commonwealth and the Holy Roman Empire. At the same time, she tried to take advantage of the current situation, when the leading European powers were drawn into mutual confrontation, and to regain Smolensk.

There were several attempts. In 1621, after the proposals, on the one hand, Turkey, and on the other hand, Sweden, to jointly oppose Poland, the Zemsky Sobor convened in Moscow decided to start a war. Letters were sent to all cities with a decree to be ready. That, however, ended the matter: the Turks' campaign failed, and by that time the Swedes had already concluded a truce with the Poles. Despite the complete opposition of the son and father - the melancholic and weak-willed Michael and the tough and purposeful Filaret - both kings were united in the fact that the country had not yet recovered from the Troubles enough to fight Poland alone.

In the early 20s. the Swedes, and in the end - the Turks, again offered Moscow to go together to Poland. Moscow told the Swedes that it would act when the Poles were the first to violate the agreement concluded in Deulino. It was decided to join the Turkish campaign of 1631, but only by the forces of the Don Cossacks. When they received the royal decree, they were terribly indignant: how can they be united with the Turks, if they, the Cossacks, are much greater enemies to the Turks than the Poles! In their hearts, the Cossacks fiercely beat and threw the voivode, barely alive, into the Don, who was escorting the Russian ambassadors who were traveling to Turkey through their land, and they themselves decided to lie in wait on the way back from Constantinople (the ambassadors happily sat out in the Turkish Azov). And again, the joint campaign did not work out: while the ambassadors were traveling, the Sultan had already managed to conclude a truce with the Poles, and then he was distracted by the outbreak of war with Persia.

All this time, Moscow was preparing for the inevitable war: the Pushkar order increased the casting of cannons and cannonballs, guns and cartridges were purchased in Europe, ditches were cleaned and the pretty dilapidated and destroyed walls of the fortresses along the western border were put in order, the formation of "regiments of the new system" began - infantry (soldiers) and cavalry (reiters, dragoons), just in case, grain reserves were created. To pay for the costs of preparing for war, taxes were increased - both direct and indirect.

In 1632, the term of the Russian-Polish truce expired. No longer relying on allies, Moscow sent regiments to Dorogobuzh and Smolensk in the summer of 1631, led by the boyars - Prince D.M. Cherkassky and Prince B.M. Lykov.

They waited for the right moment, and it came.

In April 1632 King Sigismund III died in the Commonwealth. Poland plunged into queenlessness. It's time to speak, and it was in April that the two boyars spoke - against each other. Both beat the sovereign with their foreheads: Lykov - that it was not to his credit to be with Cherkassky as a comrade, Cherkassky - that Lykov had dishonored him with this petition (again localism harmed the country!). While the Kremlin was sorting out and looking for a replacement for the grumpy governors, precious time was running out. Only by September, finally, a 32,000-strong army led by the boyar M.B. Shein and okolnichim A.V. Izmailov. For the successful completion of the case, it was ordered to “be without jobs” during the war.

The war began happily. On October 12, the Polish garrison of Serpeisk surrendered to the Russians, on October 18 - Dorogobuzh. Belaya, Roslavl, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub and a dozen other cities were taken on the move. Finally, Shein and Izmailov laid siege to Smolensk in December. All winter, refusing to take action, Smolensk was kept under siege. Shelling and assaults began only in the spring, but they did not bring success.

In the meantime, kinglessness ended in Poland: the prince (aka the “Moscow Tsar”) Vladislav, the son of the late Sigismund III, was elected to the throne. The new monarch immediately came to the aid of the besieged city with a 23,000-strong army. At the same time, the Poles knocked out the Crimean Khan, who in the summer of 1633 set off to devastate the Russian outskirts, sometimes even reaching the Moscow district. But Russia had to fight against Poland alone: ​​neither Sweden nor Turkey entered the war.

The offensive of the Crimean Tatars, in addition to diverting part of the Russian forces, caused mass desertion from Shein's army. Upon learning that a war was going on in their lands, the soldiers left the camp to protect their home. In August 1633, Vladislav came near Smolensk and, having outwitted Shein, entered the city. The besieged Smolensk was saved, and the besieging Russians themselves turned into besieged ones, since the Poles, having burned Dorogobuzh, where all the Russian supplies were, went to the rear of Shein's troops and surrounded them with a dense outer ring.

In the midst of these dramatic events, another thing happened that undoubtedly influenced the course of the war. On October 1, 1633, at the age of 78, Filaret died, who considered it necessary to continue the war against the Commonwealth.

In the winter of 1633/34 the blockaded Russian army near Smolensk was very cold and starving. Under pressure from hired foreign officers and without waiting for their own help, Shein and Izmailov surrendered. On February 19, 1634, Russian military leaders bowed their heads before Vladislav. Russian banners lay down at the feet of the king, and then, at his signal, were raised from the ground. After such a disgrace, leaving artillery and supplies to the enemy, the remnants of the army (about 8 thousand) moved east. Pardoned by the winner, in Moscow both governors were executed on charges of treason.

