The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world by area. The territory of Russia covers an area of ​​about 17.1 million square kilometers. Russia is located on the Eurasian continent. It occupies both the eastern and western parts of the continent. Mostly the territory of our country is located in the northern and northeastern regions of the mainland. About 30% of the territory of the Russian Federation is located in Europe, and about 70% - in Asia. In the north, the extreme continental point of the country is Cape Chelyuskin, located on the Taimyr Peninsula. The extreme point of the island is Cape Fligely, located on Rudolf Island in the Franz Josef Archipelago. The southern boundary of the mainland is a point located on the crest of the main Caucasian ridge (41 ° 12` north latitude). This section is the border of Dagestan and Azerbaijan. The geographical position of Russia, the size of the territory, state borders. Features of the geographical position of Russia Physical and geographical position of Russia Economic and geographical position of Russia Dimensions of the territory of Russia Transport and geographical position of Russia in the world In the west, the boundary point is the extremity on the Sand Spit, located in the waters of the Baltic Sea, not far from Kaliningrad. In the east, the extreme point related to the mainland is Cape Dezhnev. This cape is located in Chukotka. The most extreme point related to the islands is located on Rotmanov Island. This island is located in the Bering Sea, not far from the border with America. The territory of Russia has a large extent from west to east. As a result, there is a large difference in time. There are 10 time zones in Russia. The division into time zones occurs in different ways depending on the population of the settlement. The boundaries of the time zones of the seas and areas with low population density are determined by the meridians. In areas with a high population density, these boundaries are determined by the administrative subjects of the federation.

The borders of the Russian Federation stretch for 60,000 km, of which 40,000 belong to maritime borders. The water border is located at a distance of 22.7 km from the land. In sea waters stretching for 370 km from the coast, there is a maritime economic zone of Russia. The presence of courts of all states is allowed here, but only our country has the right to extract various natural resources. The Russian Federation belongs to a number of world maritime powers. The maritime borders of our country pass through the water basins of three oceans. In the north, the maritime borders of the Russian Federation are located along the seas belonging to the Arctic Ocean. In total, there are five seas in the north: the Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi. The movement of ships across the expanses of these seas is difficult due to drifting ice that is present in the Arctic seas all year round. The territory from the northern coast of our country to the North Pole is our sector of the Arctic. Within this space, all islands (with the exception of a few islands of the Svalbard archipelago) belong to the Russian Federation. In the eastern part of Russia, the borders are located along the waters of the Pacific Ocean and the seas of the Pacific basin. Japan and the US are two states located very close to Russia's Far Eastern maritime border. The La Perouse Strait separates Russia from the territories of Japan. It is located in the Sea of ​​Japan between Sakhalin Island and Hokkaido Island. In the west, the maritime border is located in the waters of the Baltic Sea. Through these expanses of water, Russia is connected with a number of European countries: Sweden, Poland, Germany and the Baltic states. The fact that maritime transport is well developed in the Baltic Sea contributes to the establishment of strong economic relations. The southwestern sea border of Russia is located in the waters of the Azov, Caspian and Black Seas. These water boundaries separate Russia from Ukraine, Georgia, Bulgaria, Turkey and Romania. Thanks to the Black Sea, Russia has access to the Mediterranean Sea. Along with long maritime borders, Russia has a fairly large land border. The land border separates Russia from 14 countries and stretches for 1605 km. 990 km of the border falls on the Baltic countries, and 615 km - on Azerbaijan and Georgia. Russia has land borders with China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Finland, Norway and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. Outposts and customs are located along the border line. After the collapse of the USSR, the length of the border with Poland decreased. Currently, only the Kaliningrad region is connected with this Western European country. There have been changes in the border with China, it has halved. The borders with Norway and Finland are stipulated in an international agreement. Special customs make sure that these borders are not violated. Crossing the border here is carried out upon presentation of special documents. The borders with the countries of the CIS (Union of Independent States) are more or less conditional. Currently, there are no special treaties where these boundaries would be clearly stipulated. Russian border troops monitor the security of the borders of many countries of the former USSR. At present, a number of countries are expressing various claims regarding the change of Russian borders. Japan, Estonia, Latvia and Finland claim the lands of our country. Japan wants to annex several Kuril Islands (Kunashir, Shikotan, Khaboshan, and Iturup) to the territory of its country. Estonia lays claim to the Pechory region, Latvia - to the Pytalovsky region. Finland is interested in the lands of Karelia. The above countries express their claims both at the official and unofficial levels.

Ticket number 4

1. The concept of geographical location. Features of nature, population and economy of certain territories of Russia (give examples).

Geographical position is an indicator of the relative position on the earth's surface of geographical objects of various types - one of the main categories of geography. The geographical position can change over time under the influence of various factors, both natural and political and economic.

There are several types of geographic location.

1. Natural-geographical (physical-geographical). This is a characteristic of the location of the object in question in a number of natural objects, for example, in relation to continents and oceans, to landforms, to islands and peninsulas, to rivers and lakes, etc.

2. Mathematical-geographical allows to estimate the position of an object in the system of coordinates and reference points of the planet, i.e. in relation to the elements of the degree grid (to the equator and the Greenwich meridian), to the poles of the Earth, to extreme geographical points.

3. Political-geographical - in relation to neighboring countries with their capitals, to political groupings of countries, for example, to the European Union.

4. Economic-geographical determines the position of an object among various anthropogenic objects that perform certain economic functions. For example, industrial and agricultural enterprises, mining sites and industrial areas, as well as in relation to economic groupings of countries (OPEC, ASEAN, NAFTA).

5. The transport and geographical assessment assesses the availability of the object with transport and communication capabilities of economic relations (roads and railways, sea and river routes, air routes, oil and gas pipelines, fiber-optic communication lines and power lines, airports, sea and river ports, etc. .).

6. Military-geographical determines the degree of relation to objects of military-strategic importance (military bases, groupings of troops, nuclear facilities, ballistic missile silos, enterprises producing nuclear weapons), to military-industrial complex enterprises, as well as in relation to military-political groups countries (NATO).

7. Ecological-geographic characterizes the background of the environmental safety of the location of the object to places with environmental problems (for example, to points for the release of pollutants, to areas of radioactive contamination (Chernobyl), as well as to potentially dangerous objects that create an environmental threat).

Features of nature, population and economy of certain territories of Russia.

The large extent of Russia from west to east and from north to south, the relief features predetermine the diversity of natural landscapes (arctic deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts).

Tundra. Severe, cold climatic conditions (low average annual air temperatures), long winter - the snow cover lasts 7-9 months, a short summer period (2 months) and, accordingly, a short growing season. The presence of permafrost, excessive moisture - high waterlogging of the territory, infertile tundra-gley soils. Large open spaces with strong winds. The existing natural and climatic conditions are unfavorable for humans. As a result, the districts are characterized by a low population density and a relative predominance of the urban population. A special type of economy has developed, the main specialization of which is the exploitation of the natural resources of the Far North (extraction of gas, copper, nickel, etc.) and reindeer breeding.

The steppe is the main agricultural region of Russia due to favorable natural and climatic conditions for agriculture (fertile soil - chernozems, long growing season). This is the zone of the most developed animal husbandry (cattle, pig breeding, sheep breeding, poultry farming). Developed food industry. The rural population predominates. Significantly high population density.

2. Fuel and energy complex: composition, importance in the economy, development problems. Fuel and energy complex and problems of environmental protection.

The fuel and energy complex is a group of industries associated with the production and distribution of energy. Includes the extraction of various types of fuel and its transport, the production of electricity and its transport. Recently, the extraction of fuel and energy production have become expensive, and there has been an increase in the cost of transporting fuel and energy. Energy development: exploration and development of deposits, construction of new processing plants and pipelines have an increasing negative impact on the environment, especially in the regions of the Far North.

The fuel industry consists of three main sectors - coal, oil and gas.

Among the fuel resources of the country in the explored geological reserves, coal accounts for more than 90%.

On the basis of the extraction of combustible minerals, territorial production complexes (TPC) of the country are being formed - Timan-Pechora, West Siberian, Kansk-Achinsk fuel and energy (KATEK), South Yakutsk.

The extraction of coking and power coal is concentrated mainly in Western Siberia (Kuznetsk basin), in the North (Pechora basin) and in the North Caucasus (Russian part of Donbass). The main region of the country for the extraction of brown coal is Eastern Siberia (Kansk-Achinsk basin). In recent years, coal production has decreased, which is caused by a reduction in production capacity and an increase in railway transport tariffs.

In terms of oil reserves, Russia ranks second in the world after Saudi Arabia. The largest oil-producing region is Western Siberia (70%), followed by the Urals and the Volga region. Approximately 70% of the country's continental shelf is promising in terms of oil and gas potential. For the vast northern territories of Russia, the transfer of oil through oil pipelines is more economical than sea transportation by tankers. The largest pipeline hub is Western Siberia, the main oil flows go to the west.

In recent years, oil production has been declining. The reasons are the reduction of reserves at the fields being developed, the insufficiency of geological exploration, wear and tear of equipment, the lack of modern mining equipment that makes it possible to rationally develop deposits. The reduction in oil production led to the fact that the share of oil in the total fuel production decreased and natural gas came out on top (37% and 48%, respectively).

Products of the gas industry are raw materials for the chemical industry and fuel.

At present, 3/5 of all Russian gas production comes from the fields of Western Siberia, the largest of which are Zapolyarnoye, Medvezhye, Urengoy, and Yamburg. The leading areas for natural gas production are West Siberian (more than 90%), Urals (about 7%), Volga (1%). The share of the West Siberian region accounts for more than 30% of all products of the fuel industry, the Ural region - 13%, the Volga region - 11% and the Central region - 10%.

Fuel and energy and consumer factors are the main ones when placing power plants. The bulk of electricity is generated at thermal power plants (3/4), hydraulic and nuclear.

Among thermal power plants, thermal power plants (CHP) and condensing power plants (CPP) are distinguished. According to the type of energy used, thermal power plants are divided into those operating on traditional fossil fuels, nuclear and geothermal; by the nature of public services - to district (GRES - state district power plants) and central.

The traditional fuel for thermal power plants (TPPs) is coal (more than 50%), oil products (fuel oil) and natural gas (more than 40%), peat and oil shale (5%).

TPPs are characterized by free location, generation of electricity without seasonal fluctuations, relatively fast and inexpensive construction. The capacity of the largest thermal power plants (TPPs) is more than 2 million kW. The TPP location factor is consumer, since the radius of transportation of one of its products (hot water) is a maximum of 12 km.

Nuclear power plants are located taking into account the consumer factor. The world's first nuclear power plant was built in the USSR in 1954 (Obninsk NPP, power 5 MW). Currently, the Kalinin, Smolensk, Leningrad, Kola, Kursk, Novovoronezh, Balakovo, Beloyarsk and Bilibinsk automatic telephone exchanges operate on the territory of the country. After the Chernobyl disaster, the construction of the Tatar, Bashkir, and Krasnodar nuclear power plants was suspended. In the coming years, blocks of many power plants in the country should be decommissioned, since the share of costs for uranium mining in the nuclear fuel cycle is approximately 2%, and about 3/4 is spent on processing and disposal of waste.

Geothermal power plants (GTPP) are technologically similar to combined heat and power plants, the factor of their placement is fuel and energy. The only operating GTPP in the country is Pauzhetskaya in Kamchatka.

Hydroelectric power plants are characterized by ease of operation, high efficiency, and the generation of relatively cheap electricity.

The country's largest hydraulic power plants are part of two cascades - the Angara-Yenisei (with a total capacity of 22 million kW) and the Volga-Kama (11.5 million kW). The most powerful hydroelectric power plant in Russia is Sayano-Shushenskaya (6.4 million kW).

Tidal power plants (TPPs) operate on the tidal and tidal phases of ocean level change. The only tidal power plant in the country is Kislogubskaya (400 kW) on the coast of the Barents Sea. Promising regions for the construction of TPPs are the waters of the White (Mezen TPP with a capacity of 10 million kW is being designed) and the Sea of ​​Okhotsk (Tugur TPP is being designed).

Almost all power plants in our country are part of the Unified Energy System (UES) of Russia, with the exception of power plants in the Far East.

In terms of electricity generation, the Central region leads (23%), followed by the Urals (12%), East Siberian and North Caucasian regions (11% each).

The electric power industry is a branch of specialization for the Central, East Siberian, West Siberian, Central Black Earth, Northwest and Northern economic regions.

3. Determination of directions and distances from a topographic map.

Algorithm for determining directions from a topographic map.

1. On the map we mark the point where we are and the point to which we need to determine the direction (azimuth).

2. We connect these two points.

3. Through the point at which we are, we draw a straight line: north - south.

4. Using a protractor, we measure the angle between the north-south line and the direction to the desired object. Azimuth is measured from the north direction in a clockwise direction.

Algorithm for determining distances from a topographic map.

1. We measure the distance between the given points using a ruler.

2. The obtained values ​​​​(in cm) are converted into a distance on the ground using a named scale. For example, the distance between points on the map is 10 cm, and the scale: 1 cm is 5 km. We multiply these two numbers and get the desired result: 50 km is the distance on the ground.

3. When measuring distances, you can use a compass, but then the named scale will be replaced by a linear scale. In this case, our task is simplified, we can immediately determine the desired distance on the ground.

Geographical position- "the position of a geographical object relative to the surface of the Earth, as well as in relation to other objects with which it interacts ...". It characterizes "the place of a given object in the system of spatial connections and flows (material, energy, information) and determines its relationship with the external environment" . Usually reflects the geospatial relationship of a particular object to the environment, the elements of which have or may have a significant impact on it. In public geography, location is usually defined in two-dimensional space (displayed on a map). In physical geography, the third change is certainly taken into account - the absolute or relative height of the location of objects.

concept geographical position is the key to the entire system of geographical sciences. Actually, geography originated as a science of methods for determining and fixing the location of objects on the earth's surface relative to each other or in a certain coordinate system. Later it turned out that determining the location of an object not only helps to find it ... but also explains some of the properties of this object and even predicts its development. The most important element of geographical research is the establishment and analysis of relationships between objects located in space, determined precisely by their location.

Thus the geographical position :

• is an individualizing factor, since it determines many properties of a geographical object;
• is historical in nature, as it changes over time;
• has a potential character, since the position alone is not a sufficient condition for the corresponding development of the object;
• has close ties with the configuration of the territory and its boundaries.

There are the following types of geographic location:

• mathematical and geographical (geodesic, astronomical, "absolute")
• physical and geographical;
• political and geographical;
• geopolitical;
• military geographical;
• ecological and geographical;
• cultural and geographical;

and others.

By scale they distinguish:

• macro position
• mesolocation
• microposition

According to the coordinate system, they distinguish:

• absolute (geodesic, astronomical);
• relative;
  • math ("3 miles north of Seattle");
  • functional (economic-geographical, physical-geographical, etc.).

In an extended interpretation, the geographical location may also include the ratio of the areal object as a whole (area, district, territory) to the data lying inside him (to the elements of the internal environment). Such a geographical location may be referred to, for example,

The relation of a certain object to the external environment, the elements of which have or may have a significant impact on it. In public geography, location is usually defined in two-dimensional space (displayed on a map). In physical geography, the third change is certainly taken into account - the absolute or relative height of the location of objects.

concept geographical position is the key to the entire system of geographical sciences. Actually, geography originated as a science of methods for determining and fixing the location of objects on the earth's surface relative to each other or in a certain coordinate system. Later it turned out that determining the location of an object not only helps to find it ... but also explains some of the properties of this object and even predicts its development. The most important element of geographical research is the establishment and analysis of relationships between objects located in space, determined precisely by their location.