Meanwhile, the impetuous and ambitious Vladislav, inspired by the success of Smolensk, set out to take Belaya Street on the move - and got stuck under it. The famine was such that the Poles did not always have enough bread and water, and the king, having eaten half a chicken at dinner, prudently put off the other half until the evening. The Poles suffered heavy losses near Belaya: the garrison of the fortress fought to the death. And then Vladislav received terrible news: Turkey came out against Poland, deciding, as promised to Moscow, to support the Russians. Vladislav immediately asked for peace. Mikhail Fedorovich, on reflection, did not refuse: according to common sense, there was no money or strength left to continue the war.

Negotiations began, reminiscent of trade: the Poles demanded an exorbitant price, the Russians refused. The matter ended amicably. According to the agreement signed on the Polyanovka River on June 4, 1634, Russia "forever" lost the Chernigov and Smolensk lands (the Poles returned to Russia only Serpeisk with the district), and Vladislav undertook to forget that he was once called to the Moscow tsars. So that the young memory would not let the king down, he was paid 20,000 rubles, and secretly: the Poles asked not to include this clause in the text of the agreement. The Polish king cheaply ceded to the Russian tsar precious rights to the Russian throne, but, as if in mockery, did not return the original contract of 1610 on his election. The Poles, who had been trumpeting this treaty for so many years, were now saying that they couldn't find it! The "eternal" Polyanovsky peace, thus, was again considered by both sides as a short-lived truce - until better times. The best for war.

In 1637 stunning news came to Moscow from the south. The Don Cossacks, once again begging for the royal salary (“We are dying of starvation, naked, barefoot and hungry, but there is nowhere to take, except for your sovereign mercy ...”, etc.), gathered on a campaign. But this time - not against the Crimea, but against the Ottoman Empire itself! First, they put under lock and key the intercepted Turkish ambassador, who was heading to Moscow, then, suspecting him of espionage, they rashly killed, and at the same time everyone who accompanied him.

In June 1637, a detachment of Ataman Mikhail Tatarinov of several thousand Cossacks with 4 cannons captured the Turkish fortress of Azov (Turkish name: Sadd-ul-Islam - "stronghold of Islam"), which had 200 cannons, strategically important as a "castle" at the exit from Don to the Sea of ​​Azov. All the inhabitants of the city, except for the Orthodox Greeks, were destroyed by the Cossacks and with all this news they sent a messenger to the king.

Moscow sent a letter to Sultan Murad with a standard explanation: the Cossacks are thieves, at least kill everyone, and you and I "want to be in strong brotherly friendship and love." The proud sultan did not need such a “friendship”, and retaliatory steps were not long in coming: first, the Crimean Tatars made another raid “on the Ukraine”, then (when relations with Persia allowed) the sultan moved his army on a big campaign against Azov.

In May 1641, a 200,000-strong army headed for Azov; it consisted of about 100 battering rams, which were assisted by hired European consultants; the Turkish fleet hurried by sea to Azov. In Azov, about 5 thousand Cossacks with their wives were waiting for their assault. During the siege, the Turks made 24 assaults and, having lost 30 thousand killed, retreated. Only half of the Cossacks remained in the city, but they steadfastly held on, sending their representatives to Moscow with a request for help and recognition of Azov for Russia.

Upon learning of what had happened, Mikhail Fedorovich granted the Cossacks 5,000 rubles and convened the Zemsky Sobor in 1642 to discuss the painful question: what to do with Azov? Although everyone was waiting for a new campaign of the Sultan to the city, only merchants opposed the war, complaining about their ruin. Meanwhile, the "inspection" of Azov carried out by Moscow's envoys on the spot showed that it was badly damaged, and it would be difficult to defend it. In addition, the Kremlin was not ready for a possible big war with the Ottoman Empire. And the “Smolensk lessons” were still very fresh in my memory. The last arguments prevailed at the cathedral, and the king ordered the Cossacks to leave Azov. After a five-year "Azov Sitting", the Don Cossacks, having received this decree, were so annoyed that they ruined Azov to the ground. The approaching Turkish army did not find the fortress city.

Russian diplomats finally settled the incident. They secretly sent salaries to the Cossacks, these same Cossacks in Istanbul, as usual, were called "thieves" and achieved their goal: Sultan Murad relented and sent a peace-loving letter of reply to the Russian Tsar, "over all the great sovereigns to the sovereign of Moscow, the Tsar of All Russia and the possessor, the amateur friend Mikhail Fedorovich. The Cossacks were offended: they were tired of the fact that the tsar, in relations with the sultan, called them names in every way. And we decided to move from Don to Yaik. The king, having found out about this, ordered them to be driven from Yaik.