Thus the geographical position :

• is an individualizing factor, since it determines many properties of a geographical object;
• is historical in nature, as it changes over time;
• has a potential character, since the position alone is not a sufficient condition for the corresponding development of the object;
• has close ties with the configuration of the territory and its boundaries.

There are the following types of geographic location:

• mathematical and geographical (geodesic, astronomical, "absolute")
• physical and geographical;
• political and geographical;
• geopolitical;
• military geographical;
• ecological and geographical;
• cultural and geographical;

and others.

By scale they distinguish:

• macro position
• mesolocation
• microposition

According to the coordinate system, they distinguish:

• absolute (geodesic, astronomical);
• relative;
  • math ("3 miles north of Seattle");
  • functional (economic-geographical, physical-geographical, etc.).

In an extended interpretation, the geographical location may also include the ratio of the areal object as a whole (area, district, territory) to the data lying inside him (to the elements of the internal environment). Such a geographical location may be referred to, for example, " introspective"(from lat. introspectus, intro- inside + spicere- watch). For example, when assessing the role of internal border regions in the priority of foreign policy directions, when assessing the geocriminogenic position of the territory, when analyzing the transport and geographical position, when studying a variable area in relation to stations of experience, a linguistic area in relation to a dialect center, etc. Such the approach allows to resolve the collision with the determination of the mutual geographical position of intersecting objects.

Historical outline

The concept of "geographical location" has been known since the end of the 18th century, when the paradigm of geographical determinism dominated. Ideas about the conditionality of the life of people and society by the geographical environment were put forward by ancient thinkers, such as Democritus, Herodotus, Strabo, etc. The sources of geographical information during this period were descriptions of individual countries and peoples, characteristics of inhabited and distant lands. For the purposes of navigation and trade, special descriptions of the seas, ports, trade centers were compiled, in which there was information about the features of the geographical position of the country through which the trade route passed. Historical geographer V. K. Yatsunsky believed that the first economic and geographical work in history should be considered the work of the Italian scientist Ludovico Guicciardini “Description of the Netherlands”, which was published in 1567, where in the first part of the book an analysis of the geographical position of the country and assessment of the role of the sea. In 1650, in the same Netherlands, the work of Varenius (Varenius) "General Geography" was published, which is considered the first theoretical work on geography. S. P. Krasheninnikov in his Description of the Land of Kamchatka (1756) gave a detailed description of its geographical position. The search for regularities in the spatial distribution of settlements and the creation of models of urban geography began in the first half of the 20th century. One of the first scientists who approached the creation of models of urban geography was V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Geographical aspects in line with the problems of the location of the economy were developed by German scientists, they created the so-called standard theory. Representatives of this trend were I. Tyunen, A. Weber, A. Lesh and others. The American geographer W. Bunge called geography "the science of places." In this non-standard and original definition, there is a deep meaning that each geographical object has its own individual place. A great contribution to the development of the theory of geographical position was made by the Soviet geographers N. N. Baransky and I. M. Maergoiz.

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Notes

Links

• Geographical position // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: [in 30 volumes] / ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. - 3rd ed. - M. : Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978.
• // Modern illustrated encyclopedia. Geography / Ed. A.P. Gorkina - M.: Rosmen. 2006.

Geographical position- “the position of a geographical object relative to the surface of the Earth, as well as in relation to other objects with which it is in interaction ...”

An excerpt characterizing the geographical position

“We do no harm to the French,” said Tikhon, apparently timid at these words of Denisov. - We only so, means, on hunting dabbled with the guys. It’s like two dozen Miroderov were beaten, otherwise we didn’t do anything bad ... - The next day, when Denisov, completely forgetting about this peasant, left Pokrovsky, he was informed that Tikhon had stuck to the party and asked to be left with it. Denisov ordered to leave him.
Tikhon, who at first corrected the menial work of laying fires, delivering water, skinning horses, etc., soon showed a great desire and ability for guerrilla warfare. He went out at night to plunder and each time brought with him a dress and French weapons, and when he was ordered, he brought prisoners. Denisov put Tikhon away from work, began to take him on trips with him and enrolled him in the Cossacks.
Tikhon did not like to ride and always walked, never falling behind the cavalry. His weapons were a blunderbuss, which he wore more for laughter, a lance and an ax, which he owned like a wolf owns teeth, equally easily picking fleas out of wool and biting thick bones with them. Tikhon equally faithfully, with all his might, split logs with an ax and, taking the ax by the butt, cut out thin pegs with it and cut out spoons. In the party of Denisov, Tikhon occupied his own special, exceptional place. When it was necessary to do something especially difficult and ugly - to turn a wagon in the mud with his shoulder, to pull a horse out of the swamp by the tail, skin it, climb into the very middle of the French, walk fifty miles a day - everyone pointed, chuckling, at Tikhon.
“What the hell is he doing, hefty merenina,” they said about him.
Once a Frenchman, whom Tikhon was taking, shot him with a pistol and hit him in the flesh of his back. This wound, from which Tikhon was treated only with vodka, internally and externally, was the subject of the most cheerful jokes in the whole detachment and jokes that Tikhon willingly succumbed to.
"What, brother, won't you?" Ali cringed? the Cossacks laughed at him, and Tikhon, deliberately crouching and making faces, pretending to be angry, scolded the French with the most ridiculous curses. This incident had only the effect on Tikhon that, after his wound, he rarely brought prisoners.
Tikhon was the most useful and brave man in the party. No one more than him discovered cases of attacks, no one else took him and beat the French; and as a result, he was the jester of all Cossacks, hussars, and he himself willingly succumbed to this rank. Now Tikhon was sent by Denisov, that night, to Shamshevo in order to take language. But, either because he was not satisfied with one Frenchman, or because he slept through the night, he climbed into the bushes during the day, into the very middle of the Frenchmen and, as he saw from Mount Denisov, was discovered by them.