The Don Cossacks also managed to annoy Persia by attacking its border territories and plundering them to a large extent. The Moscow ambassadors answered the Persian Shah Khefi the same as they did the Turks, and reproached, in turn, with constant attacks on Georgia, whose patron Michael considered himself. In 1636, the Georgian king Teimuraz turned to him with a request for citizenship. In Moscow they rowed for a long time, but in the end they agreed, and Teimuraz kissed the cross to the Russian Tsar. For the first time, Mikhail's help was limited to 20,000 efimks and sables.

In general, Moscow preferred to adhere to defensive tactics in relations with its southern neighbors for the time being, because, firstly, the powerful Ottoman Empire always stood behind Crimea and, secondly, trying to secure a free hand in the west. In order to reduce the danger of Tatar raids from the Crimea (only in the first half of the 17th century, the Crimean Tatars took up to 200 thousand Russians into captivity and sold them in the slave markets), the government of Mikhail Fedorovich spent a fantastic amount on the "commemoration" of the khan - about 1,000,000 rubles. At the same time, the authorities did not forget to strengthen the Tula notch line. From 1636, to the south of it, they began to build a new one - Belgorodskaya.

The last years of the reign of Michael again reminded of themselves, it would seem, the Troubles, which had long sunk into oblivion. In 1639, "Prince Semyon Vasilyevich Shuisky" appeared in Poland, supposedly the son of Tsar Vasily. Then in Moscow they learned that for more than 15 years in one of the Polish monasteries, “Tsarevich Ivan Dmitrievich”, who was considered the son of False Dmitry II, had been carefully cultivated. In Moscow, they were worried: Mikhail's health was deteriorating, the tsar would die - wait for the new Troubles!

In 1643, ambassadors were sent to Poland with a secret order to find out everything about the impostors. "Semyon Vasilyevich", according to the Poles, was beaten for his imposture and disappeared without a trace. With "Ivan Dmitrievich" the situation was more serious. It turned out that he was not only called, but also spelled prince (his handwritten letter was found), although his real name was Luba and he was the son of a nobleman who was killed in Russia. The Russian side, having spent a year negotiating with the Poles, achieved the extradition of Luba, who later (after the death of Mikhail and the accession to the throne of Alexei Mikhailovich) was sent back at the request and under the authority of King Vladislav.

Thus, for the 20-40s. Russia has not achieved any direct, primarily territorial, successes in its European policy. Important, however, was something else: the further international legal stabilization of the power of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, especially his recognition as such by the Commonwealth. The gradual drawing of Russia into the system of European blocs and coalitions, although it has not yet taken a direct part in them, has also had a positive effect.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 50s - 60s. 17th century differs from previous years in much greater tension, dynamism and the presence of significant concrete results, primarily in the "Polish" (Western) direction.

The 17th century in Russian history is, first of all, the beginning of the three-hundred-year period of the reign of the Romanov dynasty, which replaced the Moscow Rurik dynasty.
This period began in the midst of a severe political, social and economic crisis. Ivan IV left behind a weakened and impoverished country, and the direct heir Fyodor and Tsarevich Dmitry could not accept the burden of government, so the boyars took over the actual control of the country. Boris Godunov stood out especially among them, who, through intrigue and manipulation, got rid of all candidates for the throne, and after the tragic death of Tsarevich Dmitry, he reigned alone. Thus ended the history of the Rurik dynasty.

The reign of Boris Godunov was characterized by both positive and negative aspects. Among the positive ones, one can add reformist activity, bringing a certain calm to the social environment, attempts to stop the boyar-noble wars and achieve relative external calm. At the same time, one of the most difficult times in the entire history of Russia fell on his reign: a severe economic crisis, numerous natural disasters and drought, which led to mass starvation. The exhausted people begin to blame the “damned” king for the disasters.

Against this background, the Polish monarch Sigismund 3, in exchange for a promise to bring the country under the protection of the Commonwealth, helps the self-styled "miraculous survivor" Tsarevich Dmitry to ascend the throne. But later a rebellion breaks out and False Dmitry is killed, and the Polish subject, Marina Mnishek, who was married to an impostor by agreement, remains the “royal widow”. Soon another impostor is announced in Moscow, posing as Dmitry. The Polish woman also recognizes him, but soon he is also killed. Marina herself, according to some sources, was killed along with her son "vorenok", and according to others, she was imprisoned in prison by the boyars, who saw her as a political threat.

Then the influential boyar Vasily Shuisky took power into his hands - but he was overthrown and forcibly sent to a monastery.
Further, power for some time belonged to the council of the boyars, which was remembered by the people as the “seven boyars”.
Finally, the boyars decide to seek help from the Polish kingdom. However, the Polish army tricks its way into Moscow, leading to the formation of a "people's militia" organized by Kuzma Minin and led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The Polish intervention was repulsed, and Mikhail Romanov was elected to the kingdom.

After the accession of Michael, peace came to the country. Tax cuts took place, production appeared, the country gradually developed.
Michael's son - Alexei, was nicknamed "The Quietest". His reign, in particular, was remembered for church reforms, thanks to which the church was actually subordinated to the autocratic tsar. However, at the same time, the so-called. The church schism, headed by Patriarch Nikon, introduced a number of reforms into the existing spiritual practice, which caused a serious split in the clergy and contributed to the emergence of "Old Believers" (baptized in the double-fingered way), who did not accept these reforms.

Later, throughout the seventeenth century in Russia, the Old Believers were subjected to serious persecution, and Nikon was deprived of his dignity and imprisoned in prison.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, a new wave of political unrest began, which led to the accession of the daughter of Alexei the Quietest - Sophia, who managed to prove herself a rather successful queen, however, in the meantime, Alexei's direct heir, Tsarevich Peter, had already grown up enough and was ready to take the reins of government on myself.

Lake Artemyevo.

What is interesting about who once owned this or that land plot, fishing, mill, etc…. It seems to be nothing. But when in the inventory of fund 141 (Prikaznye deeds of the old years) of the RGADA I saw the title: “The case of the petition of the Khlynovsky district of the Tsepatsky camp of Stepan Volodimirov, about granting him the farming of Lake Artemyev and the Dukhovitsa River for 10 years”, a picture immediately appeared before my eyes. Summer. Early morning. Hour 3. It is already light, but the sun can not be seen - continuous fog. A father with a ten-year-old son are riding bicycles from a garden in Malyugany to Cheptsa, through Ilyinskoye. And we pass through the Church of Elijah the Prophet, made in Soviet times as a club. And before reaching it on the left, there is a feldsher-obstetric station. And immediately a steep descent to the river. On the right is a pond with a real dam, on the left is a cap. Silence. We pass a stream flowing from a pond, and right by the river there are three poplars. Age-old. And only then, before the river turns to the north, a stream flows out of Artyomovsky. How many fish were caught, especially tasty tench and squinting! And how many nights they spent on it - uncountable. And after that, how not to focus on it!

The case was 1642. We are talking about him, but what happened before ...

The book of 1593-1616 years of new marriage repairs, mills, fish catchers. And it says: “Given for the dues of Chepetsky I will become a peasant Yarofeyk Loshkin, yes Ortemka Rylov, yes Trofimko Lopatin, yes Levka Vasiliev, yes Danilk Shilyaev, yes Pronka Volodimir’s son Ortemyev Lake, yes Kinsino for fishing, a dues of 30 altyn” in the period from 1593 to 1607.

And then there was a postscript in the margins - "118th (1610th) year went to the Cheptse River and the same quitrent and was written with the Cape River for the quitrent." That is, they began to pay dues (tax) along with the lakes and the river.

In the same book, “June (1618) on the 8th day was given for the re-rent to the Chepetsky camp ... Lake Ortemyevo and Kensino for Yark Loshkin and his comrades, the due paid 30 altyns.”

On patrol in 1615, they were in the Chepetsk camp:

• The quitrent mill of Pronki Shilyaev and Trofimov's trenki.
• Pochinok that there was a wasteland for edema behind Luchka and behind Vetis. In the courtyard of Pronk Shilyaev.
• Village above the river Cheptsoy Denisova and Stepanova. In the courtyard of Stepanko Ermakov.
• Village above the river Cheptsa Gavril Yakovlev son of Ontonov. In the courtyard of Fetka Ermakov.
• The village is another Votskaya Kuli Budina. In the courtyard of Ortemko Rylov.
• Repairs on the river on the Upper Kordyaga Ortyukha Rylov. In the yard Ortyushka Rylov and his son Ivashko.
• Pochinok that was the outhouse arable land of the village of Chastikov Pogost. In the courtyard of Levka Vasiliev, the son of Wet.

In 1625, “the children of Pogudin showed the merchant Denis and Grigory Kozmina and sold Titu Mikiforov to the son of Pogudin I reap in the Chepetsk camp near Lake Artemovo and along the Dukhovitsa river between and from the lower end with Leonty Sheromov and took a ruble for the reap and Danilo Vakhromeev son of Voronov was written in the aftermath and the bill of sale letter of Stefan Lukin in August 133, 31 days of appearance, money was taken.

And in 1629, the scribe books say: “Fishing of Pronka Shilyaev and Fedka Stepanov, the son of Ermakov, on the Cheptsa River, Lake Artemyevskoye is higher than the Ilyinsky churchyard and with a stream and with the Dukhovitsa river and from the shelter that previously owned those fishing Chepetsky camp peasants, and the quitrent to pay them 10 altyns a year from that fishing. That is, over the years, out of 6 owners, 2 have become.