After talking for some more time with the esaul about tomorrow's attack, which now, looking at the proximity of the French, Denisov seemed to have finally decided, he turned his horse and rode back.
- Well, bg "at, tepeg" let's go and dry ourselves, - he said to Petya.
Approaching the forest guardhouse, Denisov stopped, peering into the forest. A man in a jacket, bast shoes and a Kazan hat, with a gun over his shoulder and an ax in his belt, was walking through the forest, between the trees, with long, light steps on long legs, with long dangling arms. Seeing Denisov, this man hurriedly threw something into a bush and, taking off his wet hat with drooping brim, went up to the chief. It was Tikhon. Pitted with smallpox and wrinkles, his face with small narrow eyes shone with self-satisfied amusement. He raised his head high and, as if restraining himself from laughter, stared at Denisov.
“Well, where did pg fall?” Denisov said.
- Where had you been? I followed the French,” Tikhon answered boldly and hastily in a hoarse but melodious bass.
- Why did you climb during the day? Beast! Well, didn't you take it?
“I took it,” said Tikhon.
– Where is he?
“Yes, I took him first of all at dawn,” Tikhon continued, rearranging his flat, turned-out legs in bast shoes wider, “and led him into the forest. I see it's not good. I think, let me go, I’ll take another more carefully one.
“Look, rogue, it’s true,” Denisov said to the esaul. - Why didn’t you pg "ivel"?
“Yes, what’s the point of driving him,” Tikhon interrupted angrily and hastily, “not a busy one. Don't I know what you need?
- What a beast! .. Well? ..
“I went after another,” Tikhon continued, “I crawled into the forest in this manner, and I lay down. - Tikhon unexpectedly and flexibly lay down on his belly, imagining in his faces how he did it. “One and do it,” he continued. - I'll rob him in this manner. - Tikhon quickly, easily jumped up. - Let's go, I say, to the colonel. How to make a noise. And there are four of them. They rushed at me with skewers. I attacked them in such a manner with an ax: why are you, they say, Christ is with you, ”Tikhon cried out, waving his arms and frowning menacingly, exposing his chest.
“That’s what we saw from the mountain, how you asked the arrow through the puddles,” said the esaul, narrowing his shining eyes.
Petya really wanted to laugh, but he saw that everyone was holding back from laughing. He quickly turned his eyes from the face of Tikhon to the face of the esaul and Denisov, not understanding what all this meant.
“You can’t imagine arcs,” Denisov said, coughing angrily. “Why didn’t you bring peg?”
Tikhon began to scratch his back with one hand, his head with the other, and suddenly his whole face stretched into a radiant stupid smile, which revealed the lack of a tooth (for which he was nicknamed Shcherbaty). Denisov smiled, and Petya burst into merry laughter, which was joined by Tikhon himself.
“Yes, quite wrong,” said Tikhon. - The clothes are poor on him, where to take him then. Yes, and rude, your honor. Why, he says, I myself am the son of Anaral, I won’t go, he says.
- What a beast! Denisov said. - I need to ask...
“Yes, I asked him,” said Tikhon. - He says: I don't know you well. There are many of ours, he says, but all are bad; only, says, one name. Ahnete, he says, it’s good, you’ll take everyone, ”Tikhon concluded, looking cheerfully and resolutely into Denisov’s eyes.
“Here I’ll pour in a hundred gog” yachs, and you will be the arc “like a cog” chit, ”Denisov said sternly.
“But what’s to be angry about,” said Tikhon, “well, I didn’t see your French? Here, let it darken, I’ll give you whatever tab you want, at least I’ll bring three.
“Well, let’s go,” said Denisov, and he rode all the way to the guardhouse, frowning angrily and in silence.
Tikhon came in from behind, and Petya heard the Cossacks laughing with him and at him about some kind of boots that he had thrown into the bush.
When that laughter that had taken possession of him passed at Tikhon's words and smile, and Petya realized for a moment that this Tikhon had killed a man, he felt embarrassed. He looked back at the captive drummer, and something struck him in the heart. But this awkwardness lasted only for a moment. He felt the need to raise his head higher, cheer up and ask the esaul with a significant air about tomorrow's enterprise, so as not to be unworthy of the society in which he was.
The officer sent met Denisov on the road with the news that Dolokhov himself would arrive immediately and that everything was fine on his part.
Denisov suddenly cheered up and called Petya to him.
“Well, tell me about yourself,” he said.

On leaving Moscow, Petya, leaving his relatives, joined his regiment and soon after that was taken as an orderly to the general who commanded a large detachment. From the time he was promoted to officer, and especially from entering the active army, where he participated in the battle of Vyazemsky, Petya was in a constantly happily excited state of joy that he was big, and in a constantly enthusiastic haste not to miss any chance of real heroism. . He was very happy with what he saw and experienced in the army, but at the same time it seemed to him that where he was not there, the most real, heroic things were now happening. And he was in a hurry to catch up to where he was not.
When on October 21 his general expressed a desire to send someone to Denisov's detachment, Petya so pitifully asked to be sent that the general could not refuse. But, sending him, the general, remembering Petya's insane act in the battle of Vyazemsky, where Petya, instead of going by road to where he was sent, rode into the chain under the fire of the French and fired two shots from his pistol there - sending him, the general he specifically forbade Petya to participate in any of Denisov's actions. From this, Petya blushed and became confused when Denisov asked if he could stay. Before leaving for the edge of the forest, Petya thought that he must, strictly fulfilling his duty, immediately return. But when he saw the French, saw Tikhon, learned that they would certainly attack at night, he, with the speed of young people moving from one look to another, decided with himself that his general, whom he still respected very much, was rubbish, German, that Denisov is a hero, and the esaul is a hero, and that Tikhon is a hero, and that he would be ashamed to leave them in difficult times.

The place of a phenomenon (object or process) relative to other phenomena in geospace is characterized by a set of geographic relations (GR; see Section 1.3.2 for them) and is defined as geographical position or geolocation. Established GO influence the formation of the properties of newly emerging objects, and prolonged participation in specific GO leads to the appearance of secondary properties in objects. The successful location of a subject or object in a system of geographical relations can both give it additional political and economic significance, and vice versa. From a formal point of view, geolocation is assessed by two types of factors: distances (metric and topological) and configurations (directions). So, all other things being equal, a port on a river bend has competitive advantages over a neighboring one, but on a straight stretch of the same river. Being in different civil defenses, even two initially similar geographical objects will gradually begin to differ first in functions, and then in their internal content. In this sense, it can be argued that, other things being equal, “political and geographical position acts as a factor that individualizes

political development of countries” [Maergois 1971, p. 43]. As a result, the researcher needs to find out how objects are “embedded”, adapted to the DL system, acquiring a set of specific features, and what specific features they “impose” on the environment. The geospace surrounding the object is infinitely diverse. Therefore, to analyze the geolocation, the geospace can be divided into analytically integral units (taxons, areas, polygons, districts, operational-territorial units, etc.), in relation to which the geolocation is estimated [Maergoyz 1986, p. 58-59].

The concept of geographical location is quite well developed and covered in the domestic literature, therefore, below we will dwell only on some debatable issues. So, if we take into account the different closeness and degree of influence of GO, then it seems disputable that the geolocation is set only by those external data with which the object is in interaction [Geographic 1988, p. 55; Rodoman 1999, p. 77]. A simple example. Let there be points that do not interact with each other A, B, C and 7). Need to route from BUT in AT entering C or 7). The choice of one of the latter will be influenced by their geographic location, which is set before the start of any interaction.

In domestic socio-geographical science, the concept of economic and geographical position(EGP). By definition, N.N. Baransky, the EGP expresses “the relationship of any place, district or city to the data lying outside it, having one or another economic significance, it does not matter whether these data are of a natural order or created in the process of history” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Many other authors expressed the same opinion [Alaev 1983, p. 192; Leizerovich 2010 and others]. Within the framework of socio-economic geography, this approach proved to be justified. However, when it is extended to political-geographical and, especially, geopolitical phenomena, we encounter limitations. Thus, the transport-geographical position can no longer be considered as a type of EGP, since it can also be evaluated in other, for example, military-geostrategic, coordinates. Therefore, only a transport EGP can be a species. To generalize different types of socially significant geolocations, it is advisable to use the concept socio-geographical position. This concept was used by I.M. Maergois in the 1970s [Maergois 1986, p. 78-79], although other authors did not support him then.

As we have already written, GO reflect not only the spatial position, but also have content content. This fully applies to the geographical location. At the same time, the limitation of GO only by external geospace appears to be unreasonable: GO not only correlates the territory of an object with the outside world, but also forms it itself “from the inside”. There are two extreme points of view, equally 90

unacceptable for us. The first excludes from consideration the internal structure and characteristics of the object itself [Leizerovich 2010, p. 209]. The second one replaces the geolocation of the object with the geolocations of its internal (lower) taxa relative to each other [Bulaev, Novikov 2002, p. 80] 1 . In addition, the position of relatively integral transboundary geographic systems or areas is of great importance. And it is irrational to evaluate the geographical position only in relation to the "external" part of such a system. Such, for example, are transboundary hydrocarbon deposits or transboundary nodal economic regions.