And in 1642, on May 31, a petition was submitted to the tsar. “The Tsar Sovereign and Grand Duke Mikhail Fedorovich of all Russia is beaten by your orphan Khlynovsky district of Tsepetsky camp Steshko Volodimerov, son of Shilyaev. There is a sovereign in the Khlynovsky district in Tsepetsky camp higher than the churchyard of Ilya the Great, Lake Artemyev and with a stream, on the side of the river, but the Dukhovitsa River fell into the same lake to the top, and yes, the end is deaf to the top. And then, sir, Lake Artemiev and with a stream, and with a river Dukhovitsa, were given out of quitrent for ten years or more. And the scribe gave that lake to Fyodor Yarmakov, and the sovereign pays rent to your sovereign treasury at ten altyns a year. Merciful Sovereign, the Tsar and Grand Duke Mikhailo Fedorovich of all Russia, please me, his orphan, the Sovereign led me then Lake Artemyev and with a stream and a river with Dukhovitsa to give for ten years from the quitrent from the debt of the demon of repurchase, the Tsar Sovereign have mercy.

Let me remind you that in 1629 Pronka Shilyaev and Fetka Stepanov, son of Ermakov, owned the fisheries. Apparently Pronka Shilyaev either died or abandoned lovel. And now his relative obviously wants to use them too. The case just follows an extract from the cadastral books of Tolochanov and Ievlev of 1629. And Stepan Vladimirovich asks "to give him a quitrent for ten years from the rent without repurchase." “The quitrent to Stepank Shilyaev and the quitrent on him from that fishing to have the old and new allowances of three altyns, two money each for a year and from the new allowances of duties according to the sovereign decree and the bail on it in the quitrent, order to take a good one.”

From the king. Written June 7, 1632. The voivode of the Vyatka “Dmitry Ondreevich Franzbekov”: “how will our charter come to you and you ordered that fishing lake Ortemyevo with a stream and the river Dukhovitsa be given Stepanka for quitrent. And he ordered the quitrent on it from that fishing to have the old ten altyns, and new allowances of three altyns for two money, and from the new duties of dengi and both and the old quitrent and new allowances and duties of thirteen altyns for three money for a year. “And how to give him those fishing trips and you ordered him to take a note in that quitrent that he should pay that quitrent and duties to our treasury every year in full with our other farmers together. Written in Moscow in the summer of Zrn-g (1632) June on the 3 (7) day. That's probably all.

Main dates:

1598 - the death of Tsar Fedor Ivanovich and the end of the Rurik dynasty.

1598-1605 - the reign of Boris Godunov. 1605 - the reign of Fyodor Godunov. 1605-1606 - the reign of False Dmitry I. 1606-1610. - the reign of Vasily Shuisky.

1610-1613 - interregnum, the reign of the "seven boyars". 1611-1612 - the siege of the Poles in Moscow by Russian militias. 1613 - the election of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov to the kingdom.

Beginning of the Romanov dynasty. Russia in the first half of the 17th century

When answering this question, it must be remembered that the main task that the Moscow government solved was the restoration of the country after the Time of Troubles. Therefore, the student must first describe the main results of the Time of Troubles and related

problems with them.

AT conditions of the weakness of state power for effective management, it was necessary to establish interaction with representatives of the estates, so the first half of the XVII century. is a period of regular convocationZemsky Sobors. On them are representatives of the boyars, churches

and the nobility discussed important issues - the conclusion of peace with neighboring countries, the collection of additional financial resources.

Since Mikhail Fedorovich was a weak and little independent ruler, his father played a significant role in state affairs - Patriarch Philaret. Using his authority as the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, he supported the actions of his son, determined the main directions of domestic and foreign policy.

One of the most important problems for the government was the need to limit the actions of the Cossacks. For the first time, the Cossacks are mentioned in historical sources of the 15th century. The word "Cossack" comes from the Turkic "free man".

O the significant role of the Cossacks is evidenced by their participation in the Zemsky Sobor in 1613, which chose the new tsar. The traditional autonomy of the Cossacks led to the fact that discontented serfs constantly ran away to them. In this regard, a well-known saying appeared in the Russian language: “There is no extradition from the Don.”

The student needs to be told about the places of settlement and the relationship of the authorities with the Cossacks, as well as how the tsarist government sought to subjugate the Cossack formations.

The first Romanovs sought to introduce elements of centralization into social policy as well. Development received class principle organization of society. The government sought to define a clear status for certain groups of the population. All estates were divided into service and burdens

lykh. First of all, they differed not in their rights, but in their obligations to the state.

At the head of the service class was about a hundred boyar families - the descendants of the former Great and specific princes. Under the conditions of developing royal power, it was not the nobility of the family that began to play a decisive role, but proximity to the king, representatives of poor noble families increasingly appeared among the managers.

The nobles formed the basis of the army and state administration. The ability of the nobles to perform their military duties depended on the availability of labor on their estates. Therefore, the landowners were sharply opposed to peasant transitions from one owner to another, and they were also dissatisfied with the spontaneous colonization of Siberia and Ukraine by the peasants. In an effort to protect the landlords, the state took additional measures to enslave the peasants.

Influential class in the XVII century. was the clergy. This can be explained by the following reasons. During the Time of Troubles, when the crisis of state power was clearly manifested, the church acted as a force that supported resistance to foreign invaders. It must also be remembered that the monasteries remained the leading cultural centers where historical events were recorded.

Foreign policy of the first Romanovs

First of all, the government sought to overcome the consequences of the Troubles. What were they?

The Polish prince Vladislav continued to lay claim to Russian

sky throne. The student needs to remember in what circumstances and under what conditions Vladislav was invited. In 1618, having beaten off the offensive of the Polish detachments, the tsarist government managed to conclude the Deulino truce with them. Remember how a truce is different

comes from a full-fledged peace treaty. In exchange for the cessation of hostilities, the Poles had to give up Smolensk, Seversk and Chernigov lands.

It was also necessary to regulate relations with the Swedes, who dominated the North-West of Russia. Since there were no resources to fight the Swedes, Mikhail Fedorovich was forced to conclude in 1617 the unfavorable Peace of Stolbov. By its terms

the coast of the Gulf of Finland and the Karelian Isthmus were given to the Swedish king.

After the Muscovite state got stronger, it tried to regain the lands given to the Poles. The war with Poland continued

with 1632 to 1634 The main fighting took place near Smolensk. The city could not be returned, but the Polish king was forced to renounce his claims to the Moscow throne. At the same time, the unsuccessful actions of the Russian army forced the government to reform it. Regiments of the "new system" began to be created - on foot and on horseback. Unlike the cavalry from the landowners, they were better armed with firearms, they were trained to fight on the model of the armies of Western Europe.

Throughout the 17th century acute was the problem of the South. The Crimean Khanate did not stop devastating raids on Russian lands. Having repulsed the intervention of the Poles and Swedes, Russia began to strengthen the southern border. The garrisons on the Tula notch line were increased,

with In 1635, the construction of a new Belgorod line began.

Russians in Siberia. Throughout the 17th century Siberia began to play an increasingly important role in the life of the Russian state. Remember,

when the penetration of Russian troops into Siberia began. The occupation of new territories took place in two stages. First, detachments of free Cossacks or merchants penetrated unknown lands, who collected information, started trading with local tribes.

After that, royal detachments led by governors went to the new region, which brought the tribes into submission to the king, built a fortress-fortress as an administrative and military center. The local population had to pay "yasak" - a special tax collected in kind (furs).

Thus, the main role in the settlement of Siberia was played by people from northern Russian cities, the Cossacks. At the same time, since the new territories were huge and there were not enough people to develop them, the government systematically sent criminals to Siberia into exile.

How did the development of Siberia take place? In 1618 the Kuznetsk prison was built, in 1619 the Yenisei prison was built. In 1628, Krasnoyarsk was founded, which became the main stronghold of Russia on the Upper Yenisei. In the 1630-1640s. Russian detachments were actively moving into Eastern Siberia. In 1643-1645. Vasily Poyarkov's detachment entered the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. In 1648, the detachment of Yerofei Khabarov went to the Amur. A characteristic feature of the Russian people in Siberia was susceptibility to the customs of local tribes, the desire to learn useful skills from them.

("Quiet"), Fedor Alekseevich, princes Peter and Ivan under the regency of Princess Sophia.

Agriculture remained the main branch of the Russian economy, and the main agricultural crops were rye and oats. Due to the development of new lands in the Volga region, in Siberia, in the south of Russia, more agricultural products were produced than in the last century, although the methods of cultivating the land remained the same, with the help of a plow, a harrow; the plow moved slowly.

In the 17th century, the first manufactory was born, trade developed, but very poorly, because. Russia did not have access to the sea.

Russian culture of the 17th century was characterized by a gradual departure from church canons, the spread of secular knowledge, the secularization of architecture, painting, and sculpture. This happened because of the weakening of the influence of the church, its subordination to the state.

At the end of the 16th century, after his death, his son Fedor, who was weak-minded, and the young prince Dmitry remained after his death. Fedor could not rule, because. because of his dementia, he "could not keep facial expressions," so the boyars began to rule instead of him, among whom he stood out. He had great fame, tk. was a Tatar khan, brother-in-law of Fedor and son-in-law of Malyuta Skuratov, i.e. had rich family ties.