In our opinion, definitions of geographical location should be supplemented by the relation of a place or area to inside him lying or crossing his data. Let's call it introspective 2 geographic location. Unlike functional types (such as EGP), it appears as one of the positional (formal-spatial) types of geolocation (Fig. 10) and is partially reciprocal with the traditional (extraspective) geographical location of an internal object. For example, the position of the linguistic area relative to its dialectal center and the position of this very center relative to the area. The relations themselves (distances, etc.) are formally the same, but the semantic content and inclusion in other mediated relations are different. In geopolitical history, there are many cases where it was precisely the introspective geographical location that determined the priority geographical directions of the foreign policy of states. For example, one of the reasons why modern China seeks to improve relations with the countries of Central Asia, including the creation of the SCO, is the need to deprive the Xinjiang separatist movement of a possible “rear base” [Zotov 2009, p. 128]. The need to consider introspective geolocation in individual socio-geographical studies is increasingly recognized (see, for example, the definition of geocriminogenic location in [Badov 2009, p. 49]), but so far it has not been clearly formulated at the general geographical level. B.B. Rodoman, even describing the eccentricity of the country relative to the capital, does not, however, connect it with the geographical position of this country itself [Rodoman 1999, p. 152-153].

To study the EGP of large regions, a separate consideration of their parts is really necessary [Saushkin 1973, p. 143], but on the condition that this reveals the features of the EGP of the region itself - the object of study.

From lat. introspectus (intro - inside + spicere - look). The term "internal" in this case is inappropriate. The other option, "enclosing" geolocation, contains undesirable restrictions and makes it difficult to contrast with other, "non-enclosing" types.

Balanced

Displaced

Boundary

Boundary Linear

/ 2nd order secant

0_ *t* (I)

Rice. ten.

geographic location:

geopolitical position. Definitions

In most domestic works on the geopolitical position, this concept is not defined. Therefore, to consider the category of geopolitical position (GSP), it is advisable to rely on more carefully developed ideas about economic-geographical (EGP) and political-geographical positions. Any definition of geographical location consists of typical semantic blocks filled with different content in different concepts. Let's designate these blocks as "variables" P (relation), P (place), b(location), 7) (data), T(time). Then any definition can be represented in the following form:

Let us take as a basis the one mentioned above for the EGP. If we transform the definition of N.N. Baransky [Baransky 1980, p. 129] in relation to political geography, we get that political-geographical position (PC) is the ratio [I] of a place [P] to outside [b] its lying data [O] that have [T] this or that political significance, - it does not matter whether these data are natural order or created in the process of history. We emphasize that “having political significance” in general, and not just “for them”, as many other authors add to the definitions [Geographic 1988, p. 341; Rodoman 1999, p. 77].

According to V.A. Dergachev, GSP is “the position of the state and interstate associations [R] in relation to the world [D] centers of power (spheres of influence) [O], including military-political blocs and conflict zones. It is determined by the combined power of material and non-material resources [R] (military-political, economic, technological and passionate) in the multidimensional communication space of the Earth” [Dergachev 2009, p. 108]. Among the shortcomings of this approach, one can note the reduction of external data only to world centers of power and spheres of influence.

Much attention is paid to the development of geopolitics categories by P.Ya. Baklanov [Baklanov 2003; Baklanov, Romanov 2008]. From his point of view, “the geopolitical position of a country (or its large region) is the geographical position [P] of the country (region) [P] in relation [P] to other countries [?)], primarily neighboring [D], with taking into account the similarities and differences of their political systems, the correlation of geopolitical potentials, the presence or absence of mutual geopolitical interests and problems [?)]” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12].

In the event that all variables do not have any specificity, including political, we get a definition of a general geographical location. And if we take into account the previously considered geoadaptation

tational approach (see Section 2.1) and geoadaptation position. Let's consider the variables separately.

Location (b). Defines spatial constraints. On this basis, several types of geopolitical position can be distinguished. In particular, extraspective and intraspective. Also, this variable can set the scale of consideration of external and internal data at the macro-meso- and microlevel. Thus, a number of authors insist on globality as an essential feature of geopolitics.

Time (T). This variable is rarely set explicitly. However, most often it is understood that the concept of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry is used “to characterize geopolitical formations ... at a certain point in time” [Kaledin 1996, p. 98]. By modifying this variable, one can also determine historical GPP and predicted, planned GSP.

Givenness (O). It expresses the characteristics of politically significant phenomena of geospace, which can be of both political and any other nature (economic, environmental, etc.). Among the variety of givens, one should especially single out the class of actual political phenomena of geospace (Oh ro c,). These are states, political borders, etc. Also, given the value of the variable b, data can be divided into external and internal.

Here we must keep in mind that political geography and geopolitics usually take into account different sets of these givens. N.N. Baransky notes that “the position in the sense of mathematical geography is given on a coordinate grid, the physical-geographical position is given on a physical map, the economic-geographical position is given on an economic map, the political-geographical position is given on a political map” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Accordingly, when assessing the physical and geographical position, extractive enterprises will not be taken into account, even if they change the terrain. Geopolitics, on the other hand, is more integrative: the geopolitical atlas will include physical, economic, and political-geographical maps created from a geopolitical point of view.

Attitude (I). The relations that form the GSP of a particular object can in many cases be represented as a kind of “positional multipliers” or factors of significance of external data that are essential for the subject, including resources. Thus, if an important resource is geographically inaccessible, its multiplier is zero. As availability increases, the importance of the resource itself does not increase, but the importance multiplier does. There are also such GPOs where the spatial aspect greatly gives way to the qualitative one (characteristics of the places themselves). Then the multiplier, on the contrary, is always close to the maximum. Or vice versa, the multiplier grows with the distance (see the types of GPO in section 1.5.2). Although it must be borne in mind that the actual geographical factor in the GPP is gradually changing its role. Its relative share in the definition of GSP is decreasing, but its scale and diversity are increasing, and its qualitative content is becoming more complex.

Further, it should be understood whether the geopolitical position can be set by other, non-political relations? At first glance, no. But, nevertheless, such a situation is possible in the case of mediation of relations of a different nature in a transitive chain closely related phenomena (Fig. 11). But only if at least one link in the mediation is political. Therefore, mediated GPO can be of a complex, composite nature and is of more interest for geopolitics than for political geography. Moreover, the assessment of mediated relationships is often more important than the assessment of direct ones. However, the GPO generated in this way further acts as an equal in rights with others, as, for example, in the formation of geopolitical triangles (see section 4.4.1). It should also be noted that the length or, rather, the significance of the GPO mediation chains depends on the geopolitical potential of the subject and the role of the object. Thus, in the geopolitical position of the United States, such relations extend to almost the entire world and capture many seemingly non-political phenomena.

Geo- Geo- Geo-

BUT economic AT ecological C political

Subject

ratio _ ratio

Mediated GPO_

An object

Rice. 11. Scheme of mediated GPO of a complex nature

Place (P). This is not only a territory, but also an assessed object or subject occupying a certain place. In the general concept of geographical location, a place can also be natural (for example, a lake). In geopolitics, it is the subject of political activity ( RroSh).

There is another aspect. Let's start with a comparison. Does a natural or social non-economic object (place) have its EGP? There is no direct economic significance of other objects for them, but they are surrounded by economic phenomena. This example shows that the “value for them” qualification we mentioned above is redundant. THEM. Maergois even wrote that “the smaller the self-potential of the region, the clearer [its] EGP” [Maergois 1986, p. 67].

If we recognize such an EGP, then we must also recognize a similar political and geographical position, i.e. political and geographical position of natural objects and public non-political subjects. The political content of the GPO in this case can only be set by its other side - the political objects of geospace. In this interpretation, we can talk about the political and geographical position, for example, of a commercial enterprise next to the state

noah border. Or the sea. Those. it is a non-political place on the political map. It turns out that in the general case, for assessing the political and geographical position, the political characteristics of the subject itself and its political potential are not important, but it is considered only on the political map.

Geopolitical the situation is traditionally assessed only for political subjects ( RroSh), i.e. just for those who form and conduct geo -politics. Thus, here one can outline one of the facets of the formal delimitation of the GPP and the political and geographical position, which allows you to get away from synonymizing the two concepts. The complexity of the GPP in taking into account external data of a different nature was recognized by domestic authors already at the dawn of the “return” of geopolitics to Russia. So, in 1991 N.M. Mezhevich wrote: "... The geopolitical position is an integrating category in relation to FGP, EGP, GWP, while it is more historical than EGP and GWP..." [Mezhevich 1991, p. 102-103].