Boris Godunov did everything quietly, but "with meaning", therefore he received the nickname "Cunning Demon". In a few years, he destroyed all his opponents and became the sole ruler under Fedor. When Tsarevich Dmitry died in Uglich in 1591 (according to the official version, he himself ran into a knife), and in 1598 Tsar Fedor died, Boris Godunov was crowned king. The people believed him and shouted: "Boris to the kingdom!" With the accession of Boris to the throne, the Rurik dynasty came to an end.

Many of the activities carried out during the period of his reign were reformatory and resembled a reign. The positive transformations of the king include the following:

1. He was the first to invite foreign specialists, and all foreigners began to be called Germans, not only because there were more Germans among them, but also because they did not speak Russian, i.e. were "dumb".
2. He tried to calm society by uniting the ruling class. To do this, he stopped persecuting the boyars and elevating the nobles, thereby ending the civil war in Russia.
3. Established the outside world at the negotiating table, tk. virtually no wars.
4. He sent several hundred young nobles to study abroad and tried to be the first to shave off the beards of the boyars (although only Peter I succeeded).
5. He began the development of the Volga region, in his reign the cities of Samara, Tsaritsyn, Saratov were built.

The tightening of serfdom was negative - he introduced a five-year term for the investigation of fugitive peasants. The difficult situation of the people was aggravated by the famine of 1601-1603, which began due to the fact that in 1601 it rained all summer, and frost hit early, and in 1602 a drought set in. This undermined the Russian economy, people were dying of hunger, and cannibalism began in Moscow.

Vasily Shuisky photo

Boris Godunov is trying to suppress the social explosion. He began distributing bread for free from state stocks and set fixed prices for bread. But these measures were not successful, because. bread distributors began to speculate on it, moreover, the stocks could not be enough for all the hungry, and the restriction of the price of bread led to the fact that they simply stopped selling it.

In Moscow, during the famine, about 127 thousand people died, not everyone had time to bury them, and the bodies of the dead remained on the streets for a long time. The people decide that hunger is the curse of the Lord, and Boris is Satan. Gradually, rumors spread that he ordered to kill Tsarevich Dmitry, then they remembered that the Tsar was a Tatar. This situation was favorable for further events that took place in.

In 1603, Grigory Otrepiev appears - a monk of the Savvino-Storozhevsky monastery, who declared that he was "miraculously saved" Tsarevich Dmitry. People believed him, Boris Godunov nicknamed him, but he could not prove anything. The Polish king Sigismund III helped to get to the Russian throne. False Dmitry made a deal with him, according to which Sigismund gives money and an army, and Grigory, after accession to the Russian throne, was to marry a Pole, Marina Mnishek. In addition, False Dmitry promised to give the Poles the western Russian lands with Smolensk and introduce Catholicism in Russia.

The campaign of False Dmitry to Moscow lasted two years, but in 1605 he was defeated near Dobrynichy. In June 1605, Boris Godunov dies, his 16-year-old son Fyodor was thrown out of the window of the fourth floor. The whole family of Boris Godunov was killed, only Boris's daughter, Ksenia, was left alive, but she was destined for the fate of False Dmitry's mistress.

Alexey Mikhailovich photo

Tsarevich False Dmitry was elected to the kingdom by all the people, and in June 1605 the tsar and Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich solemnly entered Moscow. False Dmitry was very independent, he was not going to fulfill the promises made to the Polish king (except for marrying Marina Mnishek). He tried to introduce etiquette in Russian canteens, a fork, and he himself used it very cleverly at dinner.

Watching this, his close associates decided that he was False Dmitry, because. Russian tsars did not know how to use a fork. In May 1606, during an uprising that broke out in Moscow, False Dmitry was killed.

At the Zemsky Sobor in 1606, a boyar was elected tsar. It was during his reign that a Polish mercenary appeared, who gathered an army of peasants and moved to Moscow. At the same time, he said that he was leading Dmitry to the throne. In 1607, the uprising was crushed, but soon a new impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. Marina Mnishek (for 3 thousand rubles) even "recognized" him as her husband, but he failed to ascend the throne, in 1610 he was killed in Kaluga.

Dissatisfaction with Shuisky grew in the country. The nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov, overthrew Shuisky, and he was tonsured a monk. Power passed to the oligarchy of the seven boyars, called "". The boyars, led by Fedor Mstislavsky, began to rule Russia, but they did not have the people's trust and could not decide which of them would rule.