We tried to formally distinguish between the GSP and the political-geographical position according to the objects of study, but one can also outline their semantic difference. It is believed that the political and geographical position has a descriptive, ascertaining character [Mezhevich 1991, p. 103]. It is determined by historical, current and predicted GPOs. The predominant type of evaluation is placement (positional component) and dependency/independence (functional component). The GPP, on the other hand, has a clear political connotation associated with the category of geopolitical interest. Unlike the political-geographical one, it takes into account just those data that are or may be important for the subject (in this sense, the GPP is narrower than the political-geographical one). The GSP is viewed through the prism of projects, scenarios and strategies, resulting in a multi-layered and multi-layered view of the current GSP. The predominant type of assessment is relative political strength and weakness, opportunities and threats, which can be described in the matrices of geo-adaptation strategies 8?OT 3 (see paragraph 2.1.2). In this context, one can note the point of view of S.V. Kuznetsova and S.S. Lachininsky that one of the key differences between the geo-economic position and the economic-geographic one is the consideration of geo-economic risks [Kuznetsov, Lachininsky 2014, p. 109]. But such a position looks somewhat one-sided and limited, since it replaces the category of interest with a more particular concept of risk.

In this way, the geopolitical position characterizes the heterogeneity of the complete geopolitical field of the actor and is expressed in the structure of the GPO at a certain historical moment in time, including the trends in their development and the influence of some past layers of the GPO.

In the complex dynamic structure of the GSP, one should also single out a certain invariant, i.e. stable for very long periods and epochs, the “framework” of the GPP, the change of which is always an important historical milestone. Presented in the form of a complex of stable

interests, this "framework" can be interpreted as a geopolitical code (code) of the subject. Moreover, in the case of the existence of allied or patron-client relations, the induction of geopolitical codes between actors occurs, and the local code of the satellite can be built into the global code of the leader. A single code of a group subject is formed. This is due to the induction of geopolitical interests (section 1.4.2).

In close connection with the concept of GSP, several related and interrelated concepts-analogues are used. We briefly outline some of them below.

Geopolitical situation- a superposition set of geopolitical positions of all subjects in a certain part of the geospace at a certain point in time. Note that in Russian the concept of "situation" is close to the concept of "state", but, unlike the latter, refers to heterogeneous phenomena. Another interpretation is related to the fact that the "geosituation" can be defined as a dynamic set of GPOs on a "real time" scale, in contrast to the inertial "geostructure".

geopolitical situation. It can be synonymous with the GSP or, more often, the geopolitical situation. In a narrower sense, it is interpreted as a set of factors that determine the state and prospects for the development of relations between states. That is, in this interpretation, the geopolitical situation is not the GPOs themselves, but those factors of geospace with which GPOs can be established. In this sense, the phrase "geopolitical situation around the country" is legitimate.

geopolitical potential. An unambiguous approach to determining the potential has not yet been developed either in geography or in geopolitics. It was often equated with a combination of various resources, with geopolitical power, or with the advantage of a political and geographical position. According to P.Ya. Baklanov, “this is the degree of both the existing and possible potential influence of one country on others, primarily neighboring countries” [Baklanov 2003, p. 13].

geopolitical power, in turn, implies not only the potential, the strength of the subject himself, but also his ability to achieve a certain goal in the external space (etymologically - from "might", "power"). Those. it is relative to external givens. In any case, the geopolitical potential is part of the characteristics of the GSP on the part of the subject.

Valuation principles and the importance of neighborhood

Based on the foregoing, it can be argued that in order to describe the GSP, it is necessary to consider not so much absolute as relative indicators, both 1) in external and 2) in internal contexts. In the first case, the geopolitical potential of the subject as a whole or some parameter of the potential (for example, GDP) is assessed in the context of some parameters of neighbors, centers of power and the world in the whole.

scrap. In the second one, an external parameter is estimated (for example, the GDP of neighboring countries) in the context of parameters or factors of internal geospace. At the same time, it must be emphasized that even relative indicators do not yet mean the actual estimates GPP. Thus, the ratio of the population of some territories describes only the geodemographic situation. This parameter characterizes the GSP only when it is included in the complex political characteristics of the geopolitical subject and its surrounding conditions, in the context of political threats and opportunities, strengths and weaknesses. Only in this case it is possible to speak, in particular, of the demographic GSP.

For a quantitative comparison of similar parameters at geopolitical boundaries, the concept of " geopolitical gradient. For example, the demographic/economic geopolitical gradient on the US-Mexico border, the Warsaw Pact and NATO. In an extended sense, it is applied to the measurement of balances also of fields that do not border HP. There are, however, other options for naming such relationships. Thus, a group of domestic authors proposes to use the term "geopolitical distance" [Kefeli, Malafeev 2013, p. 170]. In our opinion, such a term is inappropriate. This is about the same if the geographical distance (distance = distance) between mountains is measured by the difference in their heights. But geographical relations are an integral part of geopolitical relations. Among all the estimated parameters, various kinds of objectively identified and quantitatively measured links and relationships between countries and regions are of particular importance. As rightly noted by R.F. Turovsky, “otherwise, geopolitics can only be reduced to abstract philosophizing and projecting” [Turovsky 1999, p. 49]. In this sense, the actual GSP should be distinguished from various geopolitical projects and mythologies.

When describing various GPOs, we encounter a certain duality arising from their own nature. On the one hand, it is required to describe the relative quantitative and qualitative parameters of countries, regions, territories, and on the other hand, to give them a relative geospatial certainty. As a result, we get a kind of two-dimensional GPP matrix "parameter x place". Thus, when characterizing demographic indicators, political regimes, geopolitical disputes, natural phenomena, etc. (rows of the matrix), they are divided into geospatial sections (unequal columns of the matrix), tied to absolute geographic coordinates. The cells of such a matrix are, in fact, a reflection of a number of geopolitical fields or ideas about them.

The geopolitical position, due to its integrality, not only depends on other types of geographic location (EGP, etc.), but also influences them, and through them - on various internal characteristics of a country or its region, on their geopolitical potential. T.I. Pototskaya, for example, considers such an impact on the example of the Western region of Russia. In the model she proposed (Fig. 12), the leading component of the influence of not only the GLP, but also the EGP is the political and geographical position [Pototskaya 1997, p. 13].

Consider some of the many possible evaluation parameters. P.Ya. Baklanov believes that “based on ... the idea of ​​the geopolitical position, its assessment for a particular country consists of the following stages: assessment of the neighborhood of other countries with this one, identification of immediate neighbors - 1st, 2nd order, etc.; assessment of the similarities and differences in the political systems of neighboring countries, primarily neighbors of the 1st order, with the political system of a given country; assessment of the geopolitical potentials of a given country and its neighbors, assessment of the ratio of these geopolitical potentials; identification and evaluation of mutual geopolitical interests of a given country and its neighbors of various orders; identification and assessment of geopolitical problems existing between a given country and its neighbors” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. On the whole, one can apparently agree with this approach. However, further concretization reveals some contradictions and ambiguities.

Rice. 12.

Indeed, an extremely important issue for geopolitics remains the assessment geographic neighborhood. It occupies one of the central places in geopolitical relations and models, introducing a significant share of geographic content into geopolitics even in the modern conditions of a “shrinking”, globalizing world. Moreover, the adjacent territories act as "conductors" of links with distant global centers of power. True, the main attention is paid to the assessment of the neighborhood at the regional and local levels of the study, especially for GPO types M-G-M and M-M-M (see section 1.5.2). Neighbor countries of the 1st and 2nd orders are neighboring geopolitical regions of the 1st and 2nd orders. THEM. Maergois wrote about neighboring geographic macro-regions identified in the same way. Accordingly, allocate

There are regional both EGP and GPP. Maergois also noted the special position of second-order doubly neighbors [Maergois 1986, p. 80, 82, 111]. B.B. Rodoman considers neighboring geopolitical regions to be a kind of nuclear geographic zonality [Rodoman 1999, p. 58]. Very specific is the insular position of a country that does not have first-order neighbors at all.

P.Ya. Baklanov suggests that “in terms of military defense, it is apparently better to have fewer neighboring countries of the 1st order. However, for the development of international economic, political, cultural ties, it is more profitable to have more neighboring countries of the 1st order” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. But let's take an extreme case. How to assess the situation if this, let's say the only, neighbor is an enemy, and the country itself is an enclave? It turns out that such a GPP, contrary to the thesis, is extremely unprofitable. The case of economic valuation is also ambiguous: many small neighbors create barriers to trade due to customs barriers. To overcome them, associations like the EU are being created. A large number of neighbors is also disadvantageous from an environmental point of view [Pototskaya 1997, p. 130].

The role of neighbors of the 2nd and higher orders depends not only on the degree of neighborhood, but also on their relative position and remoteness: a 3rd order neighbor can be quite close, while a 2nd one can be thousands of kilometers away, in a different geographical region ( for example, Macedonia and North Korea in relation to Ukraine). That's why we should talk about the neighborhood of countries of the 2nd and higher orders, not only in the topological sense, but also as a distance measure of proximity[cm. Maergois 1986, p. 68, 80]. In the second case, however, the "normative" measure of closeness can be set either subjectively or tied to other objective parameters. The distance measure is most important for island countries that do not even have maritime neighbors.

In general, it can be argued that the more diverse neighbors of the first and second orders, the greater the variety of close regional GPOs, the more opportunities for geopolitical maneuver, the less significant threats from individual neighbors, but at the same time the less stability and sustainability of the GPO, the greater the variety of potential threats and the necessary diplomatic efforts in the region . This dependence is objective in itself, but which combination of GPOs is preferable is a matter of specific policy in a real geopolitical situation. In the general case, based on the indicated structure of geopolitical relations, there is a tendency to consider fragmentation of actual or potentially negative geopolitical fields and integration of positive and potentially positive geopolitical fields of the neighboring region as beneficial. This is also expressed in the estimate of the number of corresponding neighbors. About the same, but regardless of the neighboring region, we wrote in detail in the previous section (see paragraph 2.3.2). In the neighboring region, as the most tense geopolitical field, this trend is especially pronounced. Thus, Israel, as stated by its ambassador to the United States, since 2011 has been interested in overthrowing the B. Assad regime in Syria in order to break (fragmentation) the Shiite arc “Beirut-Damascus-Tehran”, even if the new regime would turn out to be no less hostile [ Ketoi 2013].

Depending on the location of the fields involved in fragmentation or integration, two extreme cases are distinguished. Integration of neighbors of the same order or fragmentation of a large GP field into neighbors of different orders is interpreted as the formation of "arcs", "cordons", "segments", "shells", "belts", "buffers", "zones", etc. The reverse cases are perceived as "corridors", "vectors", "sectors" or "axes". The intersection of "shells" and "sectors" forms special areas - zone-sector facets or trapezoids [Rodoman 1999, p. 70, 136]. The combination of both structures forms, respectively, "long zones/belts" and "wide corridors/sectors". However, such spatial forms can have different purposes. Thus, political geography distinguishes countries with “corridors”, but, for example, in Namibia, the “corridor” joined the territory as a communication sector (Caprivi Strip), and in Afghanistan - as a cordon isolating Russia from India (Wakhan Corridor). From all of the above in this and the previous sections, an unambiguous conclusion suggests itself: it is impossible to give an a priori assessment of the neighborhood in isolation from a specific and very diverse geopolitical context. The latter also contains many complicating factors or GPOs, such as international and moral obligations, a system of geopolitical "balances", historical memory, the configuration of borders, trade and cultural ties, lines of communication.

main parameters

Next, we briefly outline some of the parameters by which a country's GSP can be assessed. Many publications are devoted to their more detailed consideration [see: Pototskaya 1997; Geopolitical position 2000; Baklanov, Romanov 2008 and others]. The entire set of parameters should be conditionally grouped into several functional blocks. However, each parameter can, and often should, be considered in conjunction with related parameters of other blocks. In this case, a three-dimensional matrix of the form "parameter X parameter X place" will be obtained.

In regional studies, it is customary to begin the study of a territory with a description and assessment of its physical and geographical characteristics. However, for our case, to be consistent, this approach is not suitable. Indeed, for such an analysis, the grid of state or geopolitical boundaries must already be set. But it's not on the physical map. The situation is similar with the assessment of the economic space, information about which is initially grouped precisely by countries. As a result, it turns out that the characterization of the GSP should begin with a description of the political and geographical location. The territory of the country, accordingly, is not a natural parameter. Having set the coordinate system in this way, the remaining blocks can be opened already in different

sequence, depending on the tasks and accents.

I. Political-geographical and strategic parameters.

First, geolocations and configurations of the borders of geopolitical formations, historical stability and variability of borders, degrees of neighborhood, the country's place in terms of the total area of ​​​​territory in the world, etc. are determined. All this determines the geospatial base for further comparative characteristics in terms of profitability.

On this basis, the structure of foreign political relations should be considered. Their most obvious indicator is direct contacts between geopolitical subjects. V.A. Kolosov

and R.F. Turovsky is considered the key indicator for the analysis of the geopolitical position of the country is precisely the geographically linked statistics of state visits. It is sensitive to changes in the country's foreign policy [Kolosov, Turovsky 2000]. In this case, visits to the country, from the country and their balance (“balance”) are considered. It is important to emphasize here that it is not the visits that form the geopolitical situation, but this situation itself is reflected in the statistics of visits available to an external observer. But it is important to understand that this indicator does not “capture” the state of negative, conflicting GPOs.

Many other parameters of this block can be combined into the following groups:

• political regimes and their complementarity to each other (including the representativeness of representative bodies of power);
• treaties, alliances and counter-alliances (including an assessment of countries-“balances” and “cordons”);
• heterogeneity of actors and territorial disputes (including irredentist movements);
• spheres of influence of centers of power;
• geopolitical images (including the nature of the media, representations of elites, identity);
• military potential and military-strategic position (including: arms trade, conflicts near borders, border configuration factor for land, naval and air operations).

The choice of certain parameters to characterize the geopolitical position depends on the ideas about their role at a certain historical moment or era, as well as on the purpose of such a characterization.

the contrast of the ethnic, cultural and political spaces "fitting" into them. A good example is the region of the South Caucasus. Therefore, the first parameter of this block, which is usually paid attention to, is the correspondence or inconsistency of geopolitical boundaries and natural boundaries. Many authors, especially non-geographers, argue that as the technosphere develops, the dependence of society on the natural environment generally weakens. But this is only partly true, because the development of technology, allowing society to overcome some restrictions, imposes new ones on it. For example, the need for hitherto unseen resources (in the ancient world there could be no competition, for example, for deposits of gas and uranium).

Next, we consider the correlation of natural conditions, and above all - territorial resources. Of course, the very territory of the subject, as we saw above, refers to political parameters. But it is heterogeneous, in connection with which its natural features should be evaluated. These include the following areas: favorable for life according to natural conditions, suitable for agriculture, forest, shelf, marine territorial waters, etc. Important parameters are indicators of the relative endowment with natural resources by their types and, consequently, the complementarity of the natural resource potentials of countries and regions. Ecological and geographical position is essential. Finally, a special parameter of the SNP is the attitude towards specially protected natural territories and water areas, especially those under international control.