Patriarch Nikon photo

As a result, the Polish prince Vladislav, the son of Sigismund III, was called to the throne. Vladislav needed to convert to Orthodoxy, but he was a Catholic and was not going to change his faith. The boyars begged him to come "look", but he was accompanied by the Polish army, which captured Moscow. It was possible to preserve the independence of the Russian state only by relying on the people. In the autumn of 1611, the first people's militia was formed in Ryazan, headed by Prokopiy Lyapunov. But he failed to negotiate with the Cossacks and he was killed in the Cossack circle.

At the end of 1611, Kuzma Minin donated money for the creation. It was headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In October 1612, the Polish garrison in Moscow fell.

At the beginning of 1613, a Zemsky Sobor was held, at which a tsar was to be elected. All social classes were represented on it, there were even Cossacks. He was elected to the kingdom with the filing of a loud cry of the Cossacks. The Cossacks thought that the king could be easily manipulated, because. he was only 16 years old and did not know a single letter. Mikhail's father, Metropolitan Philaret, was in Polish captivity, his mother was in a monastery. The first wife of Ivan the Terrible was Romanov, besides, the Romanovs were not "smeared" with oprichnina, which also played an important role in the election of Mikhail as Tsar.

After his accession to the throne, a struggle begins between the boyars. They decided who to marry the young monarch. However, when the bride was selected, she was dying. Mikhail married only 13 years later to Evdokia Streshneva, and the boyars were still able to gain influence over him.

In 1619, Mikhail's father returned from captivity, as a result, dual power was established in the country. Formally, Michael ruled, officially - Filaret, and this continued until the death of Filaret in 1633. Michael's reign was fair and wise. Taxes were lowered, the Russian people paid the so-called "fifth money" to the treasury, and kept 4/5 for themselves. Foreigners were granted the rights to build factories in Russia, and the development of the metallurgical and metalworking industries began.

Peter 1 photo

Mikhail Fedorovich almost did not wage wars, calm came in Russia. In 1645 he died quietly, and his son Alexei ascended the throne. For his kindness and gentleness, he was nicknamed "The Quietest". He had two wives, from the first, Maria Miloslavskaya, the son Fedor was born, from the second, Natalya Naryshkina, the sons Peter and Ivan, and the daughter Sophia.

During his reign, Alexei Mikhailovich carried out moderate transformations, and also carried out church and urban reforms. An important act is the publication of the Council Code of 1649. It was a set of laws on all issues from the economy to the state system (autocracy).

The most important part was the articles "On the sovereign's honor." No one could encroach on the power of the king, but the king had to consult with the boyars. The punishment for attempted assassination of the sovereign "in word and deed" was the death penalty.

Chapters devoted to the peasant question - "The Court of the Peasants". Serfdom was formalized, the peasants were the property of the owner, they could be bought and sold. The serfs were judged by their landowner. The serf peasant had only one right to complain to the sovereign.

According to the chapter "On Estates", estates were allowed to be inherited, they could not deprive a nobleman of the estate, i.e. the role of the nobility increased.

Church reform

Before Alexei Mikhailovich, the church was independent of the state. The king subordinated the church to the state through the following measures:

• the church began to pay taxes to the state, i.e. was deprived of financial privileges;
• the king became the judge over the church;
• monasteries were deprived of the right to buy land.

He proposed his own reform: to be baptized not with two fingers, but with three; bow down in church. This caused discontent among the clergy and the secular nobility. There was a church split, a movement of Old Believers appeared, headed by Archpriest Avaakum.

Alexei Mikhailovich managed to break the church and subjugate it to himself. In 1666, Patriarch Nikon was deprived of his dignity and imprisoned in a monastery prison, and Archpriest Avaakum was stripped and cursed at a church council. After that, the brutal persecution of the Old Believers began.

Urban reform

The townspeople were recognized as a special, independent class, but they were attached to the cities. The rights of the townspeople to trade were protected: the peasant had to wholesale his products to the townspeople, and the townspeople could sell them at retail.

At the end of the 17th century, after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, leapfrog began on the throne, because. he had three sons and a daughter. In 1676, his eldest son, 14-year-old Fyodor, ascended the throne, but he was ill, could not walk on his own, and power was in the hands of his relatives on his mother's side. In 1682, Fedor died, and under the juvenile Ivan and Peter, Princess Sophia began to rule. She ruled until 1689 and managed to do a lot of useful things:

• gave freedom to cities;
• realized the need to break through to the sea for the development of trade, for this two (though unsuccessful) Crimean campaigns were undertaken, in 1687 and 1689.

Sophia tried to seize all power, but the 17-year-old tsar was already ready to assume power.

Results

So, the 17th century in is not only "", a troubled age, but also a century of contradictions. In the Russian economy, the dominant position was occupied by the feudal structure, and at the same time, the capitalist structure of the economy was emerging. Despite the fact that the situation of the people was extremely difficult, serfdom was formalized, nevertheless, it was the people who could help one or another candidate for the Russian throne become king, believe him and follow him.