• geographical location and topology of transport / communication routes, nodes and infrastructure at the borders of the subject and in the region as a whole (for example, the density of the road network);
• transport unity of the territory of the country/alliance and transport exclaves;
• congestion of routes, assessment of incoming and outgoing flows (including the number of telephone connections);
• inclusion in the global communications system and the role of transit communications, the degree of dependence on external transit territories;
• development of advanced means of communication and their geography.

IV. Geodemographic parameters.

In economic terms, “demogeographic position is the position regarding places of excess and shortage of labor resources, as well as places of departure and entry of migrants” [Maergoyz 1986, p. 62]. Geopolitics is also interested in other aspects. First of all, this is the ratio of the total population of countries. We note here an interesting circumstance for general geopolitics: in many Eastern cultures, counting the people of their community, especially by name, was considered unacceptable and dangerous from a mystical point of view.

Population trends (even larger than their absolute values) are often more objective geopolitical indicators, even compared to arbitrary reports of gross domestic product (GDP) trends, investment, and opinion polls. Demographic trends reflect the real medium-term state of communities. It would be appropriate to mention here that in 1976 the French sociologist E. Todd was the first to predict the collapse of the USSR, focusing on the negative dynamics of demographic indicators (such as a decrease in life expectancy, an increase in infant mortality and the number of suicides).

Most parameters can be combined into the following groups:

• docking and correlation of settlement systems and their supporting frames in neighboring countries and regions;
• the value and dynamics of demographic indicators (including the mobilization potential), their ratio;
• assessment of migration processes;
• types of population reproduction.

are so complex and multidirectional that it is possible to single out a through “basis” only at the philosophical level. The vulgarization of these ideas, similar to what was sometimes observed in the USSR, leads to economic determinism. Many states in history have repeatedly gone to economic losses for the sake of increasing political prestige and influence, for the sake of "honor of the flag" and "power projection". Also, interethnic relations and conflicts do not always have an economic background.

It should also be taken into account that GDP, the trade balance and other consolidated monetary indicators can greatly distort ideas about the real geopolitical situation and create the illusion of accuracy in cross-country comparisons [Karabehn 2014]. Thus, the US trade balance with China turns out to be large and negative in a summary assessment, but a detailed analysis of mutual relations, including trade in components and intellectual product, the picture is quite different. In our opinion, it is more realistic to compare the volumes of production and services in physical terms and component by component. In the era of the information society, there is no longer any need to fit any analysis to summary indicators alone. Moreover, these indicators themselves, like GDP, were developed for the industrial XX century, and in the XXI century. They don't "work" the way they were supposed to.

In addition, in the economic block, one can also consider the economic significance of parameters from other sections. For example, the foreign economic programs of parliamentary parties in neighboring countries, the impact of demographic processes on labor resources, etc.

Most parameters can be combined into the following groups:

• indicators of the size of economies, including gross and per capita;
• correlation and complementarity of territorial structures of the economy;
• degree of self-sufficiency, including energy supply;
• scientific and technological development;
• foreign trade and investment, dependence on foreign markets and resources, the control of the latter by friendly or hostile political forces;
• the ratio of the economic influence of the actor and third countries on any country in a neighboring or remote region;
• socio-economic indicators, including the class structure of societies.

the value of external and internal territories. So, for the French, Alsace and Algeria had different values. The second, unlike the first, was not considered a genuine part of France. It is important to trace the possible influence of the geopolitical position of the country on the national character and historical individuality of the people. I.A. Kostetskaya, for example, notes this influence in the example of South Korea [Kostetskaya 2000].

Other parameters include: mutual “historical grievances” and their significance in election campaigns, the cultivation of images of the enemy, tribalism, educational and scientific migrations, ethnic parties, minorities and diasporas, ethnic policy, educational policy (foreign universities, religious schools etc.), the number of religious groups, etc. Apparently, some integral indicators can also be attributed to this series, such as the Human Development Index (HDI) calculated by the UN, which reflects the standard of living, literacy, education and life expectancy. In general, the cultural aspect of the GSP is of great importance for the formation of "soft power" and the reformatting of the GSP itself. Thus, during the collapse of the colonial empire (1960s), French President Charles de Gaulle successfully embodied the concept of francophonie (a community of French-speaking countries). The French language became the basis of French influence in the former colonies of Tropical Africa.

In contrast to the time of another 100, and even more so 200 years ago, image GPOs are of great importance. Many of them can be considered as "myths about the country" (one's own and another) in the system of national historical myths or stereotypes, and as the country's "cultural radiation" [Geopolitical situation... 2000, p. 19, 10]. And as the quintessence of various cultural aspects, a certain multifaceted “project of the future” is imprinted in the mass consciousness and traditions of a certain community. The cultural and geopolitical code (code) of the country is closely connected with this "project" - its original geopolitical DNA. Here it is important to take into account the degree of compatibility or conflict potential of the "projects of the future" of different interacting communities.

noah evaluation of the GSP. For example, when assessing national capabilities (CINC) or the "status" of countries. We will mention these models later (see Section 4.2.2, Section 4.4.2).

• - central, remote; 12 - coinciding, combined; 13- intermediate: equidistant and axial, symmetrical; 14 - remote, isolated; 15 - centering, covering; 21 - eccentric, deep, peripheral; 23 - intermediate, displaced, asymmetric, in a particular case - angular; 24 - close, in the field of influence; 25 - eccentric, covering; 31 - border, marginal; 32 - transboundary, joint, transitional; 34 - neighboring, adjacent, on-site; 35 - delimiting, joining; 41 - border l-th order; 42 - trans-areal (-boundary) of the n-th order; 43 - neighbor / adjacent l-th order; 45 - delimiting l-th order; 51 - dissecting, crossing; 52 - crossing; 54 - crossing (black box model); 55 - crossed, transit, nodal
• Natural geographic parameters. In the concepts of "hard" geographical determinism, they were given a priority policy-forming role. Their influence is really great, but it consists in imposing certain incentives and restrictions on public life. In particular, the contrasting landscape and mountainous terrain contribute to increased complexity, 102
• Transport and communication parameters. FROM The natural and geographical features of the territory are closely related to the transport and geographical position. This becomes obvious if we turn to the development of transport routes since ancient times. It was the natural objects themselves (rivers, passes, etc.) that became the main lines of communication. Therefore, the transport situation should not be included entirely in the sphere of the economy, as is sometimes proposed. Almost all representatives of classical geopolitics attached a huge role to the location of countries relative to lines of communication. At present, it can be confidently asserted that the transport-geographical or, in the broader sense, the communication-geographical position affects most of the components of the geopolitical position: military-strategic, political, cultural, economic, environmental, demographic, and others. Various types of transport, wire networks (including fiber optic backbones), radio and space communications, and information flows in virtual space are considered. At the next stage, the actual degree of use of the existing transport and communication potential, the possibility of its increase and the threats existing for it are assessed.
• Economic and geographical parameters. These characteristics are essential for the evaluation of the GSP. In Marxist and neo-Marxist literature, it is precisely economic relations, phenomena and processes that are ultimately considered as the basis for the development of all other manifestations of social life. However, the links in which economic phenomena are involved, 104
• Ethno-civilizational and cultural parameters. The key characteristics are the positions of the geopolitical subject on the ethnolinguistic and historical maps. From this position, the localization of ethnic groups, superethnoi and superethnic systems, the complementarity of neighboring ethnic groups (according to L.N. Gumilyov) is determined. The historical map reveals a difference in cultural and symbolic
• Integral geopolitical parameters. Some characteristics that summarize different parameters from the above can be separated into a separate group. This, for example, is the complex geopolitical zoning of the region and the interpretation of the GSP from the point of view of some integral global concept (for example, regarding the Heartland of H. Mackinder, the pan-regions of K. Haushofer, the geopolitical regions of S. Cohen, the civilizational platforms of V. Tsymbursky, etc. ). It is possible to use integral quantitative indicators (indices) for the complex. Partial provisions are published in [Elatskov 2012a].